CHAPTER 3

Supporting Reading
Comprehension: Responding
to Books
Whenever Mrs. Johnson read aloud to the class, she began by nam-
ing the title, author, and illustrator of the book. She did this to encour-
age the children to look for the titles of books and the names of the
people who create them. One day, during literacy center time,
Damien placed Chicken Soup With Rice (Sendak, 1991) on the Big
Book stand. He gathered an audience of three children and began by
saying, “I’m going to read this book to you.” Damien turned to the
first page and began pretend-reading the book to the children. Patrick
popped up and said, “Damien, you can’t read the book yet; you for-
got to read the title.” Damien tapped his fist to his forehead, looked
somewhat annoyed with himself, and said, “How could I forget that?
The title of the book I’m going to read is Chicken Soup With Rice.”

D
amien and Patrick are demonstrating their knowledge of concepts
of books. Damien knows that books are for reading as he pretend
reads the story. He also knows that books have titles to be read
before the story begins.

Concepts of Books
Knowledge about concepts of books is an important milestone
on the road to literacy. Children with prior book experience may Knowledge about
already know some concepts about print such as how to handle concepts of books is an
important milestone on
books, recognize the parts of a book, and recognize the differ-
the road to literacy.
ence between pictures and print. Other children will need to be
taught these concepts. A child who has a good concept of books

39
From Using Children’s Literature in Preschool to Develop Comprehension: Understanding and Enjoying Books (second edition)
by Lesley Mandel Morrow, Elizabeth Freitag, and Linda B. Gambrell. © 2009 International Reading Association.
 • Knows that a book is for reading
• Can identify the front, back, top, and bottom of a book
• Can turn the pages of a book properly in the right direction
• Knows the difference between print and pictures
• Knows that pictures on a page are related to what the print says
• Knows where one begins reading on a page
• Knows what a title is
• Knows what an author is
• Knows what an illustrator is

Modeling Concepts of Books

We often assume that children understand basic book concepts. However,
to many preschoolers, these concepts are totally unfamiliar. Therefore,
teachers should read to children often and highlight book concepts at ev-
ery opportunity. For example, you can introduce a story reading by point-
ing to the title of the book as you say, “The title of the story that I’m going
to read is Mr. Rabbit and the Lovely Present [Zolotow, 1977]. This is the
front of the book, and these words are the title.”
On another day, you might explain, “The author of the book, the per-
son who wrote it, is Charlotte Zolotow. Here is her name. And the illustra-
tor, the person who drew the pictures, is Maurice Sendak. Here is his
name.”
Point out these concepts. Remind the children that all books have ti-
tles and authors, and if books have pictures, they also have illustrators or
photographers. Discuss the difference between photographers and illustra-
tors. After you have discussed these concepts, suggest to the children
that they look for the title whenever they read a new book. Similar dia-
logue helps to explain other concepts. For example, when teaching chil-
dren the difference between print and pictures, you could say, “Point to a
picture; now point to the print. Which do we read, the picture or the
print?”
Each time you read to children in whole groups, small groups, or in-
dividually, ask them to point to the top and bottom of the book and where
you should begin reading on a page. This ritual reinforces important print
concepts and helps you determine which children have a firm understand-
ing of those concepts and which children need more instruction. With re-
peated practice, children begin to experience books in a new way. For
40
example, after one 4-year-old had listened to The Little Engine That Could
(Piper, 2005), she asked, “Show me where it says, ‘I think I can, I think I
can.’ I want to see it in the book.” When the teacher showed her the text, the
child repeated each word while pointing to it and then asked to see the
words in another part of the book. She proceeded to search through the
rest of the book, reading with great enthusiasm each time she found
the line, “I think I can, I think I can.”

Using Big Books to Learn Concepts of Books

Big Books are an important part of early literacy instruction for children in
preschool through the primary grades. The enlarged print and pictures in
these books help introduce children to book concepts, print, and the mean-
ing of text. When using Big Books in small- and large-group settings, en-
courage children to be actively involved. Position the Big Book so the
children can see the pictures and text. You may want to place it on a stand
for easier handling. You can purchase Big Books or make your own. Making
Big Books in class helps children become even more aware of book con-
cepts. Figure 11 provides directions for making a Big Book.
Big Books are effective for developing concepts about books because
of their size. As the teacher reads the book and tracks the print from left to
right across the page, children see that books are for reading. They notice
where we begin to read on a page and learn to differentiate the print from
the pictures. Children begin to realize that the reader’s spoken words are
being read from the print in the book.
In addition to learning concepts of books, children need to learn to
understand what is read to them. Activities that ask them to respond to
literature will help them learn to comprehend.

Developing Comprehension
With Preschool Children
Comprehension, the ability to read or listen and understand text,
is one of the major goals of reading instruction. When preschool- Comprehension, the
ers listen to stories, comprehension can be an active process. ability to read or listen
Children rely on prior knowledge to interpret and construct and understand text, is
one of the major goals
meaning about what they listen to (Pressley & Hilden, 2002).
of reading instruction.
Social interactions during reading enhance children’s compre-
hension development (Teale, 1981). For example, children ben-
efit from discussions with the adults who read to them.

41
 Figure 11
How to Make a Big Book

Materials
J 2 pieces of oaktag for the cover (14  20 to 20  30)
J 10 pieces or more of tagboard or newsprint the same size as the oaktag use
for the cover to be used for the pages in the book
J 6 looseleaf rings (11/4)
J Holepunch

Directions
J Punch three sets of holes in the top, middle, and bottom of the cover and
in the paper that is to go inside of the book.
J Insert a looseleaf ring in each hole. The Big Book should have a minimum
of 10 pages.
J Print should be 11/2 to 2 inches high.

PRESCHOOL
SOLAR
SYSTEM
BOOK

Reading and listening comprehension varies according to the diffi-

culty of the text. Therefore, when reading to children, keep in mind the
following text characteristics that will affect a child’s level of comprehen-
sion (Graves, Juel, & Graves, 1998):
• The familiarity of the content
• The background knowledge required to understand the text
• How interesting the topic is to the listener
42
 • The syntactic complexity of the sentences
• The amount and difficulty of vocabulary included
• The length of a selection

The RAND Reading Study Group report (2002) and the National
Reading Panel report (National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development [NICHD], 2000) both draw from research about successful
comprehension practices to consider which comprehension strategies chil-
dren need to learn and how these strategies should be taught. Although
much of the discussion within these reports pertains to children who are
in kindergarten through third grade and older, the following findings have
great significance for preschool educators. Pressley and Afflerbach (1995)
point out that to help young children learn to comprehend narrative and
expository text, teachers need to
• Provide background information so that children have some prior
knowledge of the text before it is read to them
• Ask children to anticipate and predict what might happen in a
story
• Read materials to children from the beginning to end
• Refer back to the text to clarify any difficult parts
• Slow down when reading or listening to information that children
need to remember and might be difficult for them
• Discuss the text with children after reading so they can reflect on
ideas and summarize about what was read

The strategies that follow provide activities to engage preschoolers in

learning to comprehend.

Developing Comprehension
With the Directed Listening–Thinking Activity
When children read or are read to, they need a purpose for reading or lis-
tening. The Directed Listening–Thinking Activity (DLTA) and Directed
Reading–Thinking Activity (DRTA) strategies set a purpose for reading
and listening and help to direct children’s thinking. When teachers model
these strategies through frequent use, children will internalize them and
apply them when they read or listen to new material (Morrow, 1984;
Stauffer, 1980).
43
 Because this book deals with preschool education, we will focus on
the DLTA. This strategy provides a framework for the listener for organiz-
ing and retrieving information. A DLTA can have many different objec-
tives. The framework, however, is always the same: (1) preparation for
listening or reading through questions and discussion, (2) reading the story
with few interruptions, and (3) discussion after reading. All three steps
focus on the DLTA’s specific objectives. A DLTA can focus on literal re-
sponses (such as recall of facts and sequencing) and inferential responses
(such as interpreting characters’ feelings, predicting outcomes, and relating
the story to real-life experiences). It can focus on identifying elements of
story structure in both narrative and informational text. Research has
demonstrated that a DLTA can increase the story comprehension of young
listeners (Morrow, 1984), just as a DRTA can increase the story compre-
hension of young readers (Baumann, Seifert-Kessell, & Jones, 1992;
Pearson, Roehler, Dole, & Duffy, 1992).
The following DLTA for The Gingerbread Man (McCafferty, 2001)
develops two skills: Sequencing the events of a story and making predic-
tions about the text.

1. Preparation for Listening or Reading Through Questions and

Discussion. It is crucial to build a background for what is going to be
read to the children by introducing the story as follows: “Today I’m going
to read a story called The Gingerbread Man. Let’s look at the pictures and
see if you can tell what the story is going to be about.”
Encourage children to respond as you turn the pages of the book
from beginning to end. This activity is sometimes called a picture walk
(Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). After the children have offered their ideas say,
“This story is about a little gingerbread man who escapes from the oven
and all the people in the town try to chase him because they want to eat
this delicious cookie. While I’m reading, try to imagine what will happen
to the gingerbread man at the end of the story and why you think this. As
I read, try to remember what happened first, second, third, and at the end
of the story.”
Ask questions that build additional background knowledge and set a
purpose for listening. Relate the questions to real-life experiences when-
ever possible: “Have you ever tried to chase a friend but they got away?
How do you catch someone when they are running away? Can you catch
them without running after them? Do you have to be fast to catch
someone?”
44
 Once children are familiar with this questioning technique, you can
ask them to think of their own questions: “Now that I’ve told you a little
about the story, what did you want to find out when I read it to you?”

2. Reading the Story With Few Interruptions. Be sure to show the

children the pictures as you read the book. Stop only once or twice for re-
actions, comments, or questions. Don’t interrupt the story for lots of dis-
cussion because discussion should occur after the story is read. Remind
children to study the pictures. Model or scaffold responses to guide them
in their thinking, keeping in mind the objectives for this particular DLTA.
Some discussion questions for The Gingerbread Man could include the fol-
lowing: “Can you remember why the gingerbread man was running? Who
was trying to catch him?”
If the children do not respond, model responses by changing ques-
tions to statements: “The gingerbread man was running so fast because
everyone wanted to eat him. I remember when the cow tried to eat him.”
Children also can be asked to predict what will happen next.

3. Discussion After Reading. The postreading discussion may be

guided by the objectives or purpose set for listening to the story such as,
“What happened to the gingerbread man first? Second?”
Ask children to retell the story to demonstrate their knowledge of
sequence. Allow children to use the pictures in the book to help them recall
the story sequence. Finally, focus on the second goal, making predictions,
and ask, “Where do you think the gingerbread man would go next if he
wasn’t eaten by the fox? Do you think the fox and the gingerbread man
could become friends? Why or why not? What do you think happened to
all the people when they realized the gingerbread man had been eaten?”

Developing Comprehension With Shared Reading

Shared reading is usually carried out in a whole-class setting, although it
may be carried out in small groups as well (Holdaway, 1979). During this
activity, teachers model fluent reading for children and help them develop
listening skills.
Sharing books enhances children’s background knowledge, develops
their sense of story structure, and familiarizes them with the language of
books (Cullinan, 1992; Morrow, 1985). The language of books differs from
oral language and provides a model for speaking. The following sentences
from two well-known picture storybooks make this evident:
45
 • “His scales were every shade of blue and green and purple, with
sparkling silver scales among them.” (Pfister, The Rainbow Fish,
1992)
• “I’m a troll from a deep dark hole, My belly’s getting thinner; I need
to eat—and goat’s a treat—so I’ll have you for my dinner.”
(Asbjornsen & Moe, The Three Billy Goats Gruff, 1991)

Shared reading often involves reading from a Big Book. Often the
teacher uses a pointer while reading to emphasize the correspondence be-
tween spoken and written words and model the tracking of print. If the
book is new to the class, the children should listen during the first reading.
If the book is already familiar to the class, children should be encouraged
to participate in the reading.
Children’s participation in shared reading might include chanting
story refrains, reading keywords, or stopping at predictable parts and fill-
ing in words and phrases. One popular technique is echo reading, where
the teacher reads one line and the children repeat it. After the first reading,
the Big Book and regular-size versions should be available for children to
explore independently.
Shared book readings can be audio-recorded and made available in a
section of the literacy center for listening. This provides children with a
familiar model of fluent reading. They can emulate the teacher’s phrasing
and intonation as they “whisper read” along with the audio recording.
Shared reading experiences can also be carried out using a DLTA format.

Using Predictable Texts/Stories. Predictable stories are ideal for

shared reading experiences because they invite children to guess what will
happen next. Predictability takes many forms. The use of catchphrases,
such as “A house is a house for me” in A House Is a House for Me (Hoberman,
2007), encourages children to read along. Predictable rhyme, as in
Goodnight Moon (Brown, 2005), makes it easy for children to fill in words.
Cumulative patterns contribute to predictability. New events are
added with each episode, then repeated in the next, as in Are You My
Mother? (Eastman, 2005). This book repeats phrases and episode patterns
as its central character, a baby bird, searches for his mother by approaching
different animals and asking the same question: “Are you my mother?”
Look for books that highlight familiar sequences, such as days of the
week, months of the year, letters, and numbers, such as The Very Hungry
Caterpillar (Carle, 1994). Conversation can also contribute to predictabil-
46
ity, as in The Three Billy Goats Gruff (Asbjornsen & Moe, 1991) or The
Three Little Pigs (Galdone, 1984).
Predictable books are excellent for young children who are just be-
ginning to experiment with emergent literacy practices, as well as for con-
ventional readers. They allow the child’s first experience with reading to be
enjoyable and successful with minimal effort. Such immediate success en-
courages the child to continue efforts at reading.

Repeated Reading. When a story is read repeatedly, it becomes famil-

iar and comfortable, like singing a well-known song. In addition to offering
the pleasure of familiarity, repeated storybook readings help children de-
velop concepts about words, print, and books. In a study with 4-year-olds
(Morrow, 1987), one group listened to three repeated readings of the same
story and the other group listened to three different stories. In an analysis
of the discussions that followed the stories, the researchers found that dur-
ing the course of the study, the responses of the children in the repeated
reading group grew in number, variety, and complexity in comparison to
the group that had a different story read to them each time. The children in
the repeated reading group’s responses became more interpretive and they
began to predict outcomes and make associations, judgments, and elabora-
tive comments. Children also began to narrate stories as the teacher read
and to focus on elements of print, asking names of letters and words. Even
children of low ability seemed to make more responses with repeated read-
ings than with a single reading (Morrow, 1987; Pressley & Hilden, 2002).
Repeated readings promote independent reading; children can confi-
dently revisit a familiar book without adult assistance. Children who are
able to read independently or participate in pretend-reading behaviors of-
ten will select the same book to look at or read over and over again. Teachers
can repeat readings of stories to children in a shared reading setting, en-
courage children to look at books more than once, and carry out discus-
sions about books that have been read and discussed previously.
The following example of a 4-year-old child’s responses to a third
reading of The Little Red Hen highlights the child’s comments and ques-
tions and the teacher’s responses; most of the story text has been omitted.

Teacher: Today I’m going to read a story called The Little Red
Hen. It is about a hen who wanted some help when
she baked some bread. [The teacher begins to read
the story.] “Who will help me to cut this wheat?”

47
 Melony: “‘Not I,’ said the cat. ‘Not I,’ said the dog. ‘Not I,’
said the mouse.”
Teacher: That was good, Melony. You are reading. [The
teacher continues reading.] “Who will take this
wheat to the mill to be ground into flour?”
Melony: “‘Not I,’ said the cat. ‘Not I,’ said the dog. ‘Not I,’
said the mouse with the whiskers.”
Teacher: Very nice, Melony. [The teacher continues to read.]
Melony: I want to read that part, but I don’t know how.
Teacher: Go ahead and try. I bet you can. I’ll help you: “The
cat smelled it.”
Melony: [The child pretend reads parts she remembers from
the repeated readings.] “The cat smelled it and she
said ‘umm that smells good,’ and the mouse smelled
it, and it smelled good.”
Teacher: [The teacher continues reading.] “Who will eat this
cake?”
Melony: “The mouse, the doggy, the kitty!”
Teacher: You’re right again, Melony. [The teacher reads to
the end of the story.] Did you want to say anything
else about the story?
Melony: He was bad so he couldn’t have no cake. [Melony
searches through the pages.] That’s the wrong part.
Teacher: Show me the part you are talking about.
Melony: There it is, almost at the end. She’s going to make a
cake and she’ll say, “Who’s going to bake this cake
for me?” And the cat says, “Not I,” the dog says,
“Not I,” the mouse says, “Not I.” And then when
she’s cooking it they smell a good thing and then
they wanted some, too, but they didn’t have any,
’cause they didn’t plant the wheat.
Teacher: That’s terrific, Melony.
(Morrow, 2005, pp. 171–172)

48
This type of sophisticated response can only happen when a child has
heard a story repeated many times.
As adults we often tire of repetition; however, it has great value
in early reading development. Sulzby (1985) observed children from ages
2 to 6 as they attempted to read favorite storybooks. Although they were
not yet readers in the conventional sense, the children were asked, “Read
me your book.” Sulzby found that the speech children used in their “read-
ing” was clearly different in structure and intonation from their typical
conversations. They used vocabulary and syntax from the story. Children
also demonstrated different developmental levels in children’s oral
“readings.”
Figure 12 offers a classification scheme for children’s emergent read-
ing of favorite storybooks. To use this checklist, ask a child to read a story
that is well known to him or her. Preschoolers will not read conventionally.
However, from their attempts at storybook reading it is possible to observe
characteristics of their emergent reading behavior.

Developing Comprehension With Small-Group

and One-to-One Story Readings
The importance of reading to small groups and to individuals Small-group and one-to-
must not be overlooked. Too often considered impractical in one readings are
effective in the
school settings, one-to-one and small-group readings yield such
preschool classroom
tremendous benefits that they should be incorporated into pre- because it is easier for
school programs. preschoolers to pay
Small-group and one-to-one readings are effective in the attention to the teacher
preschool classroom because it is easier for preschoolers to pay in settings with small
attention to the teacher in settings with small numbers of chil- numbers of children.
dren. One of the greatest benefits of one-to-one story reading is
the interaction that results. Children gain a great deal of information from
this close interaction, while adults discover what children know and what
they want to learn.
It has been found that one-to-one readings are especially beneficial
for preschoolers who have had little experience with books at home
(Morrow, 1988). When reading in small groups or in a one-to-one setting,
it is important for teachers to encourage children to be interactive by ask-
ing them to respond to questions, discuss pictures in the book, and chant
repeated phrases.
When teachers read to children frequently and initiate interactive dis-
cussions, the number and complexity of the children’s responses increases.

49
 Figure 12
Classification Scheme for Children’s Emergent
Reading of Favorite Storybooks

1. Attends to pictures but does not form oral stories

The child “reads” by labeling and commenting on the pictures in the book, but does not “weave
a story” across the pages.
yes___ no____

2. Attends to pictures and forms oral stories

The child “reads” by following the pictures and “weaves a story” across the pages, using the
wording and intonation of a storyteller. Often, however, the listener must see the pictures in
order to understand the story the child is “reading.”
yes___ no____

3. Attends to a mix of pictures, reading, and storytelling

The child “reads” by looking at the pictures. The majority of the child’s “reading” fluctuates
between the oral intonation of a storyteller and that of a reader.
yes___ no___

4. Attends to pictures and forms stories with characteristics of written language

The child “reads” by looking at the pictures. The child’s speech sounds like reading, both in
wording and intonation. The listener rarely needs to see the pictures in order to understand
the story. With his or her eyes closed, the listener would think the child was reading print. The
“reading” is similar to the story in print and sometimes follows it verbatim. There is some
attention to print.
yes___ no___

5. Attends to print
a) The child reads the story, mostly by attending to print, but occasionally refers to pictures and
reverts to storytelling. yes___ no___
b) The child reads in a conventional manner. yes___ no___

Note. Adapted from Sulzby (1985).

Children offer many questions and comments that focus on meaning.

Initially, they label illustrations; eventually they give more attention to de-
tails. Their comments and questions become interpretive and predictive
and they draw from their own experiences. They also begin narrating—
that is, “reading” or mouthing the story along with the teacher.
When involved in frequent small group or one-to-one storybook
readings, children begin to focus on structural elements in a story, remark-
ing on titles, settings, characters, and story events. After many readings, the
50
children begin to focus on print, matching sounds and letters and reading
words (Morrow, 1987). When children hear stories in small groups, they
tend to respond more; they repeat one another’s remarks and elaborate on
what their peers have said. Table 4 provides guidelines for teacher interac-
tive behavior during small-group and one-to-one story readings, and
Figure 13 shows interactive behavior during a small-group story reading.
Productive discussions result from good questions. Good questions
ask children to clarify information and predict outcomes. The following is
a description of types of questions.
Literal questions ask students to
• Identify details such as who, what, when and where
• Classify ideas
• Sequence text
• Find the main idea

Table 4
Guidelines for Teacher Interactive Behavior During
Small-Group and One-to-One Storybook Reading

Teacher Role Specifics

Manage • Introduce story.
• Provide background information about the book.
• Redirect irrelevant discussion back to the story.
Prompt Responses • Children to ask questions or comment throughout the story when
there are natural places to stop.
• Model responses for children if they are not responding (e.g., “Those
animals aren’t very nice. They won’t help the little red hen.”).
• Relate responses to real-life experiences (e.g., “I needed help when I
was preparing a party, and my family shared the work. Did you ever
ask for help and not get it? What happened?”).
• When children do not respond, ask questions that require answers
other than yes or no (e.g., “What would you have done if you were
the little red hen and no one helped you bake the bread?”).
Support and Inform • Answer questions as they are asked.
• React to comments.
• Relate your responses to real-life experiences.
• Provide positive reinforcement for children’s responses.

Note. From Morrow (1988).

51
 Figure 13
Interactive Behavior During Small-Group Reading

Inferential and critical questions ask students to

• Draw information from their background knowledge
• Relate text to life experiences
• Predict outcomes (What do you think will happen next?)
• Interpret text (Put yourself in the place of the characters)
• Compare and contrast
• Determine cause and effect
• Apply information
• Solve problems

Discussion questions should reflect children’s interests and have many

appropriate responses rather than just one correct answer. Questions with
one correct answer can be asked occasionally, but the majority of questions
should stimulate discussion and invite children to share their thoughts and
52
feelings about the text. Include a few questions that deal with facts, main
ideas, and story details. When asking questions, have children refer to the
illustrations for possible answers. Once children are experienced at re-
sponding to questions, they can be encouraged to ask their own questions
about a story that was read to them.
The following examples of small-group story readings in preschool
illustrate the kinds of questions children ask and responses they make
when they are engrossed in the reading experience. The examples reveal
the rich information children receive from the adult reader and indicate
what the children already know and what their interests are—useful infor-
mation for anyone designing instruction.

Story: A Splendid Friend Indeed (Bloom, 2007)—The child asks ques-

tions about book concepts.
Madeline: [points to the illustration on the book cover] Why
does it have a picture on it?
Teacher: The cover of the book has a picture on it so you will
know what the story is about. Look at the picture.
Can you tell what the book might be about?
Jeanine: Ummm, I think it is about a big white furry bear and
a duck and they like each other because they are
smiling at each other.
Teacher: You’re right, very good. The book is about a polar
bear and a duck and they are good friends. The title
of the book is A Splendid Friend Indeed. The pic-
tures on the cover of a book and inside the book
can help you figure out what the words say.

Story: A Splendid Friend Indeed (Bloom, 2007)—The child asks for a

definition.
Teacher: I’m going to read the story A Splendid Friend
Indeed.
Jeannine: What is splendid?
Teacher: Splendid means wonderful, very good, terrific. Do
you have a splendid friend?

53
 Jeannine: Devin is my best friend. I guess she is splendid. I will
tell her.

Story: Are You My Mother? (Eastman, 2005)—The child attends to

print.
Jordon: Wait, stop reading. Let me see this again. [He looks
at the page.] That says, “Are you my mother?”
Teacher: You’re right. Can you find it anywhere else?
Jordon: I think so. Yes, here it is on this page. “Are you my
mother?” And again over here, “Are you my
mother?”
Teacher: That is great, you are reading.

Story: The Mitten (Tresselt, 1989)—The child predicts.

Charlene: I wonder if that mitten is going to break open?
Teacher: Why do you think that?
Charlene: Well, it is a mitten for a little boy so it isn’t so big. All
of those animals are going in it. Soon they won’t
fit.
Teacher: Those are good ideas, Charlene. I’ll read on and we
will find out if you are right.

Story: Knuffle Bunny (Willems, 2004)—The child makes connections

from one text to another.
James: Hey this book is like the Mary Poppins DVD.
Teacher: What do you mean?
James: Well, you see the pictures in Knuffle Bunny in the
back are real like real buildings and parks and stuff
someone took those pictures with a camera of real
things, and the pictures in the front are cartoons
somebody drawed. In the Mary Poppins DVD there
are real people and then sometimes there are car-
toon people and cartoon pictures, too.

Story: Madeline’s Rescue (Bemelmans, 2000)—The child relates the

text to real-life experience.
Jovannah: What’s the policeman going to do?

54
 Teacher: He’s going to help Madeline. Policemen are nice;
they always help us.
Jovannah: Policemans aren’t nice. See, my daddy beat up
Dominic and the policeman came and took him
away and put him in jail. And my Daddy cried and I
cried. I don’t like policemans. I don’t think they are
nice.

These examples reveal children’s understanding of text. The children’s

comments and questions relate to literal meanings; they raise interpretive
and critical issues by associating the story with their own lives, predict
what will happen next in a story, or express judgments about characters’
actions. Their responses also relate to matters of print, such as names of
letters, words, and sounds.
Analyzing one-to-one and small-group story readings reveals what
children know and what they want to know about the texts that are read to
them (Morrow, 1987). The coding sheet in Figure 14 will help in this analy-
sis. The coding is a form of assessment-guided instruction that teachers
can use to determine what the child knows and then decide what needs to
be done to accommodate the children’s needs when designing
instruction.
Although whole-class readings are practical and effective in exposing
children to literature, they do not promote the interaction between adults
and children that takes place in one-to-one and small-group readings. If
we review transcripts of story readings in all three settings, several things
become apparent. In whole-group settings, children are discouraged from
asking questions or commenting during the story because doing so inter-
rupts the flow of the story for the rest of the audience. In this setting, the
discussion has to be managed by the teacher to such an extent that he or
she often talks more than the children do. Because of the size of the group,
a truly interactive situation cannot exist. However, in small-group and one-
to-one story readings, a teacher may manage and prompt the discussion at
first, but only to encourage and model responses for children. The roles
reverse in a short time, and soon most of the dialogue is initiated by the
children (Morrow, 1987).
Children who do not experience one-to-one readings at home are at a
disadvantage in their literacy development. By reading to a child individually
55
 Figure 14
Coding Children’s Responses During Story Readings

Directions: Read a story to one child or a small group of children. Encourage the children to re-
spond with questions and comments. Record the session. Transcribe or listen to the recording, not-
ing each child’s responses by placing checks in the appropriate categories. A category may receive
more than one check, and a single response may be credited to more than one category. Total the
number of checks in each category.

Child’s Name________________________________________________ Date_______________

Name of Story____________________________________________________________________

1. Focus on Story Structure

___ identifies setting (time, place)
___ identifies characters
___ identifies theme (problem or goal)
___ recalls plot episodes (events leading toward problem solution or goal attainment)
___ identifies resolution

2. Focus on Meaning
___ labels pictures
___ identifies details
___ interprets characters and events (makes associations, elaborations)
___ predicts events
___ draws from personal experience
___ seeks definitions of words
___ uses narrational behavior (recites parts of the book along with the teacher)

3. Focus on Print
___ asks questions or makes comments about letters
___ asks questions or makes comments about sounds
___ asks questions or makes comments about words
___ reads words
___ reads sentences

4. Focus on Illustrations
___ asks questions or makes comments about illustrations

Note. From Lesley Mandel Morrow, Literacy Development in the Early Years: Helping Children Read and Write,
6th Edition. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by
permission of the publisher.

56
in the classroom, the teacher can compensate for what is not provided at
home. With frequent one-to-one reading, children gain both literacy skills
and positive attitudes toward books; they learn to associate books with
warmth and pleasure. Time limitations and class size make it difficult to
provide one-to-one and small-group readings in school, but asking aides,
volunteers, and older children to help can alleviate the problem.

Developing Comprehension
With Story Retellings
Encouraging children to retell stories they have listened to or read helps
them develop vocabulary, syntax, comprehension, and sense of story struc-
ture (Ritchie et al., 2002). Retelling allows for original thinking as children
incorporate their own life experiences into their retelling (Gambrell,
Pfeiffer, & Wilson, 1985). With practice in retelling, children come to as-
similate the concept of narrative or expository text structure. They learn to
introduce a narrative story with its beginning and its setting, theme, plot
episodes, and resolution. They also learn to retell narrative text by focusing
on a particular aspect such as story structure, cause and effect, or problem
and solution. In retelling stories, children demonstrate their comprehen-
sion of story details and sequence. They also interpret the sounds and ex-
pressions of characters’ voices. In retelling expository text, children review
what they’ve learned and distinguish the main ideas from the supporting
details.
Retelling is not an easy task for children, but with practice they im-
prove quickly. Be sure to inform children before they listen to a story that
they will be asked to retell it (Morrow, 1996). Further instructions depend
on the purpose of the retelling. If the intent is to teach sequence, for in-
stance, then children should be asked to think about what happened first,
second, and so on. If the goal is to teach children to make inferences from
the text, ask them to think of personal experiences that are similar to those
that happened in the story. Props such as flannelboard characters or book
illustrations can be used to help children retell. Pre- and postdiscussion of
text helps to improve retelling ability, as does the teacher’s modeling a re-
telling for children.
Retelling also allows adults to evaluate children’s progress. When as-
sessing a retelling, do not offer prompts beyond general ones such as
“What happened next?” or “Can you think of anything else?” Retellings of
narrative text reveal a child’s sense of story structure, focusing mostly on
57
 literal recall, but they also reflect a child’s inferential thinking. To assess
the child’s retelling for sense of story structure, first divide the events of
the story into four categories—setting, theme, plot episodes, and resolu-
tion. Refer to the guidelines for story retelling (see Table 5), and use an
outline of the text to record the number of ideas and details the child in-
cludes within each category in the retelling, regardless of their order.
Credit the child for partial recall or for recounting the “gist” of an event
(Pellegrini & Galda, 1982). Evaluate the child’s sequencing ability by com-
paring the order of events in the child’s retelling with the proper order of
setting, theme, plot episodes, and resolution. The analysis indicates not
only which elements the child includes or omits and how well the child

Table 5
Guidelines for Story Retelling

Teacher Role Examples

1. Ask the child to retell the story. “A little while ago, I read the story [name of story]. Would
you tell the story as if you were telling it to a friend who has
never heard it before?”

2. Use prompts only if needed. • If the child has difficulty beginning the retelling, suggest
beginning with “Once upon a time....” or “Once there
was....”
• If the child stops retelling before the end of the story,
encourage continuation by asking, “What comes next?”
or “Then what happened?”
• If the child stops retelling and cannot continue with
general prompts, ask a question that is relevant at the
point in the story at which the child has paused. For
example, “What was Jenny’s problem in the story?”

3. When a child is unable to retell • “Once upon a time....” or “Once there was....”
the story, or if the retelling lacks • “Who was the story about?”
sequence and detail, prompt the • “When did the story happen? Day or night? Summer or
retelling step by step. winter?”
• “Where did the story happen?”
• “What was the main character’s problem in the story?”
• “How did he or she try to solve the problem? What did
he or she do first? Second? Next?”
• “How was the problem solved?”
• “How did the story end?”

Note. From Morrow (1996).

58
sequences, but also where instruction might be focused. Comparing anal-
yses of several retellings over a year will indicate the child’s progress.
Outlining a story to reveal its structure, characters, and themes cre-
ates a framework for evaluating a child’s retelling. The outline of Franklin
in the Dark (Bourgeois, 1987) shown in Figure 15 is a typical example of a
story outline (Morrow, 1996).
Transcribing a child’s story retelling word for word provides teachers
with the data they need for analysis. The following is an example of a
4-year-old child’s retelling of Franklin in the Dark.

Teacher: What’s the title of the story I read to you today?

Philip: I don’t know.
Teacher: Franklin in the Dark.

Figure 15
Franklin in the Dark Story Outline

Setting
a) Once upon a time there was a turtle named Franklin.
b) Characters: Franklin (main character), Franklin’s mother, a bird, a duck, a lion, and a polar bear

Theme
Franklin is afraid to go into his shell because it is dark inside his shell.

Plot Episodes
First episode: Franklin decides to look for help to solve his problem.
Second episode: Franklin meets a duck and asks for help. The duck tells Franklin that he wears wa-
ter wings because he is afraid of the water.
Third episode: Franklin meets a lion who wears ear muffs because he is afraid of his own roar.
Fourth episode: Franklin meets a bird who uses a parachute because he is afraid to fly.
Fifth episode: Franklin meets a polar bear who wears a hat, mittens, and a scarf because he doesn’t
like the cold.
Sixth episode: Franklin shares his experiences with his mother.

Resolution
a) Franklin and his mother put a nightlight in his shell.
b) Franklin is no longer afraid to go into his shell.

59
 Philip: Franklin in the Dark. One time Franklin didn’t want
to go in his shell. He was too scared. But his Mama
says there’s nothing in there. But Franklin didn’t
want to go in the shell because he thought there
was monsters in there. He didn’t like to go in be-
cause he was scared. It was dark. At the end he
went in, he turned on a little nightlight and went to
sleep. That’s it.

Retellings can be evaluated for many different comprehension tasks.

The directions to students prior to retelling and the method of analysis
should match the goal. Figure 16 provides an analysis form for evaluating
a retelling. The teacher checks for elements a child includes and deter-
mines progress over time.

Figure 16
Analysis of Story Retelling and Rewriting

Setting
___ Begins story with an introduction
___ Names main character
___ Lists other characters
___ Includes statement about time and place

Theme
___ Refers to main character’s primary goal or problem to be solved

Plot Episodes
___ Recalls episodes
___ Lists episodes recalled

Resolution
___ Includes the solution to the problem or the attainment of the goal
___ Includes an ending to the story

Sequence
___ Tells story in a sequential order

60
 In his retelling, Philip names the main characters, Franklin and
Franklin’s mother. Philip restates the problem, the main character, and the
theme. He understands the resolution of the story and his retelling has a
clear ending. The parts of the story that Philip included are told in sequen-
tial order. However, Philip’s retelling does not begin with an introduction.
There is no statement of time and place. Aside from mentioning Franklin
and his mother, Philip does not talk about any of the other four characters,
nor does he recall any of the plot episodes in the story. From this evalua-
tion, it is evident that Philip is able to recall the theme of the story, the
resolution; future instruction should focus on recalling story details such
as characters and plot episodes and beginning retellings with an
introduction.
To illustrate progress over time, the following is a sample of a retell of
Jenny Learns a Lesson (Fujikawa, 1980) by Philip at the end of the school
year, eight months after the first retell (the first part of this example is an
outline of the story, and the second part of the example is the student’s
retelling).

Story Outline
1. Once upon a time there was a girl who liked to play pretend.
2. Characters: Jenny (main character), Nicholas, Sam, Mei Su,
and Shags, the dog.

Theme
Every time Jenny played with her friends, she bossed them.

Plot Episodes
First episode: Jenny decided to pretend to be a queen. She
called her friends. They came to play. Jenny
told them all what to do and was bossy. The
friends became angry and left.
Second episode: Jenny decided to play dancer. She called her
friends and they came to play. Jenny told
them all what to do. The friends became an-
gry and left.
Third episode: Jenny decided to play pirate. She called her
friends and they came to play. Jenny told

61
 them all what to do. The friends became an-
gry and left.
Fourth episode: Jenny decided to play duchess. She called her
friends and they came to play. Jenny told
them all what to do. The friends became an-
gry and left.
Fifth episode: Jenny’s friends refused to play with her be-
cause she was so bossy. Jenny became lonely
and apologized to them for being bossy.

Resolution
1. The friends all played together, and each person did what he
or she wanted to do.
2. They all had a wonderful day and were so tired that they fell
asleep.

Student’s Retelling
Once upon a time there’s a girl named Jenny and she called her
friends over and they played queen and went to the palace. They
had to, they had to do what she said and they didn’t like it so then
they went home and said that was boring. It’s not fun playing
queen and doing what she says you have to. So they didn’t play
with her for seven days and she had she had an idea that she was
being selfish, so she went to find her friends and said, I’m sorry I
was so mean. And said, let’s play pirate, and they played pirate
and they went onto the ropes. Then they played that she was a
fancy lady playing house. And they have tea. And they played
what they wanted and they were happy. The end.

In this retelling of the story, Philip includes more characters, details, and
episodes than he did in his first retelling, illustrating his progress in devel-
oping comprehension skills.

Developing Comprehension
With Collaborative Strategies
The National Reading Panel report suggests that collaboration is an impor-
tant strategy for developing comprehension (NICHD, 2000). Collaborative
62
settings allow children to engage in productive conversations as
Collaborative settings
they exchange ideas and learn to listen to each other. Teachers allow children to
model the behaviors for collaborative activities before children engage in productive
participate in them with peers. conversations as they
exchange ideas and
Buddy Reading. Buddy reading involves pairing a child from learn to listen to each
an upper grade with a younger child. The child in the upper other.
grade is instructed how to read to children. At specified times
during the school week, buddies get together for storybook reading and
discussions.

Partner Reading. Partner reading involves peers reading together. This

may simply mean that the children sit next to each other and share the
same book. They take turns discussing the pictures or narrating the text.

Mental Imagery and Think-Alouds. In mental imagery, children are

asked to visualize what they see after they have been read to. Then, they are
asked to conduct a think-aloud—to think aloud and talk about their im-
ages with peers and to predict what will happen next in the story. Children
are encouraged to raise questions about the story and to look back at the
pictures to recall forgotten details. They are also encouraged to personalize
the text by relating their own experiences and actions to those in the story.
Visualizing ideas and relating those visualizations orally to a peer helps
young readers clarify information and increase understanding (Gambrell
& Koskinen, 2002).

Fluency
The ultimate goal for reading instruction is that students be fluent readers.
When a child is a fluent reader, he or she is able to automatically and ac-
curately decode text and read with appropriate pace and expression, thus
demonstrating comprehension (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003). Most preschoolers
do not yet read conventionally, let alone fluently; however, even as listen-
ers, they can participate in fluency activities. Fluency activities should be a
daily part of the preschool curriculum. They are easy for teachers to plan,
require little time, and are enjoyable for children (Rasinski, 1990).
Fluency is an underemphasized skill in literacy instruction. According
to the National Reading Panel report (NICHD, 2000), helping children to
become fluent readers is crucial for literacy development. Other researchers
have found that echo reading, choral reading, and audio recording–assisted
reading expose children to the rhythm, pace, and expression involved in
63
 fluent reading and are useful strategies for developing fluency (Kuhn &
Stahl, 2003). For the preschool classroom, these strategies can easily be
adapted to echo chanting, choral chanting, and audio recording–assisted
listening.

Echo Chanting. In echo reading, the teacher reads one line of text and
the child then reads the same line. In echo chanting, children listen and
then repeat what has been read to them. When reading to the children, be
sure to model accuracy, pace, and expression. Try to echo chant a few times
a week.

Choral Chanting. In choral reading, the entire class, or a small group of

children, reads a passage together. The teacher provides a model for pace
and expression. Preschoolers who aren’t yet conventional readers can cho-
rally chant poems they have learned. In choral chanting, children experi-
ence the pace and expression necessary for fluent reading. Try to choral
chant a few times a week.

Audio Recording–Assisted Listening. Listening to fluent reading on

audiotapes, CDs, or DVDs while following the pictures in a book provides
an excellent model of reading for children. These recordings can be pur-
chased or made by teachers, parents, and other students who are fluent
readers.

Assessment of Concepts of Books

and Comprehension
The techniques described in this chapter are designed to develop con-
cepts about books and story comprehension through the use of exposi-
tory and narrative text. The skills listed in Figure 17 for assessing concepts
of books and comprehension of text can be used to check student prog-
ress. To determine how much children know about books, observe how
they handle books. Have one-to-one interviews with children; encourage
whole-group, small-group, or individual discussions. Children’s story
comprehension can be demonstrated and evaluated through their story
retelling, attempted reading of favorite storybooks, role-playing, picture
sequencing, use of puppets or flannelboards to reenact stories, and their
questions and comments during storybook reading. When possible, keep

64
periodic performance samples of activities, such as audio or video record-
ings of retellings.
Throughout this chapter, assessment tools for evaluating children’s
ability and needs have been provided. These materials can be placed in a
child’s portfolio or folder to evaluate his or her concepts of books, compre-
hension of text, and fluent chanting. Information about children’s needs
can be collected in September with assessment measures repeated a few
times during the school year.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR PRE- AND INSERVICE TEACHERS

This chapter is filled with strategies to help your children comprehend.

At a study group meeting have different teachers select a different strat-
egy, such as one of the following:
• Conducting a story retelling
• Creating a DLTA
• Creating a shared reading lesson
• Doing repeated readings of the same story
• Reading to small groups of children to see the effect on
discussion
• Engaging children in teacher-generated questions and helping
them think of their own questions modeled after those the teacher
asked

Reflect upon how the children responded and seemed to improve their
comprehension. Each teacher needs to eventually try all the strategies
and decide which they like best or what is best for which children.
In addition, if there is a coach in your building and you would like
to see a strategy put into practice, it would be very helpful for you to
observe a person who has used the strategy before using it with your
children.
Teach your children to retell a story, first with the book or with
props and then without. Use the prompts in this chapter to help the child
with retelling. Have the children retell a story at three different times in
the year. Fill out the story retelling form at each retelling and watch for
progress, strengths, and weaknesses to teach to.

65
 Figure 17
Assessing Concepts of Books and Comprehension of Text

Student Name: Date:

YES NO
Concepts of Books

Knows a book is for reading

Can identify the front, back, top, and bottom of a book

Can turn the pages properly

Knows the difference between the print and the pictures

Knows pictures are related to what the print says on a page

Knows where to begin reading

Knows what a title is

Knows what an author is

Knows what an illustrator is

Comprehension of Text

“Reads” storybooks resulting in well-formed stories

Participates in story reading by narrating as the teacher reads

Retells stories

Includes story structure elements in story retellings

Setting

Theme

Plot episodes

Resolution

Recognizes expository text features and structures

Table of contents

Headings

Diagrams

(continued)

66
Figure 17 (continued) YES NO

Recognizes expository text structures

Description

Compare and contrast

Cause and effect

Problem and solution

Exemplification

Responds to text after listening with literal comments or questions

Responds to text after listening with interpretive comments or questions

Participates and responds during

Partner reading
Buddy reading
Mental imagery
Think-alouds
Participates in fluency activities
Echo chanting
Choral chanting
Audio recording–assisted listening
Comments:

Note. From Lesley Mandel Morrow, Literacy Development in the Early Years: Helping Children Read and
Write, Sixth Edition. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

67