2

Bonding: Atomic Structure and

Bonding in Solids

Learning Objectives
After going through this chapter the reader will be able to:
• Describe atomic electrons in single atom, defining atomic weight, isotopes and
atomic mass units (amu).
• Describe the Pauli’s principle and electronic configuration.
(a) Explaining the periodic table and Bohr’s atomic model.
(b) Note on electrons in molecules and solids.
• (a) Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen, and van der Waals bonds.
(b) Note which materials exhibit each of these bonding types.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A portion of the essential properties of strong materials relies on geometrical nuclear
gameplans, furthermore the associations that exist among constituent atoms. This part,
by method for arrangement for resulting exchanges, considers a few basic and critical
ideas—to be specific, nuclear atomic structure, electron designs and configurations in
atoms and the periodic table, and the different sorts of essential and optional between
nuclear bonds that hold together the particles involving a strong bond. These subjects
are looked into quickly, under the supposition that a portion of the material is natural
to the reader. It is all around acknowledged that atoms impact materials properties, yet
which subatomic segments of atoms (e.g., electrons, cores comprising protons, neutrons)
impact which properties is not all that self-evident. Before tending to this inquiry it is
fundamental to survey a few basic ideas presented in essential chemistry courses.
Elements are recognized by their atomic numbers and atomic weights. Inside every atom
is a nucleus containing various positively charged protons that are equivalent to the

Materials Science and Engineering

 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 25

Before appreciating the role of electrons in solids it is necessary to understand their

behaviour in single isolated atoms. The simplest model of an atom assumes it to be a
miniature solar system at whose centre is a positively charged nucleus (the sun)
surrounded by a cloud of orbiting negatively charged atomic electrons (the planets).
Charge is distributed so that the atom is electrically neutral. We now know these atomic
electrons display a complex dynamical behaviour (the larger the Z, the more complex
the behaviour) governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. The underlying philosophy
and mathematical description of quantum theory are also involved. Nevertheless, the
resulting concepts and laws that derive from them can be summarized in terms of a
few relatively simple equations and rules that are discussed in turn.

2.2.2 Pauli’s Principle

In all actuality, multi-electron atoms and hydrogen are more confusing than the
straightforward Bohr model (Figure 2.1). Electrons circling nearer the core shields external
electrons from drawing the atomic charge. This convolutes their movement adequately
that diverse electrons are not at a similar vitality level; moreover, electron energies are
not effectively figured. When all is said in done, more propelled speculations demonstrate
that the electron flow inside all atoms is described by four quantum numbers n, I, m, and
s. These emerge from answers for the observed Schrödinger condition, a foundation of
the advanced quantum depiction of atoms. In particular, the three-dimensional movement
of electrons is encapsulated in the quantum numbers n, I, and m.
The foremost quantum number is still n and it can expect just whole number qualities
1, 2, 3,…. Electrons are presently composed into shells. At the point when w = 1 we talk
about the K electron shell, while for the L and M shells, n = 2 and w = 3, separately. As
will be apparent after presentation of the other quantum numbers, there are 2 electrons
in the K shell, 8 in the L shell, 18 in the M shell, etc. The precise energy emerging from
the rotational movement of circling electrons is likewise quantized or compelled to
expect particular qualities which are in the proportion of entire numbers. Acknowledgment
of this reality is taken by allotting to the orbital quantum number estimations of 0, 1,
2, …. The state of electron orbitals is basically controlled by the quantum number. At
the point when l = 0 we talk about s electron states. These electrons have no net precise
energy, and as they move every which way with equivalent likelihood, the charge
dispersion is circularly symmetrical about the core. For n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , we have
comparing p, d, f, ... states.
The third quantum number, m, indicates the introduction of the precise momenturn
along a particular heading in space. Known as the magnetic quantum number, m goes
up against the whole number values amongst + l and – l, that is – l, - l + 1, …, + l – 1, + l.
In conclusion there is the spin quantum number, s, in acknowledgement of the way
that electrons turn as they all the while circle the core. Since there are just two
introductions of turn precise energy, up or down, m accept – 1/2 and + 1/2 values.
26 Materials Science and Engineering

n= Vacuum
level

n=5

n=4 0.85 eV

n=3 1.5 eV
Paschen

n=2 3.4 eV
Balmer
Energy

n=1 13.6 eV
Lyman (Ground state)

Figure 2.1 Electron energy levels in hydrogen atom.

Pauli’s principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum
numbers.
Let us apply Pauli’s principle to an atom of sodium. As Z = 11 we have to specify
a tetrad of quantum numbers (n, l, m, s) for each of the 11 electrons:
1s states [K shell) (1, 0, 0, 1/2) and (1, 0, 0, – 1/2);
2s states (L shell) (2, 0, 0, 1/2) and (2, 0, 0, – 1/2);
2p states (L shell) (2, 1, 0, + 1/2), (2, 1, 0, – 1/2), (2, 1, 1, + 1/2), (2, 1, 1, – 1/2),
(2, 1, –  1, +  1/2), and (2, 1, – 1, – 1/2);
3s state (M shell) (3, 0, 0, + 1/2).
2 2 6 1
Another way to identify the electron distribution in sodium is 1s 2s 2p 3s and
similarly for other elements. In shorthand notation the integers and letters are the
principal and orbital quantum numbers, respectively, and the superscript number tells
how many electrons have the same n and l values.
28 Materials Science and Engineering

2.2.3 The Periodic Table

Every component has been characterized by arrangement in the occasional table (Figure
2.2). Here, the components are arranged, with expanding nuclear number, in seven flat
lines called periods. The gameplan is with the end goal that all components exhibited
in a given section or gathering have comparative valence electron structures, and
additionally concoction and physical properties. These properties change progressively,
moving evenly over every period and vertically down every segment. The components
situated in Group 0, the farthest right gathering, are the dormant gases, which have
filled electron shells and stable electron setups. Group VIIA and VIA components are
one and two electrons lacking, separately, from having stable structures. The Group
VIIA components (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are now and again named the incandescent light.
The salt and the antacid earth metals (Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca, and so on.) are named as
Groups IA and IIA, having, separately, one and two electrons in abundance of stable
structures. The components in the three long stretches, Groups IIIB through IIB, are
named the move metals, which have somewhat filled d electron states and sometimes
maybe a couple electrons in the following higher vitality shell. Bunches IIIA, IVA, and
VA (B, Si, Ge, As, and so.) in plain view qualities that are middle between the metals
and non-metals by temperance of their valence electron structures.

Metal

IA Key 0
29 Atomic number 2
1 Nonmetal
H Cu Symbol He
1.0080 IIA 63.64 IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.0026
Atomic weight
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
LI Be Intermediate B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.0122 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg VIII AI Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.064 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Nl Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.08 44.956 47.87 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.69 63.54 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.4 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.30
55 56 Rare 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba earth Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bl Po At Rn
132.91 137.34 series 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.2 190.23 192.2 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.19 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 Acti 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra nide Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds
(223) (226) series (261) (262) (266) (264) (277) (268) (281)

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Rare earth series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.35 151.96 157.25 158.92 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.07
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(227) 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

Figure 2.2 The periodic table of the elements.

 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 29

As might be noted from the occasional table, a large portion of the components truly
go under the metal order. These are some of the time named electropositive components,
demonstrating that they are equipped for surrendering their few valence electrons to
end up decidedly charged particles. Moreover, the components arranged on the right-
hand side of the table are electronegative; that is, they promptly acknowledge electrons
to shape contrarily charged particles, or now and then they impart electrons to different
atoms. Figure 2.3 showcases electro-pessimism values that have been appointed to the
different components orchestrated in the periodic table. When in doubt, electro-pessimism
increments in moving from left to right and from base to beat. Particles will probably
acknowledge electrons if their external shells are full, and in the event that they are less
“protected” from (i.e., nearer to) the core.
IA 0
1 2
H He
2.1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA -
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg VIII Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Tl V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bl Po At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.2-1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2
87 88 89-102
Fr Ra Ac-No
0.7 0.9 1.1-1.7

Figure 2.3 The electronegativity values for the elements.

Example 2.1 X, Y and Z are in the same period. Using the given information below, find
relation between their metallic properties.
(i) Atomic number of Y is 12
(ii) Formula of compound produced by X and Y is YX2
–2 –
(iii) Z and X have equal number of electrons
Solution:
2 2 6 2
(i) 12Y has electron configuration: 1s 2s 2p 3s
Y is in 3 period and (ii) A group. Thus, it has + 2 value in compounds.
(ii) X in YX2 compound is in (vii) A group and have – 1 value in compound. Atomic
number of X is 17.
(iii) Since their number of electrons are equal, Z is in 3 period and (vi) A group.
Relation between metallic properties of elements;
Y>Z>X
Metallic property decreases when we go from left to right in the same period.
 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 31

(i) Oxidation number of X is 1

(ii) Compound formed by Y and 7N is; Y3 N2
+ +2
(iii) X and Y are isoelectronic with same noble gas
Solution:
(i) Since increase in the first IE1 to the second IE2 is higher than others, oxidation
number of X is 1. (i) is true.
(ii) Since increase in the second IE2 to the third IE3 is higher than others, oxidation
number of Y is 2. In compounds Y takes + 2 value. N has electron configuration;
2 2 3
N: 1s 2s 2p N accepts 3 electrons and has value – 3 in compounds. So, N and Y
form the following compound; Y3 N2. (ii) is true.
(iii) X loses 1 electron and Y 2 loses 2 electrons to have a noble gas electron
configuration. But, we cannot definitely say that they are isoelectronic.

Example 2.5 Which one of the following elements has the lowest first ionization energy?
2 2
(i) 1s 2s
2 2 2
(ii) 1s 2s 2p
2 2 4
(iii) 1s 2s 2p
2 2 5
(iv) 1s 2s 2p
2 2 6 2
(v) 1s 2s 2p 3s
Solution:
2 2
(i) 1s 2s is in 2. period and (ii) A group
2 2 2
(ii) 1s 2s 2p is in 2. period and (iv) A group
2 2 4
(iii) 1s 2s 2p is in 2. period and (vi) A group
2 2 5
(iv) 1s 2s 2p is in 2. period and (vii) A group
2 2 6 2
(v) 1s 2s 2p 3s is in 3. period and (ii) A group
In the periodic table, ionization energy decreases from top to bottom and right to left.
Thus, element given in (v) has the lowest first ionization energy.

Example 2.6 First ionization energies vs atomic mass graph of X, Y, Z, T and R is given
below.
If Z is in 3rd period, which one of the following statements is false?
(i) Atomic number of X is 16
(ii) Y is in p block
(iii) Z and T are in same period
(iv) Electron configuration of R shows spherical symmetry property
32 Materials Science and Engineering

1st IE
Z

R
X

T
Atomic Number

Solution: Since change in the first ionization energy of Z and T are too high, Z is a noble
gas and T is in (i) A group. Thus, Z is a noble gas in the 3rd period and it has the following
electron configuration:
2 2 6 2 6
Z: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

Atomic number of Z is 18

(i) Atomic number of X = Atomic number of Z – 2

Atomic number of X is 16. (i) is true.

(ii) Y has atomic number 17 and has the following electron configuration;
2 2 6 2 5

Y: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

As you can see Y is in p block. (ii) is true.

(iii) Z is in the third period but T is in the fourth period. (iii) is false.

(iv) Electron configuration of R is given below:

2 2 6 2 6 2

Z: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s

Since all orbitals are filled, R shows spherical symmetry property. (iv) is true.

Example 2.7 Which one of the following statements is false for elements given in the
periodic table?
(i) Electron affinity of Y is larger than others
(ii) X and T share electrons and form compound.
(iii) Z has the largest atomic radius
(iv) Ionic property of ZY compound is larger than others
34 Materials Science and Engineering

(iii) Since X is in (ii) A group it is metal and Y is in (vii) A group and it is nonmetal.
Property of compound is ionic. (iii) is true.

Example 2.9 Which ones of the following statements are always true related to periodic
table?
(i) s and d block elements are all metal
(ii) p block elements are nonmetal and noble gases
(iii) There are nonmetals before noble gases.
(iv) There are halogens before noble gases
Solution: H is in (i) A group but it is not metal. (i) is false.
p block elements are metals, nonmetals and noble gases. (ii) is false.
When we examine periodic table we see that there are always nonmetals before noble
gases. (iii) is true.
H comes before He and it is not halogen. Thus, (iv) is false.
+2 6
Example 2.10 Electron configuration of X last with 2p . Which one of the following ele-
ments have similar chemical properties with X element?
(i) 8Y
(ii) 20Z

(iii) 4T
+2
Solution: Electron configuration of X ion:
+2 2 2 6
X : 1s 2s 2p (X gives 2 electrons)
2 2 6 2
X: 1s 2s 2p 3s (X is in (ii) A group)

Elements in same groups show similar chemical properties. Now we find group
numbers of given elements:
2 2 4
8Y: 1s 2s 2p (Y is in (vi) A group)
2 2 6 2 6 2
20Z: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s (Z is in (ii) A group)
2 2
4T: 1s 2s (T is in (ii) A group)

Z and T are in same group with X, thus they have similar chemical properties.
 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 35

2.3 ATOMIC ELASTICITY (BOHR’S MODEL)

In the last part of the 19th century it was understood that numerous wonders including
electrons in solids couldn’t be clarified as far as traditional mechanics was concerned.
What took after was the foundation of an arrangement of standards and laws that
represent frameworks of nuclear and subatomic elements that came to be known as
quantum mechanics. A comprehension of the conduct of electrons in molecules and
crystalline solids fundamentally includes the exchange of quantum-mechanical ideas.
Nonetheless, a definite investigation of these standards is past the extent of this book,
hence, a basic and improved treatment is given. One early outgrowth of quantum
mechanics was the disentangled Bohr atomic model, in which electrons are accepted to
rotate around the nuclear core in discrete orbits, and the position of a specific electron
is pretty much all around characterized as far as its orbital. This model of the particle
is shown in Figure 2.4. Another essential quantum-mechanical guideline stipulates that
the energies of electrons are quantized; that is, electrons are allowed to have just particular
estimations of vitality. An electron may change vitality, however in doing so it must
make a quantum hop either to a permitted higher vitality (with retention of vitality) or
to a lower vitality (with outflow of vitality). Frequently, it is helpful to think about these
permitted electron energies as being connected with vitality levels or states. These states
don’t shift constantly with vitality; that is, nearby states are isolated by limited energies.
For instance, permitted states for the Bohr hydrogen particle are shown in Figure 2.5a.
These energies are taken to be negative, though the zero reference is the unbound or
free electron. Obviously, the single electron connected with the hydrogen iota will fill
one and only of these states. Along these lines, the Bohr demonstrate speaks to an early
endeavour to depict electrons in atoms, regarding both position (electron circles) and
vitality (quantized vitality levels).
Orbital electron

Nucleus

Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of the Bohr atom.

 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 37

charge circulation in the hydrogen atom, the electron thickness in the holding orbital is
substantial near F and little close Li+. The turn around is valid for the counter holding
orbital.
Li (1s 2s )
2 1

F (1s 2s 2p )
2 2 5

0.314 nm 0.142 nm

(a)

F
+
Li

0.156 nm 0.266 nm

(b)

Figure 2.6 LiF molecule formation. (a) Electronic structure and size
of the isolated lithium and fluorine atoms. (b) Electron transfer from Li to F
+ –
creating an ionic bond between Li and F ions.

It ought to be noted that amid electron exchange between these particles as they
move close, there is a shocking increment in vitality of 5.4 eV – 3.6 eV = 1.8 eV! Why
do they then respond to form molecules? The answer is that the particles are not as near
to each other as they could be. Account must be taken of the electrostatic drive of
fascination between the particles, which tumbles off with the separation (r) between
them as r”. The potential vitality of communication (U) connected with the drive between
these point charges is given by
38 Materials Science and Engineering

- q2
U=
4 pe o r
– 12
where, eo = constant (k-permittivity of vacuum) that has a value of 8.85 × 10 C/V-m.
As r shrinks, the above equation reveals that a point is reached where U = – 1.8 eV, and
the energy is recovered; bringing the ions closer together lowers the energy further,
leading to the net energy reduction required for bonding. But, if the Li and F ions are
squeezed together even more tightly, the energy rises. This time the negatively charged,
core electron clouds begin to repel each other.

2.4.2 Electrons Transfer in Metals

Core Electrons: Electrons in metals experience a fate different from that of electrons
in ionic materials. Neutral metal atoms have electron complements. As the individual
metal atoms approach each other they do not transfer electrons, one to the other alkali
halide style because this is not profitable energetically. Rather, both the core and the
outer electrons begin to interact because of electrostatic effects. At any distance of
approach the 1s electrons of a given atom will interact less with the core 1s electrons of
surrounding atoms than will the corresponding pairs of 2s electrons. The reason, of
course, is that the outer 1s electrons will be closer to each other. And similarly, 2p and
3s electrons will interact even more strongly than 2s electrons. Their charge clouds extend
further from the nucleus, allowing greater overlap with the electron clouds of the
neighbouring atoms. As the inter-atomic separation distance is reduced, the strength of
the electronic interactions intensifies in proportion to the extent of overlap.
Conducting Electrons: The outermost valence electrons of metal atoms undergo similar,
but even more extensive splitting than the core electrons. Because the properties of these
electrons are so critical to the bonding, chemical, and electrical properties of metals as
well as semiconductors, they are variably known as valence or conduction electrons.
They have been the subject of much theoretical and experimental study and a simplified
description of their properties is presented here.

2.4.3 Electrons in Covalent Materials

Nonmetals: Electrons in many important engineering materials like diamond, Si, GaAs,
polymers, and SiC participate in covalent bonding effects. But substances like H2, which
was treated above, F2, and CH4, together with hundreds of thousands of organic
molecules, also exhibit covalent bonding. This type of bonding relies on neighbourly
sharing of electrons. Bond energies and lengths have been determined for a greater
number of covalently bonded atomic pairs and are listed in Table 2.2.
40 Materials Science and Engineering

2.5 BONDING IN SOLIDS

A comprehension of a large number of the physical properties of materials is predicated
on information of the nuclear powers that quandary the particles together. Maybe the
standards of nuclear holding are best represented by considering the connection between
two confined particles as they are brought into closeness from an interminable division.
Everywhere the connections are insignificant, however as the molecules approach, each
repels the other. These powers are of two sorts, alluring and appalling, and the greatness
of each is an element of the detachment or interatomic separation.
The orbit of an alluring power FA relies on the specific kind of holding that exists
between the two molecules. The size of the alluring power shifts with the separation,
as shown schematically in Figure 2.7a. At last, the external electron shells of the two
atoms start to cover, and a solid shocking power FR becomes possibly the most important
factor. The net compel FN between the two molecules is only the total of both alluring
and terrible parts; that is,
FN = FR + FA
Three unique sorts of primary or chemical bond are found in solids—ionic, covalent,
and metallic. For every sort, the holding essentially includes the valence electrons;
moreover, the nature of the bond relies on the electron structures of the constituent
molecules. By and large, each of these three sorts of holding emerges from the inclination
of the molecules to expect stable electron structures, similar to those of the inactive
gasses, by totally filling the furthest electron shell. Auxiliary or physical strengths and
energies are likewise found in numerous strong materials; they are weaker than the
essential ones, yet regardless impact the physical properties of a few materials. The
segments that take after clarify the few sorts of essential and auxiliary between nuclear
or atomic bonds.

2.5.1 Primary Interatomic Bonds

Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonding may be the least demanding to depict and picture. It is
constantly found in abundance that are made out of both metallic and non-metallic
elements. Elements that are arranged at the flat limits of the occasional table. Molecules
of a metallic element effortlessly surrender their valence electrons to the non-metallic
atoms. In the process every one of the molecules procures steady or inactive gas setups
and, furthermore, an electrical charge; that is, they get particles. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
is an exemplary ionic material. A sodium molecule can accept the electron structure of
neon (and a net single positive charge) by an exchange of its one valence 3s electron to
a chlorine particle. After such an exchange, the chlorine particle has a net negative charge
and an electron setup indistinguishable to that of argon. In sodium chloride, all the
 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 41

+
Attractive force FA

Attraction
Force F

0
Interatomic separation r
Repulsive force F R
Repulsion

r0

Net force F N

(a)

+
Repulsive energy ER
Repulsion
Potential energy E

Interatomic separation r
0

Net energy EN
Attraction

E0

Attractive energy EA

(b)

Figure 2.7 (a) The dependence of repulsive, attractive, and net forces on
interatomic separation for two isolated atoms. (b) The dependence of repulsive,
attractive, and net potential energies on inter-atomic separation for two isolated atoms.

sodium and chlorine exist as particles. This sort of holding is shown schematically in
Figure 2.8.
Hence, we can summarize that this bond exists between two atoms when one of the
atoms is negative (has an additional electron) and another is positive (has lost an electron).
At that point there is a solid, coordinate Coulomb fascination. Essentially, ionic bonds
are non-directional in nature. An illustration is NaCl. In the particle, there are more
–
electrons around Cl, shaping Cl and less electrons around Na, framing Na+. Ionic bonds
are the most grounded bonds. In genuine solids, ionic holding typically exists alongside
covalent holding.
 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 43

Covalent Bonds: In covalent bonding, stable electron setups are expected by the sharing
of electrons between neighbouring atoms. Two atoms that are covalently fortified will
each contribute no less than one electron to the bond, and the mutual electrons might
be considered to have a place with both particles. Covalent holding is schematically
delineated in Figure 2.9 for an atom of methane (CH4). The carbon particle has four
valence electrons, though each of the four hydrogen molecules has a solitary valence
electron. Every hydrogen iota can obtain a helium electron arrangement (two 1s valence
electrons) when the carbon molecule offers with it one electron. Carbon now has four
extra shared electrons, one from every hydrogen, for an aggregate of eight valence
electrons, and the electron structure of neon. The covalent bond is directional; that is,
it is between particular particles and may exist just in the course between one iota and
another that takes part in the electron sharing.

H
H

Shared electron
Shared electron
from carbon
from hydrogen

H C H

Figure 2.9 Schematic representation of a covalent bond in

hydrogen molecule (sharing of electrons).
44 Materials Science and Engineering

Hence, we can summarize covalent bonding that in this type of bonding electrons
are shared between the atoms, to soak the valency. The most straightforward case is the
H2 particle, where the electrons invest more energy in the middle of the cores of two
iotas than outside, along these lines delivering holding. Covalent bonds are stereo-
particular, i.e., every bond is between a particular match of particles, which share a
couple of electrons (of inverse attractive twists). Regularly, covalent bonds are
exceptionally solid, and directional in nature. The hardness of precious stone is an after-
effect of the way that every carbon molecule is covalently reinforced with four
neighbouring particles, and every neighbour is fortified with an equivalent number of
atoms to shape an inflexible three-dimensional structure.
Numerous non-metallic essential particles (H2, Cl2, F2 and so forth.) and in addition
atoms containing different molecules, for example, CH4, HNO3, H2O and HF are
covalently fortified. Moreover, this kind of holding is found in basic solids, for example,
precious stone (carbon), silicon, and germanium and other strong mixes made out of
components that are situated on the right-hand side of the occasional table, for example,
gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb), and silicon carbide (SiC).

Example 2.11 Draw Lewis structures for the following molecules, including all for-
mal charges. Also indicate the geometry of each central atom in the molecule. Include
resonance structures where appropriate.
(a) BeI2
(b) HCl
(c) IF2
(d) ClF3
(e) NO3
Solution:

(a) Be linear

(b) H CI linear

F F linear
(c)
 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 45

(d) T-shaped
CI F

(e) N N N Trigonal
+ + + planar

Metallic Bonds: Metallic bonding, the last essential bonding sort, is found in metals
and their alloys. A moderately basic model has been recommended that practically
approximates the bonding plan. Metallic materials have one, two, or at most, three
valence electrons. With this model, these valence electrons are not bound to a specific
molecule in particular and are pretty much allowed to float all through the whole
metal. They might be considered having a place with the metal overall, or framing an
“ocean of electrons” or an “electron cloud.” The rest of the non-valence electrons and
nuclear cores shape called ions core, have a net positive charge rise to in size to the
aggregate valence electron charge per iota. Figure 2.10 is a schematic outline of metallic
holding. The free electrons shield the decidedly charged particle centres from commonly
horrible electrostatic strengths, which they would some way or another apply upon
each other; consequently, the metallic bond is non-directional in character. Likewise,
these free electrons go about as a “paste” to hold the particle cores together. Metallic
bonding is found in the occasional table for Group IA and IIA elements and, truth be
told, for every elemental metal. Some broad conduct of the different material sorts
(i.e., metals, earthenware production, polymers) might be clarified by holding sort.
For instance, metals are great channels of both power and warmth, as a result of their
free electrons. By the method for difference, ionically and covalently reinforced
materials are regularly electrical and warm separators, because of the nonappearance
of vast quantities of free electrons.
 Bonding: Atomic Structure and Bonding in Solids 47

+ +

Atomic or molecular dipoles

Figure 2.11 Schematic illustration of van der Waals

bonding between two dipoles.

quick and brief mutilations of this electrical symmetry for a portion of the iotas or atoms,
and the formation of little electric dipoles, as shown in Figure 2.12b. One of these dipoles
can thus deliver a relocation of the electron conveyance of an adjoining particle or atom,
which instigates the second one likewise to wind up a dipole that is then pitifully pulled
in or attached to the main; this is one sort of van der Waals bonding. These alluring
powers may exist between huge quantities of particles or atoms, which strengths are
impermanent and vacillate with time.
Atomic nucleus
Atomic nucleus

Electron cloud

Electron cloud

(a) (b)

Figure 2.12 Schematic representations of (a) an electrically

symmetric atom and (b) an induced atomic dipole.

Since the electrons might be on one side of the molecule or the other, a dipole is
framed: the + nucleus at the centre, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves,
the dipole vacillates. This vacillation in particle A produces a fluctuating electric field
that is felt by the electrons of a nearby iota, B. Molecule B then spellbinds so that its
external electrons are in favour of the atom nearest to the + side (or inverse to the – side)
of the dipole in A.
Polar Molecule-induced Dipole Bonds: Perpetual dipole minutes exist in a few atoms
by temperance of an unbalanced course of action of emphatically and contrarily charged
districts; such particles are named polar particles. Figure 2.13 is a schematic representation
of a hydrogen chloride atom; a changeless dipole minute emerges from net positive and
negative charges that are individually connected with the hydrogen and chlorine finishes
of the HCl molecule. Polar atoms can likewise instigate dipoles in contiguous nonpolar
particles, and a bond will shape as a consequence of alluring powers between the two
48 Materials Science and Engineering

atoms. Besides, the extent of this bond will be more noteworthy than for fluctuating
prompted dipoles.

H Cl

Figure 2.13 Schematic representation of a polar

hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule.

We can summarise this: It is another sort of optional bond which exists with
asymmetric particles, additionally called polar atoms on account of positive and negative
charged locales. A lasting dipole minute emerges from net positive and negative charges
that are separately connected with the hydrogen and chlorine finishes of the HCl
particle, prompting to holding. The size of this bond will be more noteworthy than for
fluctuating instigated dipoles. These two sorts of bonds are likewise called van der
Waals bonds. Third sort of auxiliary bond is the hydrogen bond. It is sorted independently
in light of the fact that it creates the most grounded strengths of fascination in this
class.
Permanent Dipole Bonds: Van der Waals forces will likewise exist between contiguous
polar particles. The related holding energies are essentially more noteworthy than for
bonds including initiated dipoles. The most grounded auxiliary holding sort, the
hydrogen bond, is an exceptional instance of polar particle holding. It happens between
atoms in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to fluorine (as in HF), oxygen (as in
H2O), and nitrogen (as in HNO3). For every H—F, H—O, or H—N bond, the single
hydrogen electron is imparted to the next particle. Along these lines, the hydrogen end
of the bond is basically an emphatically charged uncovered proton that is unscreened
by any electrons. This very decidedly charged end of the particle is fit for a solid
appealing power with the negative end of a neighbouring atom, as exhibited in Figure
2.14 for HF. Generally, this single proton structures a scaffold between two contrarily
charged iotas. The greatness of the hydrogen bond is by and large more noteworthy
than that of alternate sorts of optional bonds and might be as high as 51 kJ/mol (0.52 eV/
particle), as appeared in melting and bubbling temperatures for hydrogen fluoride and
water are strangely high in light of their low subatomic weights, as an outcome of
hydrogen bonding.
50 Materials Science and Engineering

Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding

Both van der Waals and hydrogen bonds are named auxiliary, being powerless in contrast
with the essential ones. They result from appealing strengths between electric dipoles,
of which there are two sorts—instigated and changeless. For the hydrogen bond, very
polar atoms frame when hydrogen covalently bonds to a non-metallic component, for
example, fluorine.

EXERCISE
1. (a) Differentiate between atomic mass and atomic weight.
(b) In one amu of a material contains how many grams?
5+ 3- 4+ 2–
2. Give the electron configurations for the following ions: P , P , Sn and Se .
3. To what group in the periodic table would an element with atomic number 112
belong?
4. (a) What electron sub-shell is being filled for the rare earth series of elements on
the periodic table?
(b) What electron sub-shell is being filled for the actinide series?
5. (a) Briefly cite the main differences between ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding.
(b) State the Pauli exclusion principle.
6. What type(s) of bonding would be expected for each of the following materials:
solid xenon, calcium fluoride, bronze, cadmium telluride, rubber, and tungsten?
7. Explain why hydrogen fluoride (HF) has a higher boiling temperature than
hydrogen chloride (HCl) even though HF has a lower molecular weight?
8. Provide a reasonable physical argument for each of the following statements.
(a) The higher the melting temperature of the solid, the greater the depth of
the potential energy well.
(b) Materials with deep energy wells are likely to have a more symmetrical
potential energy curve.
(c) Materials with high melting points tend to have low coefficients of thermal
expansion.
(d) Materials with high melting points tend to have large moduli of elasticity.
9. How many grams of Ni and Al are required to make 1 kg of the compound
Ni3Al?
10. What do all the elements in Group IIA of the periodic table have in common?
11. Which of the following elements is/are diatomic gases at ordinary temperature
and pressure: neon, sodium, oxygen, bromine, carbon?
12. Which of the following element is easiest to ionize (has the lowest first ionization
energy) sodium, potassium magnesium, calcium, fluorine.