B2.

2 Organelles & Compartmentalisation

Theme: B Form & Function
How are the structures (form) of organelles adapted to perform their function? Which increases the
chances of cell survival, allowing these features to be passed down the evolutionary line.
Level of organisation: Cells

Guiding Questions:
How are organelles in cells adapted to their function?
What are the advantages of compartmentalisation in cells?

B2.2.1 Organelles as discrete subunits of cell that are adapted to perform specific function
• ______________ (organs of the cell) are
___________ ___________ within the
cell that are ____________ to perform
____________ _______________
• These includes ____________,
____________ and ______________ that
are present in all cells
• But _____________ _____ ________ –
extra cellular component,_____________
& _________________ (______________
element & medium)
• Eukaryotic cells include ____________
____________ organelles such as
__________, ______________ (all cells) & _________________(plants)

NOS: progress in science often follows development of new techniques

• Eg: Study of function of individual organelles became
possible when _________________ had been invented
and methods of using them for _____
_________________ has been developed
1. Cell samples are broken up, organelles are filter out
and undergo _____________________
2. ______________ at lower speed, ____________
___________ will settle at the ____________ (pellet)
3. Solution above (called ________________) are drained
off and then __________ at a ___________ speed
4. Process repeats with increasing speed
 The order of mass of organelles (from heaviest to
lightest) is usually:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. Ribosomes
 No membrane Single membrane Double membrane Not considered
organelles

B2.2.2 Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments
• Prokaryote = no nucleus, Eukaryote = evolve to have
nucleus
• The ____________ ____________ = __________
_________ that contains ____________
• Allows eukaryotes to _______________ __________
and ______________ (not possible in prokaryote,
transcription & translation can happen concurrently)
• Separating them allows _________ - _______________
______________ of ___________ before being
translated by ribosomes
• Including __________________ and
_______________ to ___________ _________ &
_______________ mRNA to ribosomes
• ________________ ______________ (non-
coding seq) that can produce ____________ of
_______________ from one gene
• Allow ________________ control of ________________ _________________ and ____________
of _______________ ___________________

• In prokaryotes, ribosomes can start ____________

which can _____________ ______________ even
while the rest of the mRNA is being ______________
from the DNA template
• This is because there is no nuclear membrane
separating it
• And possible because both translation and
transcription occur in the 5’ to 3’ direction
• _________________ = multiple ribosomes attached
to a single mRNA molecules
• Visible under the electron microscope
B2.2.3 Advantage of compartmentalisation in the cytoplasm of cells
1. ___________________ & _________________
__________________ contains biochemicals such as
___________________ _________________ or
_______________ than need to be contained. If not,
hydrolytic enzymes may breakdown cell contents
2. Compartmentalisation is also _______________ to
_________________ _____________ & ______________
inside _________________ to _____________
______________ of organelles
• Eg: _____________ ____________ are packaged into
________ and __________ to undergo _____________.
Enzymes needed for these are concentrated in their respective compartment.
3. There are also membrane bound organelles – mitochondria & chloroplast
• Enable organelles to ________________ ____________ _______________ that is _____________
from _________________
• ____________ & ________________ __________________ for their respective function are
____________ inside the organelle
4. Vesicles, mitochondria & chloroplast are membrane bound to allow _____________ of _____________
and ________________ of organelles
• Eg: mitochondria can be multiplied a lot in muscle cells, localised to the neck of the sperm cells
5. Double membrane provides ___________ _______________ __________ for electron transport chain
(AHL)
AHL: B2.2.4 Adaptation of the mitochondria for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration
• The mitochondria main function is to synthesize lots of ATP via aerobic respiration

AHL: B2.2.5 Adaptation of the chloroplast for photosynthesis

Chloroplast: convert light energy to chemical energy by producing ATP & reduced NADPH that is used to
produce organic compounds (glucose, etc)
AHL: B2.2.6 Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus
• The nucleus is surrounded by a ______________ ________________ that contain ____________
called the _______________ _______________
• The nuclear envelope encloses the _______________ that
contains ________________ (DNA + histone protein)
1. The nuclear envelope is double membrane because it is
______________ to the ___________ ___________ and is part
of the __________________________ system
• This enables the __________ to _______ _________ and
_____________ to the nuclear envelope and also allow
the __________ ________ in the _______________ to
enter the _______________
2. The double membrane also enables the _______________ of
____________ ____________ into _____________ during
__________ ______________ (mitosis & meiosis)
• allow the chromosomes to be sorted and separated. The
RER gather and reform the nuclear envelope during
telophase
3. _____________ __________ in the nuclear envelope helps to
control and ____________ the ___________of proteins,
_____________, _______________, ______________ _______ and
__________ in and out of the nucleus  controls gene expression

AHL: B2.2.7 Structure and function of free ribosomes and the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
• Eukaryotic ribosome (80s) is larger that prokaryotic ribosome (70s)
 • Ribosomes ______________ the ____________ of ___________ _________ between the
_____________ ________ during ____________
• Ribosomes are made up of
• A) _______________ – for stability
• B) ________________________ (rRNA) – for catalytic activity
• They have 2 subunits
• __________ _____________ (30s) binds to the
_____________
• _____________ __________ (50s) have 3
____________ ___________ __________
• E (exit) site, P (peptidyl) site, A (aminoacyl)
site on large subunit

Free Ribosomes
Free ribosomes synthesize _______________- for use
primarily within the cell
• In Eukaryotes, ribosomes are separated from DNA
by the nucleus
• ______________ happens in the __________ but
______________ happens in the _________(fluid in
cytoplasm) or the _______________________
• After transcription, mRNA is transported from the nucleus and this transport requires modification
of mRNA (eg: __________________ & addition of _______________ at 3’)
• Proteins destined for use in the ____________ are synthesized by _________ _________________
in the cytoplasm

AHL: B2.2.8 Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus

• Golgi apparatus – ___________, ____________, ___________ and _______________ proteins
• Composed of ___________ _______ called ___________
• ______________ from rough ER and _____________s from smooth ER arrives at the Golgi body and
are _____________ to form functional molecules (eg: glycosylation – add sugar, phosphorylation –
add phosphate)
• Molecules such as _____________, ________
_____________ ____________, lysosome proteins,
_______________ ______________, glycolipids passes
through the Golgi apparatus and are _______________
into __________
• vesicles destined for __________________ (release
outside the cell) will ___________ with the
________________ and ______________ the
___________ _______________ of cell

AHL: B2.2.9 Structure and function of vesicles in cells

• Vesicles are membrane-wrapped containers that helps to _______________ large molecules
_________ ____________ _______________ by ____________ membranes
• Vesicles are form with the help of __________ ____________ called _____________________
• Clathrin is recruited to the membrane (by adaptin) and forms a _____________ _______________
that helps to ___________ the ____________ into a ______________
• Another protein will then ___________ of the
__________ and the ___________ is ___________
______________ the ______________
_____________
• Once this is done, the ___________ will ___________
• Not all vesicles are form with the help of clathrin coat
protein
• It is commonly used for ______________ -
_______________ ___________________
• When _________ ____________ (or __________) bind to
the ____________ ______ the _______ ____________, it
will then ____________ ___________ to form the
_______
• The target molecule and the receptors are then taken in
• This mechanism helps to _________ _____ only
_________ molecules needed, allowing ______________
____________ over materials brought into the cell
• Eg: iron uptake or LDL (low density lipoprotein) uptake by
cell
• Clathrin is also involved in the __________ Golgi network
(outgoing section) from which ________________ are
_______________ to be ______________,
______________ __________ __________ or the
________________
B2.2 Organelles & Compartmentalisation
Theme: B Form & Function
How are the structures (form) of organelles adapted to perform their function? Which increases the
chances of cell survival, allowing these features to be passed down the evolutionary line.
Level of organisation: Cells

Guiding Questions:
How are organelles in cells adapted to their function?
What are the advantages of compartmentalisation in cells?

B2.2.1 Organelles as discrete subunits of cell that are adapted to perform specific function
• Organelles (organs of the cell) are
discrete subunits within the cell that are
adapted to perform specific function
• These includes vesicles, ribosomes and
plasma membrane that are present in all
cells
• But excludes cell wall – extra cellular
component, cytoskeleton & cytoplasm
(structural element & medium)
• Eukaryotic cells include membrane
bound organelles such as nucleus,
mitochondria (all cells) & chloroplast
(plants)

NOS: progress in science often follows development of new techniques

• Eg: Study of function of individual organelles became
possible when ultracentrifuges had been invented and
methods of using them for cell fractionation has been
developed
5. Cell samples are broken up, organelles are filter out
and undergo ultracentrifugation
6. Spin at lower speed, heavier particles will settle at the
bottom (pellet)
7. Solution above (called supernatant) are drained off and
then spin at a higher speed
8. Process repeats with increasing speed
 The order of mass of organelles (from heaviest to
lightest) is usually:
1. Nuclei
2. Chloroplasts
3. Mitochondria
4. Lysosomes
5. Endoplasmic reticulum
6. Ribosomes
B2.2.2 Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments
• Prokaryote = no nucleus, Eukaryote = evolve to have
nucleus
• The nuclear envelope = double membrane that contains
pores
• Allows eukaryotes to separate transcription and
translation (not possible in prokaryote, transcription &
translation can happen concurrently)
• Separating them allows post-transcriptional
modification of mRNA before being translated by
ribosomes
• Including 5’- capping and polyadenylation to
stabilise mRNA
• Splicing introns (non-coding seq) that can
produce variety of proteins from one gene
• Allow tighter control of gene expression and efficiency
of protein synthesis

B2.2.3 Advantage of compartmentalisation in the cytoplasm of cells

6. Lysosome & phagocytic vacuoles contains biochemicals such as
hydrolytic enzymes or pathogens than need to be contained. If not, hydrolytic enzymes may
breakdown cell contents
7. Compartmentalisation is also important to concentrate
enzymes & metabolites inside organelles to optimise
function of organelles
8. Eg: Translated proteins are packaged into ER and Golgi to
undergo modification. Enzymes needed for these are
concentrated in their respective compartment.
9. There are also membrane bound organelles –
mitochondria & chloroplast
• Enable organelles to maintain internal chemistry
that is different from cytoplasm
• Enzymes & biomolecules required for their respective function are contained inside the
organelle

10. Vesicles, mitochondria & chloroplast are membrane bound to allow adaptation of numbers and
localisation of organelles
• Eg: mitochondria can be multiplied a lot in muscle cells, localised to the neck of the sperm cells
11. 5. Double membrane provides high surface area for electron transport chain (AHL)
AHL: B2.2.4 Adaptation of the mitochondria for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration
• The mitochondria main function is to synthesize lots of ATP via aerobic respiration

AHL: B2.2.5 Adaptation of the chloroplast for photosynthesis

Chloroplast: convert light energy to chemical energy by producing ATP & reduced NADPH that is used to
produce organic compounds (glucose, etc)
AHL: B2.2.6 Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus
• The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane that contain pores called the nuclear envelope
• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleoplasm that contains
chromatin (DNA + histone protein)
4. The nuclear envelope is double membrane because it is
connected to the RER network and is part of the
endomembrane system
• This enables the RER to supply lipid and protein to the
nuclear envelope and also allow the ribosomes made in
the nucleolus to enter the RER
5. The double membrane also enables the break down of nuclear
envelope into vesicles during nuclear division (mitosis &
meiosis)
• allow the chromosomes to be sorted and separated. The
RER gather and reform the nuclear envelope during
telophase
6. Nuclear pore in the nuclear envelope helps to control and
regulate the transport of proteins, enzymes, nucleic acid,
signalling molecule and mRNA in and out of the nucleus 
controls gene expression

AHL: B2.2.7 Structure and function of free ribosomes and the rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Eukaryotic ribosome (80s) is larger that prokaryotic ribosome (70s)
• Ribosomes catalyse the formation of bond between the amino acids
during translation
• Ribosomes are made up of
• A) protein – for stability
• B) ribosomal RNA – for catalytic activity
 • They have 2 subunits
• Small subunit (30s) binds to the mRNA
• Large subunit (50s) have 3 tRNA binding
sites
• E (exit) site, P (peptidyl) site, A
(aminoacyl) site on large subunit

Free Ribosomes
Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily
within the cell

• In Eukaryotes, ribosomes are separated from DNA

by the nucleus
• Transcription happens in the nucleus but
translation happens in the cytosol (fluid in
cytoplasm) or the endoplasmic reticulum
• After transcription, mRNA is transported from the nucleus and this transport requires modification
of mRNA (eg: 5’ capping & addition of poly-A tail at 3’)
• Proteins destined for use in the cytoplasm, mitochondria and chloroplasts are synthesized by free
ribosomes in the cytoplasm

AHL: B2.2.8 Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus

• Golgi apparatus – store, modify, process and export
proteins
• Composed of flattened sacs called cisternae
• Proteins from rough ER and lipids from smooth ER arrives
at the Golgi body and are modified to form functional
molecules (eg: glycosylation, phosphorylation)
• Molecules such as glycoprotein, cell membrane proteins,
lysosome proteins, secretory proteins, glycolipids passes
through the Golgi apparatus and are packaged into
vesicles
• vesicles destined for exocytosis (release outside the cell)
will fuse with the membrane and secretes the proteins
outside of cell

AHL: B2.2.9 Structure and function of vesicles in cells

• Vesicles are membrane-wrapped containers that helps to
transport large molecules between cellular compartments
by fusing membranes
• Vesicles are form with the help of coat protein called clathrin
• Clathrin is recruited to the membrane (by adaptin) and forms
a rounded lattice that helps to pull the membrane into a bud
• Another protein will then cleave of the bud and the vesicle is
form within the clathrin coat
• Once this is done, the clathrin will disassemble
• Not all vesicles are form with the help of clathrin
coat protein
• It is commonly used for receptor-mediated
endocytosis
• When target molecule (or ligand) bind to the
receptor on the cell membrane, it will then recruit
clathrin to form the vesicle
• The target molecule and the receptors are then taken in
• This mechanism helps to bring in only specific
molecules needed, allowing regulatory control over
materials brought into the cell
• Clathrin is also involved in the trans Golgi network
(outgoing section) from which proteins are packaged to
be secreted, plasma membrane surface or the
lysosomes