Pragmatics: Study of the invisible meaning.

How context and external factors influence the

meaning of an utterance.

Co-text: set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence that helps in understanding
the meaning and intention.
Eg: She saw the spider and screamed" The context surrounding the word "Spider" (such as
saw and screamed) help us to understand that the spider's appearance caused fear and
surprise.

Deixis: words or phrases that cannot be fully understood without contextual information,
such as to identify the speaker (personal she, he, it) the location (spacial here, there) and
temporal (now tomorrow, yesterday).
Eg: "I will meet you there" there is a deictic expression that indicates a specific location
known to both, the speaker and the listener.

Reference: is an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or
reader) to identify something. It's related to cohesion and texture. Proper nouns (Chomsky,
Jennifer), other nouns (a writer, my friend) or pronouns (he, she, it) can be used to perform
an act of reference.

Inference: additional information used by the listener to create a connection between what
is said and what must be meant.
Eg: If someone says "I'm very hungry" you can infer that the person may have not eaten for
a long time.

Exaphora (out of the text): use of a word or phrase that refers to something outside the
linguistic context where the word is used.
Eg: Have you seen the latest movie? It's amazing! "The latest movie" refers to a specific
movie that is not explicitly mentioned in the text.

Endophora: use of words or phrases that may be located in the same part or in a previous
part of the text. Eg: The book was on the table. It had a red cover" It is referring to the book
previously mentioned.

Anaphora: use of a word or a phrase that refers back to another word used earlier. Eg
"Jennifer wants two slices. of pizza, she is very hungry." Jennifer is the antecedent and She
is the anaphora.

Cataphora: use of a word or a phrase appearing later in a sentence or a discourse.

Eg: Before she left, Mary said goodbye to her friends.

Presuppositions: is what a speaker (or writer) assumes as true or known by a listener (or
reader).
Eg: If someone asked: When did you stop smoking? It can be assumed that you used to
smoke and that you no longer do so.

Types of cohesion
Grammatical cohesion can be personal, Demonstrative: involved the use of words like
(this, that, those, these) Comparative: how writers use comparison (more than, less than,
as compared to)
Substitution: Nominal, verbal and clausal
Ellipsis: omission of part of a sentence If she works hard, I don't have to.
Conjunction: Additive, adversative,
Causal, temporal, sequential (listing, first, second)

Lexical cohesion:
Repetition: she walked and walked until she got to the end of the road.
Collocation: Words that tend to occur together (Black and white, salt and paper, Strong
coffee).

Discursive context: refers to the surrounding linguistic and situational factors that shape
the meaning of text of spoken communication. study or content.

According to Goodwin and Duranti the four contexts of dimensions are:

1. **Localization**: This dimension refers to the physical setting or location where

communication takes place. It includes aspects such as the physical environment, the spatial
arrangement of participants, and the cultural norms associated with the location.

2. **Nonverbal Behavior**: Nonverbal behavior encompasses gestures, facial expressions,

body language, and other nonverbal cues that accompany verbal communication.

3. **Language as Context**: The choice of words, linguistic structures, and discourse

patterns used by participants can shape the meaning and interpretation of messages within
a communicative interaction.

4. **Extra-Situational Context**: This dimension extends beyond the immediate physical

setting and includes societal norms, power dynamics, historical events, and cultural values
that impact interactions between individuals.

Anthropological context: study of context to understand social structures and cultural

practices.

Context as reference: to understand words, phrases or expressions.

Define Politeness
It is described as a social norm that involves strategic actions by an individual to address
their own needs and the needs of others, especially in threatening situations. These actions
can take both positive and negative forms.

Pragmatics of politeness: By studying the pragmatic aspects of politeness, researchers

aim to analyze how language users employ politeness strategies to navigate various social
situations, convey intentions effectively, and uphold positive social interactions.

Positive Politeness:
Complimenting someone’s work to boost their self-esteem.
Offering assistance or help to fulfill their needs.
Expressing gratitude or appreciation.

Negative Politeness:
Using indirect language to avoid imposing on someone.
Apologizing for any inconvenience caused.
Softening a request by saying, “Would you mind…?”

What is face? How many types are there?

Is the public image of participants in interaction and the public self image that every adult
portrays.
Positive Face: refers to an individual’s desire for social approval, inclusion, and positive
self-image. It involves the need to be liked, respected, and valued by others.
Examples:
Seeking compliments or validation.
Desiring social acceptance and belonging.
Valuing positive interactions and relationships.

Negative Face: relates to an individual’s desire for autonomy, independence, and freedom
from imposition. It involves the need to maintain one’s own space, choices, and privacy.
Examples:
Preferring indirect requests to avoid imposing on others.
Valuing personal boundaries and autonomy.
Feeling uncomfortable when obligations are forced upon them.

What is a FTA? Give examples.

Is an action or statement that poses a risk to a person's positive image or self-esteem in
social interaction. It could be criticizing them directly, asking for a difficult favor, or
challenging their beliefs. These acts can create tension or awkwardness, so it's important to
be mindful of how you communicate to maintain a positive interaction.

What are the politeness strategies used to fend off FTA? Provide examples.

Positive Politeness: This involves emphasizing common interests, being friendly, and
showing appreciation. For example, "I really appreciate your input on this matter."

Negative Politeness: This strategy involves being indirect, using softening language, or
showing deference. For instance, "I don't mean to offend you, but..."

Bald On-record: It means being straightforward, without trying to soften the impact of a
potential threat to the other person's feelings or self-esteem. For example, "You're wrong
about that."

Off-record: Indirectly addressing the issue without directly challenging the other person. For
instance, "Some people might think differently about this."

Opting out: Avoiding a direct response or choosing not to interact.

Why is it important to consider context when analyzing politeness?
Because context influences how communication is perceived and interpreted. For instance:
Context helps identify FTAs and the appropriate strategies to mitigate them. So we adapt our
approach based on the situation and our understanding of social dynamics.

To what extent are speech acts and politeness strategies related?

In communicative interactions, politeness strategies play a significant role in how speech
acts are perceived and interpreted. Politeness strategies, such as using polite forms,
expressions, and tone, can influence the effectiveness and appropriateness of speech acts

Speech act: is a linguistic theory that explores how words are used not just to convey
information but also to perform actions or accomplish certain goals through speech.

The purpose of speech act theory when it was first formulated was to analyze the ways
in which speakers use language to perform various acts beyond simply conveying
information, such as making promises, requests, or declarations.

The first formulation of Speech act established the condition for each type of act:
Declarative: Description, facts characteristics.
Performative: Promise, bet, offer, declare, threat.

Condition for performative acts:

Felicity conditions: conditions that must be met for a speech act to be considered
successful or appropriate within a given context. "this room is red"

Role of context: it helps determine the meaning and appropriateness of a speech act by
providing necessary background information and social cues.

Misfiring of speech act: A speech act can be misfired when it fails to achieve its intended
illocutionary force due to misunderstanding, lack of sincerity, or inappropriate context.

Components of speech acts principal classifications:

Locutionary act: Utterances with a certain meaning and grammatical structure.

Illocutionary act: is the intended act performed by speaking, such as making a request,
giving an order, or making a promise.

Perlocutionary act is the effect that a speech act has on the listener, such as persuading,
convincing, or influencing them in some way.

The principle of expressibility states that for a speech act to be successful, the speaker
must be able to express their intention clearly and appropriately within the given context.

Speaking according to Searle involves not only conveying information but also performing
a specific illocutionary act with well-defined intentions and effects.
Proposition content conditions refer to the conditions that must be met in order for the
propositional content of a speech act to be true or appropriate within a given context.

Preparatory conditions are the conditions that must be fulfilled before a speech act can be
performed, such as having the authority or ability to carry out the intended action.

Sincerity conditions are the conditions that must be met to guarantee honesty and
truthfulness in communication.

The essential condition is a requirement that must be met for a speech act to be
considered valid or successful within a specific context.

Indirect speech acts are messages where the speaker's intended meaning is different from
the literal meaning of the words used.

Discourse analysis and speech act theory are closely related because they both focus
on understanding language in use. Discourse analysis examines how language is used in
different contexts, while speech act theory explores how speakers perform actions through
their utterances.

According to Searle, indirect speech acts can be interpreted by recognizing the

speaker's intention behind their words. The listener must infer the speaker's intended
meaning based on context, shared knowledge, and social conventions.

For an utterance to be considered a question speech act according to Searle, it must

meet certain conditions. These conditions include the speaker intending to receive
information from the listener, the speaker believing the listener has the information, and the
speaker wanting the listener to provide the information in their response.

Types of speech acts (Searle's taxonomy):

Representatives (assertions)
It has been raining today
Directives (orders, request)
Wold you open the door?
Commissives (promises)
I'll bring the cake
Expressive (apologies)
I'm sorry for your loss
Declarative (christening)
I herby christen this baby

Speaking grid: is a framework to systematically analyze communication within specific

contexts.

S: Setting and scene: it refers to the physical or social location in which communication
takes place.
P: participants: the individuals involved in the interaction.
E: ends: goals or purpose of the communication.
A: Act of sequence: the way in which the conversation unfolds.
K: key: The tone, style or linguistic register used (formal or informal)
I: Instrumentality: the channel and means use for communication. (Face to face, over the
phone, in writing)
N: Norms: Cultural and social rules that guide the interaction (respecting turn-taking in a
conversation)
G: genre: Types of discourse of forms of expression used: interview, informal discussion
prayers, small talk, problem talk,