Module for Bachelor of Education

Programme (Primary and JHS)

EBS282SW:
FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
CLAUSE

DR. ISAAC N. MWINLAARU

DR. SAMUEL KWESI NKANSAH
MR. EBENEZER AGBAGLO

i
REPUBLIC OF GHANA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, UCC
 IoE/MoF/TUC/GHANA CARES TRAINING AND RETRAINING
PROGRAMME FOR PRIVATE SCHOOL TEACHERS

Minstry of Finance Trade Union Congress University of Cape Coast

DECEMBER, 2022

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT PAGE

UNIT 1: THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS 1

SESSION 1: THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR 1
SESSION 2: THE DIRECT OBJECT 2
SESSION 3: THE INDIRECT OBJECT 3
SESSION 4: THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT/COMPLEMENT 9
SESSION 5: THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS 11
SESSION 6: THE ADJUNCT 14

UNIT 2: THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES 17

SESSION 1: DEFINING THE CLAUSE 17
SESSION 2: CLAUSE TYPES: FINITE, NON-FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES 19
SESSION 3: THE FINITE CLAUSE 21
SESSION 4: THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE (I) THE INFINITIVE 23
SESSION 5: THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE (II) - THE PARTICIPLES 25
SESSION 6: THE INFINITIVE NON-FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSES 28
SESSION 7: THE PARTICIPIAL AND VERBLESS NOMINAL CLAUSES 31

iii
UNIT 1: THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS

Unit Outline
Session 1: The Subject and Predicator
Session 2: The Direct Object
Session 3: The Indirect Object
Session 4: The Prepositional Object/Complement
Session 5: The Subject and Object Complement
Session 6: The Adjunct

Welcome to unit one. In this unit, we shall look at the units that make up a clause. They are called
clausal units, and they include the subject, predicator, direct object, indirect object, prepositional
complement, subject complement, object complement, and adjunct.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Describe the clausal elements
2. Identify the semantic and syntactic features
3. Illustrate their realisations

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

 issues that are note clear; and
 difficult topics, if any

SESSION 1: THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR

Dear Student, you are welcome to another important topic in your course.
In this session, we will focus on the subject and predicator as clausal elements. We will look at their
semantic features and syntactic realisations.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(a) explain the semantic features of the subject;
(b) identify the linguistic realisations of the subject;
(c) identify the semantic characteristics of the predicator; and
(d) illustrate the realisations of the predicator.

Now read on:

1.1 The Subject

1.1.1 Semantic and cognitive features of the subject

The Subject is that functional category of the clause of which something is predicated. This means
that the subject represents who or what the clausal message is primarily about. In basic clauses of
‘doing’, the subject aligns with the semantic function of Agent, that is, the one who performs the

1
 action. However, the subject can represent other participant roles. The following examples
illustrate some of the possible roles aligned with the subject:
1. Jones kicked the ball into the net. (Agent )
2. The ball was kicked into the net. (Affected in a passive clause)
3. Tom saw a snake near the river. (Experiencer in a mental process)
4. The secretary has been given some chocolates. (Recipient in a passive clause)

Can you construct sentences containing each of the above semantic roles? Good!
.

1.1.2 Syntactic features of the subject

The subject has some syntactic features. Syntactically, in English, the Subject must be present in
declarative and interrogative clauses, but is not required in the imperative. However, when two or
more conjoined clauses have the same subject, all the subjects, except the first one, are ellipted.

1. a. He came in, he sat down and he took out a cigarette (three conjoined clauses with the
same subject)
b. He came in, sat down and took out a cigarette (ellipsis of the other two subjects)

The Subject is that element which is picked up in a question tag and referred to anaphorically by a
pronoun. Anaphorical reference means making backward reference.

1. Your brother is a ski instructor, isn’t he?

In this example, “he” makes anaphorical reference to “Your brother”. I hope you get it? Let us
consider another example:
2. Susie won’t mind waiting a moment, will she?
In this example too, the pronoun “she” makes anaphorical reference to the subject “Susie”.

The Subject is placed before the finite verb in declarative clauses, and in wh-questions where the
wh-element is Subject, as in the examples below:

1. Unfortunately, everyone left early.

2. Who came in late last night?

It is placed after the finite operator (the first element of the verb phrase) in yes/no questions and in
wh-questions in which the wh-element is not Subject:
1. Are you pleased with the result?
2. Did everyone leave early?
3. What film did you see last night? (What film is Object)
4. When did Sylvia get back? (When is Adjunct)

The pronominal forms “I”, “he”, “she”, “we” and “they are used to realise subject function, in
contrast to the objective forms “me”, “him”, “her”, “us” and “them”, which are used for Objects.
However, “you” and “it” are used as Subject and Object. Possessive forms may stand as subject:
1. I am a teacher.
2. They were here last week.
3. Yours was rather difficult to read.
4. Jennifer’s got lost in the post.

2
Subject agree with verbs in terms of concord. This means that whenever there is a plural subject,
the verb must be plural and also when there is a singular subject, the verb must be singular.
Concord is manifested only in those verb forms that show inflectional contrast:

1. The librarian/he/she has checked the book.

2. The librarians/I/you/we/they have checked the book.

3. Where is my credit card?

4. Where are my credit cards?

When a collective noun is used as Subject, the verb chosen can be singular or plural, depending on
how the speaker perceives the collective noun. When the noun is perceived as a whole, the verb is
usually singular, and when it is considered as a number of members, the verb is plural:

1. The committee is sitting late. (seen as a whole)

2. The committee have decided to award extra grants. (seen as a number of members)

Subjects determine number, person and gender concord with the Subject Complement, and of
reflexive pronouns:

1. Jean and Bill are my friends.

2. She cut herself on a piece of broken glass.

3. Why don’t you give yourself a treat?

Can you construct sentences to illustrate these syntactic features of the subject? Very Good.

1.1.3 Realisations of the Subject

Nouns and noun phrases: Basically, the Subject function is realised by nouns and noun phrases.

1. Cocaine can damage the heart as well as the brain. (Noun)

2. The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine is not known. (Noun phrase)

Dummy it: This is a non-referential or semantically empty use of the pronoun “it”. It is used in
expressions of time, weather and distance. Consider the following examples:

1. It is nearly three o’clock.

2. It is raining.

3. It is six hundred kilometres from Madrid to Barcelona.

3
Unstressed there: This also functions as Subject in clauses. However, unlike normal subjects, it
cannot be replaced by a pronoun. In expressions containing the unstressed “there”, the verb
usually agrees with the noun following it, rather than the unstressed there. Because of this,
unstressed there can be regarded as a subject ‘place-holder’, rather than a full subject. Examples
are given below:

1. There was only one fine day last week, wasn’t there?
2. There were only two fine days last week, weren’t there?

Prepositional phrase (PP) and Adverbial phrase (AP): There are cases where prepositional and
adverbial phrases perform the Subject function. They usually specify meanings of time or place.

1. Will up in the front suit you? (PP of place)

2. Before midday would be convenient. (PP of time)
3. By plane costs more than by train. (PP of means)
4. Just here would be an ideal place for a picnic. (AP of place)

Finite clauses: The finite clauses include the that-clause, wh-interrogative clause or nominal
relative clauses. They are illustrated in the following examples, where they all realise the subject
element.

1. That he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (that-clause)

2. Why the library was closed for months was not explained. (wh-interrogative)
3. What he said shocked me. (nominal relative clause)

Non-finite clauses: Non-finite clauses that can function as Subject include the to-infinitive, which
can be introduced by a wh-word; -ing clauses; and the bare infinitive clause. The ‘bare’ infinitive
clause is marginally used:

1. To take such a risk was rather foolish. (to-inf. clause)

2. Where to leave the dog is the problem. (wh- + to-inf. clause)
3. Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (-ing clause)
4. Move the car was what we did. (bare infinitive clause)

Anticipatory it (extraposed subject): There are cases that actual subjects are too long, such that
they need to be pushed towards the end of the clause. In such cases, their position is taken by the
anticipatory “it”. In the examples below, the actual subjects are italicized, with the anticipatory
“it” underlined:

1. It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test.

2. It was impossible for everyone to escape.

1.2 The Predicator

The predicator is the verb or verb phrase. It is present in all major clause types, including the
imperative clause. It is the predicator that determine the remaining structure of the clause, by
virtue of being intransitive, transitive or copular. The predicator may constitute the whole of the
4
predicate, as in The plane landed, or part of it, as in The plane landed on the runway. The
predicator function is realised by both finite (e.g. waits) and non-finite (waiting) lexical and
primary verbs.
Semantically, the predicator may represent any of the following:
• doing: with verbs such as make, catch, go;
• experiencing: with mental verbs verbs of perception (e.g. see), cognition (know), affectivity
(like) and desideration (hope); and
• being: with verbs such as be, belong and seem.

In this session, we looked at the subject and predicate. We discussed the semantic and syntactic
features of the subject, as well as the linguistic structures that can realise the subject function. We also
discussed the semantic and syntactic features of the predicator.

Self–Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.1

Identify the subjects and predicates in each of the following sentences. What structures realise them?
1. I met the hunter.

2. The people decided to ask for help.

3. The pupils praised their teacher.

4. The net was sold to the best fishermen.

5. The drivers knew that it was wrong to drink.

SESSION 2: THE DIRECT OBJECT

Dear Student, you are welcome to the second session of unit 2. In the previous session, we looked
at the subject and predicator. Do you remember the semantic and syntactic features of the subject?
Mention them. In the present session, we will continue our discussion by focusing on the direct
object.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the direct object
(b) identify the realisations of the direct object

Now read on…

5
2.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Direct Object
Another important part of the clause is the Direct Object. It occurs only in transitive clauses with
transitive verbs such as hit, buy, send, kill and slap. It is placed immediately after the predicator or
verb phrase,
1. I have sent the invitations.
However, the direct object follows an indirect object, if there is one:
1. I have sent everyone an invitation.
In this example, “an invitation” is the direct object and it follows “everyone”, the indirect object.
It can generally be ‘promoted’ to become subject in a corresponding passive clause:
1. I have sent the invitations (Direct Object)
2. The invitations have been sent. (Subject in passive voice)
Semantically, a prototypical direct object occurs in a high-transitivity situation, that is, in a
process of ‘doing’ in which the referent’s state or location is affected in some way.
However, the Direct Object is associated with a wide variety of semantic roles, some of which are
illustrated in the following examples:
1. He headed the ball into the net. (Affected)
2. The burglars used an acetylene lamp to break open the safe. (Instrument)
3. I felt a sudden pain in my arm. (Phenomenon: i.e. that which is experienced)
4. He gave the door a push. (Range: i.e. the nominalised extension of the verb)
5. He swam the Channel. (Affected locative)

2.2 Realisations of the Direct Object

Pronouns, nouns, and noun phrase:
1. I don’t understand it. (Pronoun)
2. I bought oranges. (Noun)
3. Have you read that new novel I lent you? (Noun phrase)
Anticipatory it: The semantically empty pronoun “it” is necessary as an ‘anticipatory Direct
Object’ in structures where the direct object is realised by a finite or non-finite clause:
1. I find it strange that she refuses to come.
2. She might consider it insulting for you to leave now
3. You must find it flattering having so many fans.
Prepositional Phrase (PP): Prepositional phrases of time or place can marginally realise direct
object:
1. I would prefer before noon for a meeting. (PP of time)
2. Don’t choose by a swamp for a picnic. (PP of place)

6
Finite clause: The three types of finite clause found at subject can also function as a less
prototypical Direct Object: nominal that-clauses, wh- interrogative clause, and nominal relative
clause.
1. They fear that there may be no survivors. (nominal that-clause)
2. No-one knows where he lives. (wh-interrogative clause)
3. You can eat whatever you like. (nominal relative clause)
Non-finite clauses: Non-finite clauses, particularly, infinitive clauses with or without to, and -ing
clauses, can function as subject.
1. Many Londoners prefer to travel by train. (to-infinitive)
2. Many Londoners prefer travelling by train. (-ing nominal)
They occur with an explicit subject of their own; otherwise, the implicit subject is the same as that
of the main clause

(i) to-infinitive clause:

1. The villagers want to leave immediately. (implicit subject [they])
2. The villagers want the soldiers to leave immediately. (explicit subject the soldiers)

(ii) -ing clause:

1. Do you mind waiting a few minutes? (with implicit subject)
2. Do you mind me/my waiting a few minutes? (with explicit subject in objective or
possessive case)

In this session, we have discussed the direct object. You remember we identified some semantic
and syntactic features of the direct object. Can you mention them? Good. In the next session, we
will look at another type of object: the indirect object.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.2

Identify the direct object in each of the following sentences:

1. The lady demanded that we help them.

2. I wanted to know her name.
3. The boy slapped his girlfriend.
4. I enjoy eating fried rice.

SESSION 3: THE INDIRECT OBJECT

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your unit. I hope you enjoyed the second
session on the direct object. Form one sentence with a direct object. That is good. In this session,
we shall examine another type of object: the indirect object.

7
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the indirect object;
(b) construct some sentences with indirect objects; and
(c) state the realisations of indirect objects.

Now read on…

3.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Indirect Object

The indirect object occurs only with ditransitive verbs. Such verbs take two objects. They include
give, send, buy. The indirect object occurs between the verb and the direct object: I sent them a
fax. It is typically realised by a noun or noun phrase, but occasionally by a wh-nominal clause. As
a pronoun, it is in the objective case.
The indirect object is associated with two semantic roles, Recipient (the one who receives the
goods or information), and the Beneficiary or ‘intended recipient’. Both Recipient and Beneficary
Indirect Object have an optional prepositional paraphrase, which functions as a Prepositional
Object. For the Recipient, the preposition is “to”, and for the Beneficiary, it is “for”. The
prepositional form is often used to bring the Indirect Object into focus, particularly when it is
longer than the Direct Object:
1. The doctor gave oxygen to the injured man. (Recipient)
2. She lent a few CDs to her next-door neighbour. (Recipient)
3. He is teaching maths to the first-year students. (Recipient)
4. I’ll buy drinks for you all. (Beneficiary)
5. He got the tickets for us all. (Beneficiary)
6. She left a note for her husband. (Beneficiary)
The indirect object can generally be left unexpressed without affecting the grammaticality of the
clause:
1. The doctor gave oxygen.
2. He doesn’t like lending his CDs.
3. Sammy Karanja is teaching maths.
4. I’ll buy the drinks.
5. He got the tickets.
6. She left a note.
Can you construct similar sentences? Try it and compare your answers with your colleague’s.

3.2 Realisations of the Indirect Object

Both Recipient and Beneficiary Indirect Objects are typically realised by pronouns, nouns and
noun phrases, as well as prepositional phrases and -ing clauses.
1. The clerk handed him the envelope. (Pronoun)
2. Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (Noun phrase)
3. Let’s give before lunch-time priority. (Prepositional phrase) .

8
 1. I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing clause)

In this session, we studied the indirect object. We noted that it normally occurs with a verb that
requires two objects. We added that it normally occurs between the verb and the direct object. We
also identiofied some realisations of the indirect object. Can you mention them? Very good.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.2
Write five sentences that contain indirect objects

SESSION 4: THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT/COMPLEMENT

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your unit. I hope you enjoyed the previous
session. Which clausal elements have you studied so far? In this session, we will focus on the
prepositional object/complement.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the prepositional complement;
(b) explain the features of the prepositional complement; and
(c) identify the realisations of prepositional complements.

Now read on…

4.1 Semantic and syntactic features of the prepositional complement

A prepositional complement is an object mediated by a preposition. It is also called the oblique
object or prepositional object. Examples are given below:
1. Jo looked after my cat.
2. You can rely on Jane in an emergency.
3. The other kids all laughed at Amy when she got her face dirty.
Look at the examples above? What is common to them? Yes, the noun or noun phrase underlined
immediately follows a preposition (“after”, “in” and “at”, respectively). In these cases, without the
preposition, the clause or sentence would either be ungrammatical (*look my cat, *count Jane,
*laughed Amy).
Also, the preposition can’t be replaced by another preposition without changing the meaning.
Let’s replace change the preposition in the sentence “Jo looked after my cat”, with the
prepositions “for” and “at”:
1. Jo look for my cat.
2. Jo look at my cat.
9
What do you observe? Are the meanings the same? Good.

4.2 Types of verb + Preposition Combinations

Prepositional complements are realised with certain verbs that come with prepositions: Can you
mention some of them? Ideally, such verbs can be classified into three types:

Type A (look + after)

In this combination, both the preposition and the verb form one semantic unit. This means that the
combined verb and preposition has a meaning which is different from the meanings of the
individual words. For example, ‘look after’ has nothing to do with looking, nor with the usual
meaning of ‘after’in relation to space or time. Other verbs of this type are exemplified here:
1. I came across some old photos (find)
2. How did you come by that job (obtain)
3. Sandy has come into a fortune (inherit)
4. She takes after her mother (resemble)
5. We took to each other at once (like)
6. I’ve gone off yogurt (lose the liking for)

Type B (rely + on)

This type represents idiomatic structures whose meaning is sometimes, though not always,
transparent. Verbs in this group include “account for” (explain), “refer to”, “tamper with”
(interfere with). They are not used without their specific preposition:
1. How do you account for the lack of interest in the European elections?
2. Someone has been tampering with the scanner.
Can you construct more sentences with verbs in this category? Very good.

Type C (laugh + at)

In this category, the verb + preposition represents a special use, usually with a distinctive
meaning, of a verb which otherwise can function without the preposition. For example, the verb
“laugh” normally goes with the preposition “at” but it can be used without the preposition, as in
Everyone laughed. Other verbs include “look (at)”, “believe (in)”, “count (on)”, “hear (of)”, “wait
(for)”, “hope (for)”.

4.3 Realisations of the Prepositional Object

Nouns and noun phrases are the typical realisations of the prepositional complements, but nominal
clauses and non-finite -ing clauses also occur:
1. He almost ran over a rabbit on a country road last night. (Noun phrase)
2. I strongly object to what you are insinuating. (Nominal relative clause)
3. He believes in getting things done as quickly as possible. (-ing clause)

10
In this session, we studied the prepositional complement. We studied its features as well as how
verbs combine with preposition to allow for preposition complementation. We ended the
discussion with the realisations of the prepositional complement.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.4

(a) Construct five sentences containing prepositional complements.

SESSION 5: THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT COMPLEMENTS

Dear Student, you are welcome to session five of Unit 2. In this session, we will discuss the
subject complement and the object complement. We will focus on their semantic and syntactic
characteristics as well as their realisations.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the features of the subject complement.
(b) discuss the realisations of the subject complement.
(c) explain the syntactic and semantic features of the object complement; and
(c) illustrate the realisations of the object complement.
Now read on…

5.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Subject Complement

The Subject Complement is realised in a clause that has a copular verb. The most typical copular
verb is “be”.
1. She is a student.
2. It appears interesting.
3. She became a tennis champion at a very early age.
4. Feel free to ask questions!

The Subject Complement does not represent a new participant. It rather completes the meaning of
the clause by adding information about the subject. As well as “be” and “seem”, a wide range of
verbs can be used to link the subject to its Complement. These add meanings of transition
(“become”, “get”, “go”, “grow”, “turn”) and of perception (“sound”, “smell”, “look”). The
constituent following such verbs will be considered Subject Complement if the verb can be
replaced by “be” and can’t stand alone, without a change of meaning:

1. I know it sounds stupid, but . . . That looks nice.

(= is stupid) (= is nice)

There is, typically, number agreement between the subject and its Complement, and gender
agreement with a reflexive pronoun at complement, as in Janet isn’t herself today. There are,
however, several common exceptions to number agreement:
11
 1. Joan and Lionel make a good couple.
2. My neighbour’s cats are a nuisance/a joy.
3. Are these socks wool? No, they’re cotton.
4. The twins are the same height.

Complements of the type “a good couple” in “Joan and Lionel make a good couple” are explicable
on semantic grounds, couple being inherently plural in meaning. Semantic criteria may also be
invoked to explain the use of “a nuisance/a joy” in “My neighbour’s cats are a nuisance/a joy”,
since abstractions such as these are equally applicable to singular or plural subjects. A third type,
exemplified by expressions such as “wool”, “cotton”, “rather an odd colour”, “the same
height/length/shape”, etc., can all be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase with “of” (of wool, of
rather an odd colour, of the same height, etc.).

5.2 Realisations of the Subject Complement

Adjective as subject complement

1. He is good.
2. This is beautiful.

Adjective phrase as subject complement

1. That is very wonderful.
2. That is so important.

Noun phrase as Subject Complement

1. She is twenty-two years old.

2. Sam is a very lucky man.

Finite clause as subject complement

1. Ken’s belief is that things can’t get any worse.
2. He has become what he always wanted to be.

Non-Finite clause as subject complement

3. My advice is to withdraw.
4. The best plan is for you to go by train.
5. What I don’t enjoy is standing in queues.
6. What most people prefer is others doing/for others to do the work.
7. The only thing I did was tell him to go away.

Can you identify the specific types of finite and non-finite clauses in the examples above? Good.

5.3 Syntactic and semantic features of the Object Complement

The Object Complement is used to complete the meaning of a clause when verbs such as “find”,
“make” and “appoint” are used. They help us to identify some features or characteristics of the
Direct Object. The Object Complement is normally placed immediately after the direct object. Let
us consider the examples below:
12
 1. You are making me angry.

2. You aren’t going to like me angry.

As the examples above show, in each case, the object complement “angry” encodes some
characteristics of “me”, which is the direct object.

Typically, the object complement must agree with the object in terms of number, as in
“Circumstances have made the brothers enemies”, where “the brothers”, which is the direct
object, agrees with “enemies”. However, there are exceptions to this, especially in expressions of
size, shape, colour, height, etc., as in “You haven’t made the sleeves the same length”. Here, “the
same length”, which is the object complement, does not agree with “the sleeves”, which is the
direct object.

The Object Complement can characterise the direct object by a qualitative attribute or by a
substantive attribute expressing the name or status of the object referent.

1. Police found the suspects unwilling to cooperate. (qualitative)

2. They have elected Ken captain of the golf club. (substantive)

5.4 Realisations of the Object Complement

1. A sleeping pill will rapidly make you drowsy. (Adjective)

2. His friends consider him a genius. (Noun phrase)
3. Dye your hair whatever colour you like. (Nominal relative clause)
4. The authorities had the demonstrators placed under house arrest.

Object complements realised by noun phrases are sometimes introduced by the prepositions “as”
or “for”. Some verbs require this; with others such as “consider”, it is optional:

1. Party members regard him as the best candidate.

2. Do you take me for a complete idiot?

The focus of this session has been on the subject complement and object complement. In all, we
discussed their semantic and syntactic characteristics as well as their realisations. Can you state and
exemplify the realisations of the subject and object complements?

Self–Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.5
(a) Mention any two semantic features of subject complements.
(b) Identify any three linguistic realisations of subject complements.
(c) Describe the object complement.
(d) Mention any three structures that can function as object complement.

13
SESSION 6: THE ADJUNCT

Dear Student, you are welcome to the last session of this unit. I hope you have been enjoying the
sessions within the unit. Which of the sessions do you consider most enjoyable? Are you sure?
It is difficult for me to identify one. Now, let us examine the adjunct.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) describe other structures with nominal functions;
(b) construct some structures that should have nominal functions; and
(c) identify such structures in sentences.
Now read on…

6.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features

Unlike the other clausal elements, it is common to find a number of adjuncts in a single clause.
The following illustration has five circumstantial adjuncts, which in this clause are all optional:
they can be omitted without affecting the grammaticality of the clause. The bracketed items are
adjuncts: “If at all possible I’ll see you tomorrow after the show with Pete and Susan outside the
main entrance”.
Also, many adjuncts are characterised by their flexibility as regards position. This means that
adjuncts are mobile in the clause structure—their position can be changed without rendering the
clause ungrammatical. Let us consider the following sentences:
1. Hastily, she hid the letter.
2. She hastily hid the letter.
3. She hid the letter hastily.
Semantically, adjuncts represent circumstances, specifications and comments of many different
types which are attendant on the verb or the whole clause. A further characteristic of adjuncts is
the tendency of different types of meanings to be expressed by different adjuncts in a single
clause: “Surprisingly (stance), she almost (degree) forgot to set the alarm clock last night (time)”.

6.2 Main Types of Adjuncts

There are three main types of adjuncts: circumstantial adjuncts, stance adjuncts and connective
adjuncts.

6.2.1 Circumstantial Adjuncts

Adjuncts that fall within this category provide information about the action or state described by
the verb. They answer questions such as where? when? how? and why? Let’s consider the
following examples:
1. Tom bought a new car last month. (when)
2. They met in the market. (where)
3. He did it so well. (how).

14
Circumstantial adjuncts are realised by a wide variety of units:
1. She called me yesterday. (Adverb)
2. She called me too late. (Adverb phrase)
3. She called me from the office. (Prepositional phrase)
4. She called me this morning. (noun phrase)
5. She called me while I was out. (Finite adverbial clause)
6. She called to tell me the news. (to-infinitive clause)
7. She called me, using her mobile. (-ing clause)
8. She called me, scared out of her wits. (-ed participial clause)
9. Afraid to leave the house, she called me. (verbless clause)

6.2.2 Stance Adjuncts

Stance adjunct encode the speaker’s attitude, feeling, opinion, or evaluation of a message.
Syntactically, they are not integral to the clause—as they are often separated from the man clause
using comma(s). They are usually found at the beginning or end of the clause. They can also be
placed between commas, within a clause or sentence:
1. Naturally, he spoke to me when he saw me.
2. He spoke to me when he saw me, naturally.
3. He naturally spoke to me when he saw me.
4. He spoke to me, naturally, when he saw me.
Stance adjuncts basically express epistemic, evidential and evaluative meanings. An epistemic
adjunct reveals the speaker’s opinion regarding the validity of the the information presented by the
clause. It comments on the certainty, doubt, possibility and obviousness of the proposition:
1. Undoubtedly, he is the finest pianist alive today.
2. Obviously, he’ll rely on you even more now.
Contrary to stance adjuncts, evidential adjuncts indicate the source of knowledge or information,
be it the speaker’s own experience or belief (“In my view”, “In my experience”) or the beliefs or
accounts of others (“According to . . .” “In the words of . . .” ) and finally hearsay (“supposedly”,
“apparently”):
1. According to the weather forecast, there’s a hurricane on the way.
2. In my view, science is an easy subject.
Evaluative adjuncts express the subjective or objective attitude of the speaker towards the
information presented in the clause and sometimes also towards the addressee:
1. Surely you can make up your own mind!
2. Broadly speaking, the Health Service is satisfactory. (objective)
3. Unfortunately, our team didn’t win. (subjective)
Stance adjuncts can be realised by adverbs, prepositional phrases, finite and non-finite clauses:
Adverbs: surely, obviously, frankly, honestly, confidentially, hopefully, probably
Prepositional phrases: in fact, in reality, at a rough guess, by any chance, of course
Non-finite clauses: to be honest, to tell the truth, strictly speaking
15
Finite clauses: if I may be frank with you . . .; don’t take this personally, but . . .

6.2.3 Connective Adjuncts

This type of adjuncts helps us to express how we understand the semantic connection between two
utterances, or parts of an utterance. This implies that they occur at some boundary established at a
significant point in the organisation of the text. Consider the example below:
1. The hotel was rather noisy. On the other hand, it wasn’t expensive (contrast).
In the example above, “On the other hand” serves to connect the information presented in the
second sentence to what is in the first sentence. The relationship established is that of contrast.
Aside from contrast, several other semantic relationships can be established by these adjuncts,
some of which are given below:
additive: besides, in the same way, what’s more, moreover, as well, also
contrast: instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, rather, yet
causal: for, because, so, therefore, then, in that case, consequently, thus
temporal: first, then, next, after that, finally, at once
Connective Adjuncts can be realised with a wide range of units. These are summarized below:
Adverbs: nevertheless, moreover, first, therefore, accordingly, consequently, alternatively
Prepositional phrases: in other words, by the way, on top of that
Adjective phrases: last of all, better still
Adverb phrases: more accurately
Finite clauses: that is to say, what is more
Non-finite clauses: to sum up, to cap it all

In this session, we studied the adjunct. We identified types of adjuncts and their realisations.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.6

1. Identify the types of adjuncts

2. Construct three sentences each to show the realisations of each type of adjunct.

Assignment Question
a. Identify the clausal elements in English.
b. Construct sentences to illustrate their realisations.

16
UNIT 2: THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES

Unit Outline
Session 1: The Clause Defined According to the Rank Scale
Session 2: Clause Types: Finite, Non-Finite and Verbless Clauses
Session 3: The Finite Clause
Session 4: The Non-Finite Clause (I) The Infinitives
Session 5: The Non-Finite Clause (II) The Participles
Session 6: The Verbless Clauses

Dear Student, welcome to Unit 2. In this unit, we will be learning about the clause in the English
Language. We will be looking at what a clause is and its structure. The focus will be on the nature
of the verb phrase in the clause.
As part of our studies, we will be doing some exercises and we will be looking at a lot of
examples.

Unit Objectives
By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
1. define the clause according to its position in the rank scale;
2. identify the types of clauses – finite, non-finite and verbless;
3. describe each type of clause appropriately; and
4. construct finite, non-finite and verbless clauses.

SESSION 1: DEFINING THE CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to another important element in grammar – the clause. In this
session, we shall pay attention to the clause. We shall try to define it according to our idea about
the rank scale in English.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
(a) define a clause;
(b) differentiate between a clause and a sentence; and
(c) identify the elements in a clause.
Now read on…

The clause is located on the rank scale. The rank scale is the hierarchical arrangement of units in
grammar either from the highest to the lowest or from the lowest to the highest. Can you illustrate
this? Look at this.

The Sentence

The Clause

The Phrase/group

17
 The Word

The Morpheme

Fig. 1 The rank scale

You will see from the above illustration that the clause is the second highest unit in grammar. As
a principle, a higher unit contains at least a unit below it. What this means, for example, is that the
clause is contained in the sentence. Let us look at the examples below:

The policeman stopped us as we were about to enter the room.

The example above is a sentence which consists of two clauses: “The policeman stopped us” and
“as we were about to enter the room”.

Can you identify the clauses in the following sentences?

i. The students are playing.

ii. The driver arrived after we had eaten.
iii. Willie sang before the party began.

State your answer in your jotter for face-to-face.

Another implication of the position of the clause in the rank scale is that it contains the elements
below it. Which elements are below the clause in the rank scale? They are
the phrase/group
the word
the morpheme

Now let us consider some clauses.

i. Because the boy came
ii. he was selected.

In clause i, we can identify the noun phrase “the boy” and the verb phrase “came”.

In clause ii, we can identify the noun phrase “he” and the verb phrase “was selected”.

Which phrases can we identify in the following?

i. The man/left
ii. The people/have paid
iii. The leader/worked
iv. He/slept

You will observe from the above structures that the clause is made up of phrases, words and
morphemes. The phrases are the noun phrase and the verb phrase. Can you construct structures
that we can refer to as clauses? Construct four. Can you identify the phrases in your clauses?
18
In this session, we tried to define the clause according to the rank scale. We observed that the
clause is the next highest unit in the rank scale. It is contained in the sentence, which is the
highest. The clause itself contains elements that are below it on the rank scale. These elements
are the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Thus, every clause is expected to have a phrase or
more. Since there are different types of clauses, we shall examine each one in subsequent
sessions to know more about them.

Self–Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.1
Identify the phrases and words in the following clauses.

1. They wrote the paper before the supervisor came.

2. The bird flew away.

3. The construct or worked hard.

4. Our teacher taught us well so we passed.

5. Since he was tired, he rested.

SESSION 2: CLAUSE TYPES: FINITE, NON-FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES

Dear Student, you are welcome to Session 2 of the third unit of this module. In the last session,
we looked at the definition of the clause as a grammatical unit. In doing so, we considered the
position of the clause in the hierarchy of grammatical units or what is referred to as the rank scale.
In this session, we shall study three ways of analyzing the clause using the structure.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(a) mention three structural types of clauses;
(b) form sentences to illustrate each structural type of clauses; and
\(c) identify the types of clauses studied, in sentences.
Now read on…

2.1 Structural Types of Clauses

Considering the structure of clauses, we arrive at three main types:
i. Finite clause
ii. Non-Finite clause
iii. Verbless clause

Have you heard these names before? What do you know about them? Let us look at each one of
them.

19
2.1.1 The Finite Clause
A finite clause is one whose verb element is a finite verb. Do you remember what we said about

finite verbs? Examples of finite clauses are:

i. We won the match.

ii. Although our opponents lost, they were more jubilant than we were.
iii. When the teacher came in, the students stood up.
iv. Since Mary left for London, we have not heard from her.

You will observe from the above sentences that the verb elements (or verb phrase)
won
lost
came
left
are finite.

Form four similar sentences for face-to-face discussion.

2.1.2 The Non-Finite Clause

The non-finite clause is one whose verb element does not mark for tense. Let us see some
examples of the non-finite clause. They are in bold.
i. Having passed his first examination, the student …………………
ii. For Esi to present the parcels on that day, she …………………...
iii. Working in the garden, the man discovered a pot of gold.
iv. Hidden under the tree, the pot was ………………………………

Look at the nature of the verbs used in the structures above. They are non-finite. Form four
similar sentences.

2.1.3 The Verbless Clause

The third structural type of the clause is the verbless clause. Such a clause, as the name implies,
has no verb. However, its verb is recoverable from the context. The following are examples of the
verbless clause:
i. Now a father of two, Felix…………………………………
ii. Whether drunk or sober, the headmaster ………………………….
iii. Excited about the news, Afua…………………………

Can you identify any verbs in the structures above? Form four sentences each, with verbless
clauses for face-to-face discussion. All clauses (finite, non-finite or verbless) may contain
subordinate clauses which may also be finite, non-finite or verbless. We shall look at this later in
our studies.

In this session, we identified three main types of clauses; finite, non-finite and verbless. These
three types of clauses are identified on the basis of their structure rather than function. In the next
session, we shall examine each of these clauses in detail.

20
Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.2

Identify the type of clauses underlined in the following sentences (i.e., finite, non-finite, or
verbless):
1. Always tired, John decided to see a doctor.
2. You may choose to go out.
3. Having paid the piper, he called for more music.
4. For him to pass his exam, he decided to study.
5. The company has made a lot of profit.

SESSION 3: THE FINITE CLAUSE

Dear Student, welcome to the third session of the unit. In the previous session, we identified three
structural types of the clause. Do you remember them? They are the finite, non-finite and
verbless clauses. In this session, we shall study the finite clause more closely.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
(a) identify the main features of a finite clause;
(b) construct some sentences that contain the finite clause; and
(c) identify the finite clause in sentences.
Now read on…

3.1 Features of the Finite Clause

The finite clause always contains a subject and a predicate. Study the following and note the
difference between a subject and a predicate.

3.1.1 The Subject

i. When Mary visited the zoo, she was amazed at what she saw.
ii. He is a manager.
iii. They work hard.
iv. He passed the test.
v. Abena worked diligently so she succeeded.

Can you identify the subject of the above sentences? They are underlined. The subject is a
necessary part of a finite clause. However, if the clause is an imperative as in,

Pay attention.
Stop.
Come here.
Sit there.
Catch him.
Look into your books.
Open your bag.

the subject can be omitted.

21
In these clauses, the subject is not present. Do you know why? The subject is implied. In other
words, a listener is supposed to carry out the command being issued. Thus, the clauses will be:
i. You, pay attention.
ii. You, stop.
iii. You, come here.
iv. You, sit there.
v. You, catch him.
vi. You, look into your books.
vii. You, open your bag.

3.1.2 The Verb Phrase

Another necessary feature of the finite clause is that the verb should mark tense. That is, the verb
should indicate present or past time during which the action in the verb was performed. Look at
these:
i. John came late. [past]
ii. He buys fish from Elmina.[present]
iii. Susan lived in Tamale. [past]
iv. They worked hard last year. [past]
v. The director has arrived. [present]

3.1.3 Subject and Verb Agreement

Yet another important feature about the finite clause is that the finite verb should agree with the
subject of the clause. For example:
i. He does not smoke.
ii. Wiafe studies hard.
iii. They go out everyday.
iv. Because William is the manager, he …

In the clauses above, the verbs does, studies, go and is agree with their respective subjects.
Would you say the following clauses are finite?
i. He found the book.
ii. They were frightened.
iii. The judge was angry.
iv. They are training these dogs to sniff out drugs.
v. She danced all day.
vi. To see in the dark, one must use a light.

You have done well. Only iv and vi are not finite. We shall see where they belong.

In this session, we looked at the characteristics of a finite clause. We said the finite clause has
subject. It has a verb which marks tense (that is, present or past). Also, there is agreement
between the subject and the verb.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.3
(a) Identify the finite clauses in the following sentences:
1. Joe met the man.
22
 2. They left in the morning.

3. It is advisable to carry a lamp.

4. They made her queen.

5. Saka became a lawyer.

6. It is better to hear from you early.

7. The golden goose was found.

8. He gulped his beer.

9. He sold the goods at moderate prices.

10. Coming down from the top floor, he ………………….

(b) Construct five finite clauses.

SESSION 4: THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE (I) THE INFINITIVE

Dear Students, you are welcome to the fourth session of Unit 3. In the previous session, we
considered the features of the finite clause. Do you remember these features? Mention them. In
this session, we shall study the non-finite clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) state two features of the non-finite clause;
(b) identify the infinitives in the construction of the non-finite clause; and
(c) construct some non-finite clauses using the infinitives.
Now read on…

4.1 Description of the Non-finite Clause

In contrast to the finite clause which we studied in session 3, the non-finite clause can be
constructed without a subject. For example,
i. Having done all that could be done, John ……………………………...
ii. Realizing his mistake, the captain decided ………………………………………
iii. Knowing who he had offended, he ………………………………..

4.2 Classes of the Non-finite Clause

The non-finite clause divide broadly into two: infinitivals and participials. Each type also divides
into two. In general, there are four classes of the non-finite clause. These are:
i. The infinitive with to
ii. The infinitive without to infinitivals
iii. The -ing participle
iv. The -ed/en participle participials

23
We shall concern ourselves with the first two, the infinitive with ‘to’ and the infinitive without
‘to’. The verb phrase in the infinitive clause is one that is non-finite. The to-infinitives involve the
use of to + infinitive, as in:
to go
to jump
to eat
to write
to sleep
to dance
to walk
to speak

The bare infinitives involve only the verb without to, as in:
go
travel
jump
see
eat
work
write
walk

The Infinitive with ‘to’

The infinitive with to can be constructed without a subject, as in:
i. The first thing would be to stop them from accessing their accounts.
ii. To cut down losses, she ………………………………………
iii. To become a rich farmer in Ghana, one must ……………………………
iv. To get the job, Mary ………………………………………….

It can be constructed with a subject, as in:

i. The first thing would be for management to stop them from accessing their
accounts
ii. For the trader to cut down losses, she ………………………
iii. For one to become a rich farmer in Ghana, one………………………….
iv. For Mary to get the job, she …………………………………

Note how “for” is used in introducing the subject. Now construct four similar clauses.

The Infinitive Without to or the Bare Infinitive

They can be constructed with or without subject.

Without Subject
i. All the policeman did was arrest the criminal.
ii. What she did was console the man.
iii. Bury all our differences is what is required.
iv. Travel throughout the night is the only way out.

With Subject
i. Rather than Mawuli do it, I’d prefer …………………………
24
 ii. Rather than Esi go, the friend ………………………………..
iii. It is better you say nothing

In this session, we introduced the non-finite clause. We observed that the non-finite clause,
unlike the finite clause, can be constructed with or without the subject. We studied the infinitive
with to and the infinitive without to. In the next session, we shall consider the remaining two
classes of the non-finite clause.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.4

Identify the infinitive clauses in the following sentences.

1. It would be safe to camp here.

2. It is an offence to drop litter here.

3. It would be a crime to cut down any more trees.

4. For Dede to compromise, we have to persuade her.

5. To lean out of the window, one would have to be cautious.

6. Cry was all she could do.

7. What the little girl could do was shout the name of her kidnapper.

SESSION 5: THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE (II) - THE PARTICIPLES

Dear Student, you are welcome to Session 5 of the unit. I hope you enjoyed the previous session
and did the exercise well. That is good. You remember in the previous session we mentioned
four classes of the non-finite clause. Which are they? We examined the first two classes – the
infinitives. In this session, we shall discuss the last two – the participles.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) identify the features of the -ing participle clause;
(b) identify the features of the -ed/en participle clause;
(c) construct some -ing participle clauses; and
(d) construct some -ed/en participle clauses.
Now read on…

25
5.1 Features of the -ing Participle Non-finite Clause
The -ing participle non-finite clause contains an -ing participle as its verb phrase. Examples of
the -ing participle are
going
leaving
walking

In addition, they can be constructed with or without a subject.

With Subject
i. The landlord increasing his rent is disturbing.
ii. Him being a Jesuit was a great surprise.
iii. I admire his always defending his friends.
iv. She admires farmers working hard.
v. Daniel pestering you surprises me.
vi. Their reporting her to the boss means nothing.
vii. Her husband behaving this childishly can ruin her chances.

Note how pronouns are used as subject in the -ing non-finite clause. What do you observe? Good.
You realize that the pronoun is either in the objective case (as in “Him” in example ii above) or
the genitive/possessive case (as in “his” and “Their” in example iii and vi respectively above).

Without Subject
i. Talking in class cannot be seen to be entirely unnecessary.
ii. He prefers enjoying his Lipton without sugar or milk.
iii. Looking for examples for this course has been very revealing.
iv. They were busy collecting planning a demonstration.

5.2 Features of the -ed/en Participle Non-finite Clause

The –ed/en participle clause has an –ed/en verb as its verb phrase. Such –ed/en verbs include
danced
broken
jumped
dreamt/dreamed
stolen
walked
sung
defeated

Like the –ing participle clause, the –ed/en participle clause can be constructed with or without
subject.

With Subject
i. John worried over the events, found out why he failed.
ii. Grisler broken in spirit, returned with nothing.
iii. The teacher surprised at her students’ performance, organized a party for them.
iv. The workers disturbed by their low income, held a meeting.

26
Without Subject
i. Worried over the events, he ………….
ii. Defeated by their underdog opponents, the team lost their appearance fee.
iii. Surprised at her students’ performance, the teacher ………..
iv. Disturbed by their low income, the workers …………
v. Boiled with beans, rice ………….
vi Given enough time, the boy ………….

When the subject of an adverbial participial clause is expressed, it is normally introduced by with,
as in the following examples:
i. With the driver realizing his fault, he ……………………..
ii. With the examination coming closer, the students ………..
iii. With the tree growing tall, we ……………
iv. With the flowers now grown, we ………..

5.3 Some Structural Deficiencies of the Non-finite Clauses

Since the non-finite clauses are constructed without a finite verb, it means that they have no
distinction of person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons) number (singular or plural) or modal auxiliary. The
use of the non-finite verb together with the frequent absence of a subject suggests that the non-
finite clauses are compressed. However, such a compression may be a source of ambiguity. For
example,
We met Kofi leaving the room.
The above utterance may be elaborated as
We met Kofi when he was leaving the room.
Or
We met Kofi when we were leaving the room.

To avoid the ambiguity, an indefinite subject, i.e. somebody or something, may be inferred
otherwise. The I of the speaker is to be relied on. For example:

i. To be an administrator is to have the worst job in the world.

This can be
For a person to be an administrator……..
For Somebody to be an administrator ……

ii. The job is not good, to be honest

This can be
……… If I am to be honest

In this session, we examined the features of the –ing and –ed/en participial clauses. We observed
that they have the –ing verb and –ed/en verb as their respective verb phrases. Also, they could be
constructed with or without subject. Finally, we noted that the -ing and -ed participial clauses can
cause ambiguity. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary to introduce a subject in them.

27
Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.5

Underline the participial clauses in the following sentences:

1. Sitting is the bus he paid the conductor.

2. He became tired of waiting for his meal.

3. Disturbed by the events of the day, the driver render………………..

4. The police officer left worried over the wrong arrest made.

SESSION 6: THE INFINITIVE NON-FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSES

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your unit. I hope you enjoyed the previous
sessions especially the exercises. Which nominal clauses have you studied so far? In this session,
we shall be looking at the to-infinitive and bare infinitive clauses.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the To infinitive non-finite clause in terms of its structure;
(b) construct the To infinitive non-finite clause; and
(c) state the functions of the To infinitive non-finite clause.
Now read on…
5.1 To-infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clause

5.1.1 Features of the To-infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clause

The To - infinitive nominal clause is a non-finite one. What does this imply? You remember that
in unit 1, we studied the features of the non-finite clause. Their verb phrases are do not locate the
action of the verb in either the past or the present tense.
a. The To - infinitive nominal clause begins with a To + infinitive as for example:
i. Father Amuzu loved to finish his mornings with prayer walks
ii. I was fascinated by her inability to see herself in her own future plans.
iii. He didn’t seem to be interested in the proposal.

b. The To - infinitive nominal clause can be constructed with or without a subject. The subject
of the to-infinitive clause, when a pronoun, is almost always in the objective case.
i. It was difficult for him to part with such an amount.
ii. The plan was for us to meet at the mall.
iii. He wanted for us to partner him on a project.
iv. Is it difficult for you to ask her out?

c. When the to-infinitive clause is a direct object, the particle ‘for’ is often omitted.
i. I wanted [for] us to start some eatery business.
ii. If you want [for] me to stay, I will never leave.
iii. He wants [for] me to stay.

28
 d. The to-infinitive nominal clause does not function as complement a preposition.

Complete the following sentences with To – infinitive non-finite clauses.

1. They were to …………………………………………………..
2. The student was to …………………………………………….
3. To ………………. is a big task.
4. To ………………. is a joy in life.
5. His decision was to ……………………………………………

You have done well.

5.1.2 Functions of the To-infinitive Non-finite Clause

The To-infinitive non-finite nominal clause can function as subject, direct object, subject
complement, appositive and adjectival complement. Let us take the functions one after the other.

a. As Subject
i. To turn back now will be a big mistake.
ii. To delay a quiz is to make it the more difficult.
iii. To be a great football player is more than just the ability to play well.
iv. To trust and not be trusted is can be very upsetting.

b. As Direct Object
i. He has refused to accept our apology.
ii. I want to finish the project by next week.
iii. The Union intends to continue the strike.
iv. Every responsible husband loves to eat from her wife’s kitchen.

c. As Subject Complement
i. Their resolve was to go to war.
ii. My responsibilities has been to organize entertainment for the school.
iii. He seems to be interested in something else.
iv. Kwadwo’s wish is to become a lawyer one day.

d. As Appositive
i. His decision, to pay his bills, surprised us all.
ii. His ambition, to become a lawyer, has nothing to do with his family’s background.
iii. The idea, to meet on Thursday, is a good one.
iv. Her ambition, to become a renowned comedian, has always upset her Dad.

e. As Adjectival Complement
i. We are glad to have you back.
ii. They are anxious to do the course.
iii. She is eager to settle down.
iv. John is happy to visit the centre.
v. I feel honoured to be given this opportunity.

5.2 The Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause

5.2.1 Features of the Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause
The bare infinitive nominal clause is one whose verb consist of the tenseless lexical verb. The
lexical verb in this clayse is not preceded by any auxiliary verb. It is called bare infinitive because
it uses the infinitive form of the verb without to. For example:
29
 see
do
come
go

Let us look at some bare infinitive nominal clauses.

i. He makes me laugh sometimes.
ii. Obey every single instruction was my New Year resolution.
iii. Cry over a guy is the last thing I will do.
iv. Won’t you help me plan a surprise for Emerline this weekend?
.

5.2.2 Functions of the Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause

The bare infinitive nominal clause can occur as subject and as subject complement. Look at

these:

a. As Subject
i. Massage him every night became the norm.
ii. Prepare for my face-to-face was what I did all night last night.
iii. Grab a bottle of water is what I have to do now.
iv. Remain silent seem to have worked for me.

b. As Object Complement
i. Upon entry, an elegant young lady bid us sit down on the verandah.
ii. The old man made us apologize for no apparent reason.
iii. They made us waste our energy.
iv. This woman made my uncle cry over her for years.
iv. The school authorities made the SRC pay for the damages.

c. As Subject Complement
i. What the windows key does is display the start menu.
ii. All I need you to do now is tell the truth for once.
iii. Our mission is ensure equity, not equality.

In this session we studied the to-infinitive nominal clause. We noted that it is introduced by a to-
infinitive. We also identified the functions of the to-infinitive nominal clause. These are: subject,
direct object, subject complement, appositive and complement to preposition.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 4.4

(a) Identify the To-infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clauses in the following sentences.

(b) State their function

1. To err is human.
30
 2. For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.

3. Her wish is to be a pilot.

4. His ambition, to be a lawyer, was never fulfilled.

5. They are glad to work here.

6. To tell lies is a bad habit.

7. For the teachers to meet on Thursday is a good idea.

8. To work hard was his aim.

(c) State the structure and functions of the bare infinitive nominal clause

SESSION 7: THE PARTICIPIAL AND VERBLESS NOMINAL CLAUSES

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of unit 2. I hope you remember what we studied
in the previous session. Good. In this session, we shall examine the Participial Non-finite Nominal
Clause and the Verbless Nominal Clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the features of the participial non-finite nominal clause;
(b) construct some participial non-finite clauses; and
(c) state the functions of the participial non-finite clause.
Now read on…

6.1 The Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause

6.1.1. Features of the Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause

The participial nominal clause is another non-finite clause. What does this mean to you? It can
be constructed with or without a subject. The verb phrase is non-finite;it does not mark for tense
(whether past or present). Remember, we identified some participles in the construction of the
participial clause. Which are they? They are
i. ing participle
ii. ed/en participle.

a. The participial non-finite nominal clause has a verb which ends in the –ing participle
form. In subjectless -ing nominal clauses, the -ing verb introduces the clause. Let us look
at some examples.
i. In that particular year, going out without a mask was considered a crime.
ii. Everybody was busy fighting off what had become a common enemy-a virus.
iii. Watching movies, eating and sleeping was all we could do.

31
 b. The –ing participle non-finite clause can be constructed with a subject, which can be in
either the objective case or the genitive/possessive case.

i. I don’t like his making people look bad always.

ii. I don’t like Lydia’s making people look bad always.
iii. I don’t like him making people look bad always.
iv. I don’t like Lydia making people look bad always.

Can you identify the subjects in the ing clause? Yes, in i and ii, they are “his” and “Lydia’s”
respectively. The case of these subject is what we refer to as genitive. They show possession. In
iii and iv, the subjects are “him” and “Lydia” respectively, and the case is objective.

Note that the in formal contexts, the genitive case is preferred. That is why according to Quirk
(1973), it is commonly claimed that the genitive form is the only “correct” form, but in fact, it
frequently has a stilted effect.

6.1.2 Functions of the Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause

The participial non-finite nominal clause occurs as subject, direct object, subject complement,
appositive, prepositional complement and adjectival complement. Let’s look at these one after the
other:

a. As Subject
i. Driving in heavy traffic every day is a new thing to him.
ii. Trying to be who you are not can be very expensive.
iii. Criticizing people unnecessarily destroys society.
iv. Paying your tax enables government to provide social amenities.

b. As Direct Object
i. No one enjoys seeing you in tears all the time.
ii. Our laws prohibit building without permit.
iii. It was just one mistake that made getting a first class impossible.
iv. I don’t like his always degrading others in their absence.

c. As Subject Complement
i. The funniest part was him trying to hide the lipstick marks..
ii. What he hates is telling lies.
iii. Danielle’s dream has been wanting to marry a black from Ghana.
iv. Kofi’s greatest pleasure is listening to classical music.

d. As Appositive
i. His life time ambition, putting remote places on the national grid, gave him
fulfilment.
ii. During the lockdown, even my favourite pastime, reading science fiction, became
unexciting.
iii. Their value, showing kindness to people, makes them successful.
iv. I got the most pleasant job, preparing the girls for shows.

e. As Prepositional Complement
i. I am responsible for organizing hall week celebrations on various campuses in Ghana.
ii. Some people are fond of promising what they cannot provide.
32
 iii. My Grandmother taught me to keep my anger from showing on my face.
iv. Hers was the enviable role of preparing master’s bed every night.
v. This is the only army capable of shooting their own down.

f. As Adjectival Complement
i. They praise themeselves to have made it easier calling family and friends.
ii. Milovan is confident winning the African cup upon his second coming as coach of the
Black Stars.
iii. Ama is happy celebrating her twenty-second birthday with the kids.
iv. They are busy milking the state.

6.2 The Verbless Clause

6.2.1 Features of the Verbless Clause

Verbless clauses are clauses which contain no verb elements, - and often also no subject. They are
regarded as clauses because they function in ways which make them equivalent to finite and non-
finite clauses, and because they can be analysed in terms of one or more clause elements. As we
saw in unit 1 session 6, the verbless clause is one that has no overt verb. For example:

i. Wall-to-wall carpets in every room is expensive.

ii. Theresa started singing from her hymn book, quite upset at the news.
We observe that even though the verbless clause appears to be a phrase, it has some semantic and

structural characteristics of the prototypical clause.

a. Verbless clauses have no overt verbs, but in most cases the missing verb can be interpreted
as a form of be. In sentence ii above, we can rephrase the verbless clause “quite upset at
the news” as being quite upset at the news. The verbless clause in sentence i can also be
rephrased as Having wall-to-wall carpets in every room.

b. In some instances, the verbless clause may also lack an overt subject, but the missing
subject is co-referential with the subject (or object) of the main clause. Can you tell who is
“quite upset at the news” in sentence ii? Yes, it is Theresa. We are able to tell it is Theresa
because Theresa is the subject of the main clause.

6.2.2 Functions of the Verbless Clause

The verbless clause can function as subject. For example

a. As Subject
i. Wall to wall carpets in every room is expensive.
ii. Fast cars in cities is a problem.
iii. A friend in need is a friend indeed.

b. As Complement to some prepositions such as although, as though, once, with, without.

i. Although no longer a minister, she continued to exercise power.
ii. Once away from home, she learned to fend for herself.
iii. He spoke in breathy voice, as though resentful of the fact that she is a second
girlfriend.
iv. They stood against the wall with their hands above their heads.
v. I saw them walking down the street without any cloths on.
33
We have studied the participial non-finite nominal clause and the verbless nominal clause. We looked
at their features and functions. We also looked at their functions. These functions include subject,
direct object, subject complement, appositive, prepositional complement and adjectival complement.

Self–Assessment Questions

Exercise 4.5
(a) Underline the –ing participial nominal clauses in the following sentences:

1. It is foolish disobeying authorities.

2. Seeing is believing.

3. Paying bills is uninteresting.

4. He considered it good giving things to the poor.

5. She is interested in celebrating Christmas.

6. Understanding such a lesson is easy.

(b) Identify the functions of the –ing clauses.

(c) Discuss the features and functions of the verbless clause.

34