10.

3 The Diffraction Grating

It is difficult to measure the wavelength of light accurately using the interference
pattern from either a double slit or a single slit. The interference pattern may be dull or
diffraction grating a device with a large the resolution fuzzy. To solve these problems, most researchers use a diffraction grating,
number of equally spaced parallel slits which is a device that has an array of many parallel slits. White light is a mixture of light
that produces interference patterns of different wavelengths, so as it passes through the slits in the diffraction grating, the
waves originating from the slits interfere. The interference produces light of various
wavelengths that travel along different paths (Figure 1). This creates an effect similar to
passing white light through a prism.

Figure 1 A diffraction grating splits white light into light of different wavelengths that travel along
different paths. The effect shown here is due to interference, not dispersion.

Diffraction Gratings
There are two types of diffraction gratings: transmission gratings, which transmit
light, and reflection gratings, which reflect light. CDs and DVDs are common
examples of a reflection grating. When illuminated, they both produce iridescent
reflections. A transmission grating, however, usually has an anti-reflection coating.
Transmission gratings are typically used in spectroscopy. Most of the discussion
here concerns transmission gratings, but the same concepts apply to both types.
The process of manufacturing an effective transmission grating involves preci-
∆l  w sin n sion machinery. One method uses a diamond tip to etch closely spaced parallel
lines on the grating surface. The lines are opaque, and the transparent spaces
1 between them serve as the slits. Newer photographic methods use interference
∆l from lasers to produce the pattern on photographic film. Then, the film is processed
w to produce the parallel lines. A typical diffraction grating might have 10 000 lines
∆l per centimetre. CAREER LINK

∆l In Chapter 9, you learned that when coherent monochromatic light passes

through a double slit, it produces a pattern of alternating bright and dark fringes on
n a screen located far from the slits. The bright fringes (maxima) occur in directions
for which the path length from slits to screen are whole-number multiples of the
wavelength of light used. In these directions, light waves arrive in phase and inter-
fere constructively.
Three equally spaced slits would produce the same type of interference pattern for
Figure 2 Light waves pass through the same reasons. Consider what happens when light of wavelength l passes through
a diffraction grating to produce a a large number, N, of equally spaced slits, as in a diffraction grating and as shown in
constructive interference pattern. Figure 2. The spacing between the slits is represented by w.

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 For an angle u 5 08, all of the waves arrive in phase, with a maximum in intensity.
This is the zero-order maximum, which is the same for all wavelengths of light. zero-order maximum the location of
The next maximum occurs at an angle u1, where the path length difference maximum intensity in the diffraction
between successive slits is exactly l. The waves are again in phase when they reach pattern at u 5 08
the screen. If you apply trigonometry to Figure 2, you will see that the path length
difference, Dl, is equal to w sin u1. The first maximum of intensity, called the
first-order maximum, occurs when this path is equal to one wavelength, according first-order maximum the first maximum
to the equation of intensity on either side of the zero-order
maximum in an interference pattern from
l 5 w sin u 1 a diffraction grating

This condition is exactly the same as the condition for the first maximum for the
double slit. The result is constructive interference at an angle u from each slit and a
bright maximum in that direction.
For each whole number m, the angle um must satisfy the following condition:

ml 5 w sin u m

where m 5 0, 1, . . . .
This corresponds to a path that differs by a whole-number multiple of a wave-
length. Again, the waves arrive in phase at this angle and interfere constructively,
resulting in a maximum called the mth-order maximum. Here, m is called the
order number. At angles between maxima, the waves from each slit differ in phase order number the value of m for a
and interfere to produce relatively wide dark areas on the screen. The overall result given maximum in a diffraction-grating
is a pattern of extremely narrow maxima. interference pattern; sequentially numbers
Figure 3 compares the interference patterns for different numbers of slits. The the maxima on either side of the zero-
same equation describes where the maxima occur for a single given slit separation order maximum
w, so the maxima are all at the same angle. As the number of slits increases, each
maximum becomes narrower. Since a typical diffraction grating has thousands of
slits, the maxima it produces are in precisely defined directions. In addition, since
the separation between slits is typically quite small, the maxima are widely separated
from each other.

2 slits

3 slits
Intensity

10 slits

100 slits

–30° –20° –10° 0° 10° 20° 30°



Figure 3 As the number of slits increases, the maxima become narrower and more sharply peaked.
The resulting patterns of bright and dark lines are called diffraction fringes.

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 Using Gratings as a Spectrometer
When light of different wavelengths is incident on a diffraction grating, each wave-
length produces diffraction peaks in different directions. This makes a diffraction
grating a powerful tool for separating light of different wavelengths.
Figure 4 shows what happens when a mixture of green and red light passes
through a diffraction grating and then onto a screen behind it. The resulting spots on
the screen are circular because the deflected beam is circular (Figure 4(b)).

screen fringes on
screen

diffraction
grating

(a) grating (b)

Figure 4 (a) Red and green light diffract at different angles. (b) The resulting interference pattern is
seen on the screen.

Figure 4(a) also shows that the angles at which maxima occur have a simple and
precise relation to the wavelength of the light. This behaviour of the diffraction
grating makes it a powerful tool for precisely measuring wavelengths of light.
The spectrometer shown in Figure 5 is a device for measuring wavelengths of
light. Light from a source passes through the slit and into the collimator. A colli-
Investigation 10.3.1 mator is a system of mirrors or lenses that produces parallel wave fronts. The light
CD and DVD Storage Capacity
then passes through a diffraction grating and onto a telescope. The telescope pro-
(page 547) duces an image of the slit that appears as a line formed from the given wavelength
In Investigation 10.3.1, you will use a of light. The observer positions the telescope so that the crosshairs mounted in it
CD and a DVD as a diffraction grating fall on the slit image. The observer then reads the angle from the scale below the
and determine the groove spacing of telescope. Since the number of lines per centimetre and therefore the line spacing
each. You will use your data to assess for the diffraction grating being used is known, the wavelength of light can be
which disc can hold more data. calculated from the measured angle. Astronomers use spectrometers to identify
elements in space and on other planets. CAREER LINK

collimator

grating


source
telescope
eye

Figure 5 You can use a grating mounted in a spectrometer to measure the angles of interference
maxima.

The Tutorial on the next page models how to locate and number the maxima pro-
duced by a diffraction grating.

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 Tutorial 1 Locating Maxima on a Diffraction Grating
The following Sample Problems show how to determine the location and number of maxima
produced by a given diffraction grating.

Sample Problem 1: Determining the Maxima for a Diffraction Grating

Light with a wavelength of 540 nm is incident on a diffraction For the first-order maximum, m 5 1:
grating that has 8500 lines/cm. Calculate the angles of the maxima. ml 5 w sin u 1
Given: l 5 540 nm 5 5.4 3 1027 m; N 5 8500 lines/cm 112 15.4 3 1027 m2 5 11.176 3 1026 m2 sin u 1
Required: the angle, um, giving the locations of the m th-order sin u 1 5 0.4591
maxima for m 5 1, 2, . . . , etc. u 1 5 278
1 For the second-order maximum, m 5 2:
Analysis: The equation w 5 can be used to calculate the
N ml 5 w sin u 2
slit separation from the number of lines. Then use the equation 122 15.4 3 1027 m2 5 11.176 3 1026 m2 sin u 2
ml 5 w sin u m to locate the maximum for each value of m. sin u 2 5 0.9180
1 u 2 5 678
Solution: w 5
N Performing the same calculation for m 5 3 to determine the
1 1m third-order maximum leads to 1.377 as the value required for
5 3
8500 lines/cm 100 cm sin u 3. Since the sine of an angle can never be greater than 1,
w 5 1.176 3 1026 m 1two extra digits carried2 no third-order maximum exists.
Statement: The first-order maximum is at 278, the second-order
maximum is at 678, and no other maximum is possible.

Sample Problem 2: Calculating Angles of Diffraction in a Diffraction Grating

Light emitted by a particular source is incident on a diffraction For the first-order maximum, m 5 1:
grating with 9000 lines/cm and produces a first-order maximum w sin u 1
at 32.08. Determine the wavelength of the light. l5
m
Given: N 5 9000 lines/cm; u1 5 32.08; m 5 1 5 11.111 3 1026 m2 sin 32.08
Required: l l 5 5.89 3 1027 m
1
Analysis: Use w 5 to determine the slit separation, w. Then Statement: The light has a wavelength of 589 nm.
N
use the equation ml 5 w sin u m to determine the wavelength
from w and the given angle, u1.
1 1m
Solution: w 5 3
9000 lines/cm 100 cm
w 5 1.111 3 1026 m 1one extra digit carried2

Practice
1. Consider two diffraction gratings, one with 10 000 lines/cm and one with 8500 lines/cm.
Compare the separations between adjacent maxima for these two gratings. K/U T/I C
2. Calculate the angular separation of successive maxima of the same colour when light
with a wavelength of 660 nm is incident on a diffraction grating with 8500 lines/cm.
T/I A [ans: 348]

3. A diffraction grating produces a third-order bright fringe at an angle of 22.08 for red light
with a wavelength of 694.3 nm. Calculate the number of lines per centimetre on the grating.
T/I [ans: 1798 lines/cm]

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 CDs and DVDs as Diffraction Gratings
UNIT TASK BOOKMARK When you move a CD or a DVD under white light, you can see that the data side
produces a spectrum of colours that change as you move it. The disc has a reflective
You can apply what you have learned surface and a long, microscopically thin track that spirals thousands of times around
about diffraction gratings to the Unit the disc from the centre to the edge. Light reflected from adjacent edges of the spiral
Task on page 556.
track interferes in the same way as light interferes from slits in a reflection diffrac-
tion grating. Interference between waves from the track edges leads to a diffraction
pattern. Different wavelengths contained in the white light have interference peaks in
different directions, giving the colour pattern that you see.
CDs and DVDs take advantage of destructive interference to store data. The disc-
manufacturing process uses a sharply focused laser beam that burns microscopic,
quarter-wavelength-deep pits at precise intervals along the length of the spiral track.
Then, a reflective coating is applied to the entire disc, including the track and its pits.
Upon playback, the player rotates the disc and shines a sharply focused, low-power
laser beam on the track. When the beam hits the leading or trailing edge of a pit, the
light briefly reflects from both the pit and the undisturbed surface of the track (called
the “land”), as shown in Figure 6.

interference of
reflected light

pits

(a) (b)

Figure 6 Interference of light reflected from nearby tracks in (a) produces the pattern of colours
seen from the CD in (b).

Since the pit is a quarter-wavelength deeper than the land, the light wave that the pit
reflects is half a wavelength out of phase with the wave that the adjacent land reflects.
The two reflected waves interfere destructively, producing a momentary decrease in the
intensity of the light reflecting from the track. A photodetector monitoring the reflected
light detects these intensity changes, and the player converts them into usable data.
CDs use a near-infrared 780 nm laser, whereas DVDs use shorter wavelengths
of 635 nm. The DVD’s shorter wavelength allows for a smaller track separation, a
smaller pit depth, and a smaller pit length. As a result, a DVD can store much more
data than a CD on the same size disc. WEB LINK

Research This
Blu-ray Technology
SKILLS
Skills: Researching, Analyzing, Communicating HANDBOOK A4.1

DVD and CD players use the interference between two reflected C. What can a Blu-ray recording do that is superior to a CD or
beams to read CDs and DVDs. The interference depends on the a DVD recording? K/U A
relation between the wavelength and the difference in height D. What enables Blu-ray to accomplish these improvements? K/U

between a pit and the land in the reflecting surfaces. A newer

E. Analyze, assess, and compare CD, DVD, and Blu-ray
technology is called Blu-ray.
technologies in a visual format. Describe any disadvantages,
1. Research Blu-ray technology. hazards, and concerns associated with Blu-ray
A. Why is the technology called Blu-ray? K/U technologies. T/I C A
WEB LINK
B. How does the technology work? K/U

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 10.3 Review
Summary
• A diffraction grating consists of a large number of closely spaced parallel slits.
• Diffraction gratings produce interference patterns that are similar to those
from a double slit, but the maxima are far narrower and more intense.
• The angle, um, for the mth-order maximum of a diffraction grating with slit
spacing w and light wavelength l is given by ml 5 w sin u m.
• The colours that you can see in a CD or a DVD result from interference
similar to the interference of light from a diffraction grating.

Questions
1. When a CD reflects white light, the result is a 9. The molecular planes in a crystal act as a diffraction
rainbow-like display of different colours. Explain grating when X-rays are incident on the crystal
what this indicates about the surface of the CD. (Figure 7). The molecular planes in a crystal are
K/U C A 0.50 nm apart, and the X-rays have a wavelength
2. A diffraction grating has 2800 lines/cm. Determine of 0.050 nm. K/U T/I C A
the distance between two lines in the grating. T/I A
3. Light incident on a diffraction grating with
10 000 lines/cm produces first-order, second-order,
and third-order maxima at angles of 31.28, 36.48,
and 47.58, respectively. Determine the wavelength,
in nanometres, of light that produces each
maximum. T/I A
4. A square diffraction grating of width 2.0 cm
contains 6000 slits. At what angle does blue light
with a wavelength of 450 nm produce the first Figure 7 The white spots show the diffraction pattern as
intensity maximum? T/I A X-rays pass through a protein. From the pattern, scientists
can determine the structure of the protein.
5. Red light with a wavelength of 600.0 nm is incident
on a diffraction grating with a slit spacing of (a) Assume that the maxima in the diffraction
25 mm. At what angle from u 5 08 is the first-order pattern are given by the same equation that
maximum in intensity? T/I A applies for a grating with slits with the same
value of w. Determine the angles for the first
6. Light with a wavelength of 780 nm from a laser
three maxima.
pointer is incident on a diffraction grating with a
screen located 10 m behind it. The maxima near (b) Assume that light with a wavelength of 600 nm
u 5 08 are spaced 0.50 m apart. Determine the is incident on the crystal instead of X-rays.
spacing between the lines in the diffraction At what angle is the first bright fringe?
grating. T/I A (c) What does this show about the prospects of
using visible light for diffraction by crystals?
7. In an experiment, light is reflected on a diffraction
Explain your answer.
grating that has 300 lines/cm, and the diffraction
grating is 0.84 m from a screen. The distance 10. Light with a wavelength of 5.00 3 102 nm produces
between the m 5 0 and m 5 3 bright fringe is a first-order maximum at an angle of 20.08 in a
3.6 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light. specific spectroscope. When the measurement is
K/U T/I A
repeated with the same spectroscope on a distant
star that is known to have a planet in orbit about
8. Determine the maximum order number possible
it, the same light produces a first-order maximum
in an interference pattern when light with a
at 18.08. Determine the index of refraction of the
wavelength of 5.4 3 1027 passes through a
atmosphere on the planet as it passes in front of its
diffraction grating with 3000 lines/cm. T/I
host star and the star’s spectrum is analyzed. K/U T/I A

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