A1.

1 Water
A1.1.1 Water as the medium for life
 The first cells ______________- in _____________
 Evidence of earth was about 4.5 billion years ago and earliest
evidence of life is 3.7 billion years ago
 There are debate on where the first cells form – ____________ vent,
_____ ______ pools, sea but there is no debate that water is present
 About ____________ of _______________ is made of water
 Water remains the __________ in which most _____________ of
_______________ occur

Importance of water
 Water is a _______________ ________________ (A1.1.5)
 Water is a _________________ – ______________ and ____________ reactions (B1.1.2 & B1.1.3)
 Water is a ______________ ____________- (A1.1.6)
 Water contributes to the formation of ______________ and _____________ ____________
(B1.1.12 & AHL 2.2.5), impacts the ______________ of ____________ (B1.2.9) and surrounds DNA
to support the __________ _________ ______________

A1.1.2 Hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds within water molecules
 H2O = covalent bonding (share pair of
electrons)
 However, the ____________ of __________
are ____ ______________
 Oxygen have _____________________ =
attract electrons more strongly
 Oxygen have more __________________

Dipole-dipole attraction & Hydrogen bonding

 Due to the __________nature of water molecules, water
molecules can form dipole-dipole attraction
 This dipole-dipole attraction is called __________
_______________ which form between water molecules
 However, these weak intermolecular bonds are
______________ in nature, they are constantly
__________, ___________ and ______________

A1.1.3 Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen

bonding and consequences for organisms
 Cohesive: Due to _________ __________ of _________
________________ between water molecules, they tend
to stick together
  Many hydrogen bonds between water molecules __________ ____________ _____________
________________ that prevents small forces from penetrating through
Examples
 Water form ____________ droplets
due to the hydrogen bonds pulling
each other and surface tension.
 Surface tension allows organisms like
___________ ________________ to
“walk on water”
 Their limbs are ___________
____________ to ______________ the _______________, decreasing the force needed to break
the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules
 The cohesion of water also creates ______________ that enables
water to be ___________ ____ _____________ in the ____________
during __________________.
 Without cohesion of water molecules, the water _____________ will
________, making it difficult for water to be pulled up

A1.1.4 Adhesion of water to materials that are polar or charged and impacts on organisms
 _________________: similarly, large number of
hydrogen bonds also __________ _________
___________ & _______/____________ molecules.
 Polar molecules and charged ions are
________________ (water – loving) = _________ to
water & can ______________ in water
 Polar molecules, like __________ also have unequal
sharing of electrons and form ____________ bonds
with water molecules while charged ions will be
______________ attracted to polar water molecules
 The adhesion of water molecule allows __________
__________ through the _____ walls against gravity
as the xylem cell walls are made of ___________,
which are made of ___________ units that are ____

 Hydrogen bonds are formed between the ______________ (___________) group of glucose and

polar water molecule & charged mineral ions

 Adhesion of water to ____________ __________ also allows ________ _________ in soil, and the
ability to ___________ ______________ in soil. The smaller the pores between the soil particles,
 the greater the surface for water to adhere to, the greater the capillary action & more water will be
retained.

A1.1.5 Solvent properties of water linked to its role as a medium for metabolism and for
transport in plants & animals
 Water is a _______________ as many polar molecules and charged ions, eg: sugar, salt are separate
by water molecules as they form hydrogen bonds with these molecules
 Hence, it is used as a ____________ for______________ in the cells as it can dissolve a variety of
_____________ substances & ________________
 Most ______________ (proteins) ________________ their reactions in ___________ solution as
water helps dissolve and allow them to move freely, enabling reactions to occur
 many _____________ (hydrolisation) reactions (breaking down) also require water molecules

Water as transport medium

• 91% of blood plasma is formed from water. So, any substance that are hydrophilic (soluble in water)
dissolved and is transported around the body by the blood plasma.
• This includes:
• __________ (polar)
• __________ (zwitterion)
• ___________ (NaCl) – ions
• Proteins – __________, ____________, __________, etc
• ________________
• Small amounts of dissolved gas
• *Oxygen is non-polar but it is just small enough to dissolve in water.
• *But in body temperature (higher temp), plasma cannot dissolve a lot of oxygen (lower solubility of
oxygen). So majority of the oxygen is transported by haemoglobin in the red blood cells

Hydrophobic and insoluble compounds

 Eg: _______________ molecules, lipids (fats & oils)
 Function of some molecules in cells depend on them being
_________________ and ______________
 _______________ _________________ between ___________
_________ chain enables the formation of _______________
 _____________ of the plasma membrane – ______________ ____________ cell contents from
______________ _____________
 _______________________ proteins have ______________ ______________ that interact with
fatty acid chains to _____________ themselves in the _____________ ________________
 Hydrophobic _______________- chains of amino acids in a polypeptide chain helps to hold the
_________________ _______________ of the protein/enzyme

A1.1.6 Physical properties of water and the consequence for animals in aquatic habitats

Buoyancy Viscosity Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Capacity

Term

Water

Air

Specific examples: Black Throated Loon vs Ringed Seal

Both animals live in relatively cold weather regions. The ringed seals lives in the Artic and the Black
Throated loon is a migratory bird that predominantly lives in the Northern Hemisphere.
 Physical
Properties

Buoyancy

Viscosity

Thermal
conductivity

Specific heat
capacity

Other examples
 Birds usually have __________ ____________ and their
feathers trap air to allow them to remain buoyant
 Fishes can __________ ________ ____________ by
regulating the amount of air in their swim __________
 The __________ ___________ ______________of water
enables the aquatic environment ______________ to
remain more ___________ & remain liquid
 The low density of ice enables it to float and insulate the
denser water below to prevent it from freezing during
water
  Fluidity of water makes it a suitable ___________ ___________in our body but blood is more
viscous than water as it contains more dissolved substance
 Due to high ___________ ______________ of water,
blood vessels dilate and flows nearer to the surface of the
skin during warm weather to expel heat and vice versa
 The amount of water in our body also helps to
____________ a more stable body _____________ due to
its high heat capacity

Summary of importance of water

 ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
 ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________________

AHL: A1.1.7 Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth and reasons for its retention
• Water is ________________ for _______________to evolve
• Earth form around _______ _____________________ years ago from _______________
pulling in swirling dust, gas and rocks ______________ together
• Suggested hypothesis for the origin of water comes from _______________ origin (outside of Earth)
• Possible source of water comes the
________ _______ itself, _____________
or ________________ (icy bodies)
• However, recent investigation suggest
that most of the water are likely to be
from ______________ based on the
__________ _____________ ________
 • It was found that the ratio of deuterium and hydrogen isotopes on earth was similar to those on
asteroid, suggesting most of the water came from asteroids.

Water can be retained on Earth

• Due to ________________ pull of Earth
• And temperature low enough to ___________ water
vapour (gas) into ____________ water
• Water is only 0.02% of planet Earth mass and most of it
is retain on the ___________ ______________
• Our Earth is places in a habitable zone (____________
_______________) far enough for majority of water to
remain as _______________ instead of being
____________ or __________________ into ice

AHL: A1.1.8 Relationship between the search for extra-terrestrial life and the presence of
water
• So the search of extra-terrestrial life (alien life) begins with the search for water in other planets
• Astrobiologist search for planets in the “____________________” where water can remain liquid
• This may differ based on the age of the Sun and its temperature in other solar systems
A1.1 Water
A1.1.1 Water as the medium for life
 The first cells originated in water
 Evidence of earth was about 4.5 billion years ago and earliest
evidence of life is 3.7 billion years ago
 There are debate on where the first cells form – hydrothermal vent,
hot spring pools, sea but there is no debate that water is present
 About 70% of cell’s mass is made of water
 Water remains the medium in which most processes of life occur

Importance of water
 Water is a universal solvent (A1.1.5)
 Water is a metabolite – Hydrolysis and condensation reactions (B1.1.2 & B1.1.3)
 Water is a temperature buffer (A1.1.6)
 Water contributes to the formation of vesicles and plasma membrane (B1.1.12 & AHL 2.2.5),
impacts the folding of protein (B1.2.9) and surrounds DNA to support the double helix structure

A1.1.2 Hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds within water molecules
 H2O = covalent bonding (share pair of
electrons)
 However, the sharing of electrons are not
equal
 Oxygen have more protons = attract
electrons more strongly
 Oxygen have more electronegativity

Dipole-dipole attraction & Hydrogen bonding

 Due to the polar nature of water molecules, water
molecules can form dipole-dipole attraction
 This dipole-dipole attraction is called HYDROGEN BOND
which form between water molecules
 However, these weak intermolecular bonds are
transitionary in nature, they are constantly form, break and
reform

A1.1.3 Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen

bonding and consequences for organisms
 Cohesive: Due to large number of hydrogen bonds
between water molecules, they tend to stick together
 Many hydrogen bonds between water molecules provide
strong surface tension that prevents small forces from
penetrating through
Examples
 Water form round droplets due to the
hydrogen bonds pulling each other
and surface tension.
 Surface tension allows organisms like
water strider to “walk on water”
 Their limbs are highly adapted to
distribute the weight, decreasing the
force needed to break the hydrogen bonds between the water
molecules
 The cohesion of water also creates tension that enables water to be
pulled up continuously in the xylem during transpiration.
 Without cohesion of water molecules, the water column will break,
making it difficult for water to be pulled up

A1.1.4 Adhesion of water to materials that are polar or charged and impacts on organisms
 Adhesive: similarly, large number of hydrogen bonds
also form between water & polar/charged
molecules.
 Polar molecules and charged ions are hydrophilic
(water – loving) = attracted to water & can dissolve
in water
 Polar molecules, like glucose also have unequal
sharing of electrons and form hydrogen bonds with
water molecules while charged ions will be
electrostatically attracted to polar water molecules
 The adhesion of water molecule allows capillary
action through the xylem walls against gravity as the
xylem cell walls are made of cellulose, which are
made of ß – glucose units that are polar

 Hydrogen bonds are formed between the hydroxyl (–OH) group of glucose and polar water

molecule & charged mineral ions

 Adhesion of water to soil particles also allows capillary action in soil, and the ability to retain water
in soil. The smaller the pores between the soil particles, the greater the surface for water to adhere
to, the greater the capillary action & more water will be retained.
A1.1.5 Solvent properties of water linked to its role as a medium for metabolism and for
transport in plants & animals
 Water is a solvent as many polar molecules and charged ions, eg: sugar, salt are separate by water
molecules as they form hydrogen bonds with these molecules
 Hence, it is used as a medium for metabolism in the cells as it can dissolve a variety of hydrophilic
substances & biomolecules
 Most enzymes (proteins) catalyse their reactions in aqueous solution as water helps dissolve and
allow them to move freely, enabling reactions to occur
 many catabolic reactions (breaking down) also require water molecules

Water as transport medium

• 91% of blood plasma is formed from water. So, any substance that are hydrophilic (soluble in water)
dissolved and is transporter around the body by the blood plasma.
• This includes:
• Glucose (polar)
• Amino acid (zwitterion)
• Salts (NaCl) – ions
• Proteins – enzymes, hormones, antibodies, etc
• Urea
• Small amounts of dissolved gas
• *Oxygen is non-polar but it is just small enough to dissolve in water.
• *But in body temperature (higher temp), plasma cannot dissolve a lot of oxygen (lower solubility of
oxygen). So majority of the oxygen is transported by haemoglobin in the red blood cells

Hydrophobic and insoluble compounds

 Eg: non-polar molecules, lipids (fats & oils)
 Function of some molecules in cells depend on them being
hydrophobic and insoluble
 hydrophobic interaction between fatty acids chain enables the
formation of phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane –
separating internal cell contents from external environment
  Transmembrane proteins have hydrophobic regions that interact with fatty acid chains to embed
themselves in the phospholipid
 Hydrophobic R-side chains of amino acids in a polypeptide chain helps to hold the tertiary structure
of the protein/enzyme

A1.1.6 Physical properties of water and the consequence for animals in aquatic habitats
Buoyancy Viscosity Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Capacity

Amount of energy
Upwards force on Transfer of heat
Tendency of fluid (J)needed to change the
Term an object energy through
to flow. temperature by 1˚C per
immersed in fluid. vibration of particles.
unit mass (kg)

Water has a relatively

Water is a poor high heat capacity as it
Water has a Water viscosity is
thermal conductor takes a large amount of
density of 1g/cm3. caused by the H-
compared to solid but energy to break or form
Denser object bonds formed
Water is a better conductor the many H-bonds
than medium will between water
compared to air due between water
sink and vice molecules which
to the closeness of molecules. Thus it takes a
versa. increases friction.
particles. longer time to heat up
and cool down.

Air is less dense

Air has lower thermal Air has lower specific heat
than water and
Air is less viscous conductivity due to capacity and takes less
Air not many
than water. particles that are energy to change
substance can
spread apart. temperature in air.
float in air.

Specific examples: Black Throated Loon vs Ringed Seal

Both animals live in relatively cold weather regions. The ringed seals lives in the Artic and the Black
Throated loon is a migratory bird that predominantly lives in the Northern Hemisphere.

Physical Black Throated Loon Ringed Seal

Properties

Buoyancy Buoyancy in water allow them to stay afloat The thick layer of fat (blubber) provides
but need more energy to fly. Unlike most natural buoyancy for the ringed seals in
 birds, they have solid bones that allow them water but they are clumsy animals on
to dive underwater to catch fish. They are land.
able to expel air out of feathers when
diving.
Viscosity Air is not viscous and loons can easily fly Seals has a streamlined body to help cut
through it. However, their webbed legs are through the viscous water as it swims
set far back on their bodies, allowing them through it. Their modified hind limbs act
to dive effectively in water. as flippers for swimming.
Thermal The loon does not loose much body heat in Water has high thermal conductivity, so
conductivity air due to poor thermal conductivity. Their their blubber keep them insulated in the
feathers trap air to keep them warm. cold artic water.
Specific heat Loons depends on the high heat capacity of However, due to high heat capacity, the
capacity water to remain liquid for feeding and artic sea temperature does not change
migrate downwards in winter when lakes rapidly, providing a more stable habitat.
freezes.

Other examples
 Birds usually have hollow bones and their feathers trap air
to allow them to remain buoyant
 Fishes can change their density by regulating the amount
of air in their swim bladder
 The high heat capacity of water enables the aquatic
environment temperature to remain more stable & remain
liquid
 The low density of ice enables it to float and insulate the
denser water below to prevent it from freezing during
water
 Fluidity of water makes it a suitable transport system in
our body but blood is more viscous than water as it
contains more dissolved substance
 Due to high heat conductivity of water, blood vessels
dilate and flows nearer to the surface of the skin during
warm weather to expel heat and vice versa
 The amount of water in our body also helps to regulate a
more stable body temperature due to its high heat
capacity

AHL: A1.1.7 Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth

and reasons for its retention
• Water is essential for life to evolve
• Earth form around 4.5 billion years ago from gravity
pulling in swirling dust, gas and rocks clumping together
 • Suggested hypothesis for the origin of
water comes from extraplanetary origin
(outside of Earth)
• Possible source of water comes the
earth’s rock itself, asteroids or comets
(icy bodies)
• However, recent investigation suggest
that most of the water are likely to be
from asteroids based on the hydrogen
isotopes ratio
• It was found that the ratio of deuterium and hydrogen isotopes on earth was similar to those on
asteroid, suggesting most of the water came from asteroids.

Water can be retained on Earth

• Due to gravitational pull of Earth
• And temperature low enough to condense water
vapour (gas) into liquid water
• Water is only 0.02% of planet Earth mass and most of it
is retain on the earth crust
• Our Earth is places in a habitable zone (Goldilocks zone)
far enough for majority of water to remain as liquid
instead of being evaporated or frozen into ice

AHL: A1.1.8 Relationship between the search for extra-terrestrial life and the presence of
water
• For life to exist, water is essential
• So the search of extra-terrestrial life (alien life) begins with the search for water in other planets
• Astrobiologist search for planets in the “Goldilocks zone” where water can remain liquid
• This may differ based on the age of the Sun and its temperature in other solar systems