• Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light nuclei of atom

THE HEAT ELEMENT

HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to molecular activity.

In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another or from one body to
another by virtue of a difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit; it always flows from substance at a higher
temperature to the substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of the latter and lowering that of the
former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains constant. Heat does not flow from lower to a higher
temperature unless another form of energy transfer work is always present.

The study of energy is rooted in the subject of thermodynamics, a very logical science that carefully defines
energy, heat, temperature and other properties.

Heat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot to a cold region. Thermal energy is a property of
matter directly associated with the concept of temperature.

Heat and Temperature

Heat should not be confused with temperature, which is the measurement of the relative amount of heat
energy contained with in a given substance. Temperature is an intensity measurement, with units in degrees on the
Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin scales. Heat is the measurement of quantity and is given in British
thermal units (Btu). One Btu is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit:

1 Btu heats 1 lb of water 1 °F

1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 lb

8.33 Btu heat 1 gallon of water 1 °F

Temperature is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules; the hotness or coldness of
something. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature and commonly expressed in °C, °F, and °K.

Although it is very easy to compare the relative temperatures of two substances by the sense of touch, it is
impossible to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the temperature by subjective reactions. Adding heat to a
substance, however, not only raises its temperature, causing it to impart a more acute sensation of warmth, but also
produces alterations in several physical properties, which may be measured with precision.

Specific Heat

The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required raising the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
one-degree. If the heating process occurs while the substance is maintained at a constant volume or is subjected to a
constant pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at constant volume.

Latent Heat
 A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature of a substance. Almost all
substances expand in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The behavior of water between 0° and 4°C
(32° and 39° F) constitutes an important exemption to this rule. The phase of a substance refers to its occurrence as a
solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure substances occur at definite temperatures and pressures. The process
of changing from solid to gas is referred to as SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid as melting and from liquid to
vapor as VAPORIZATION. If the pressure is constant, the process occurs at constant temperature. The amount of
heat to produce a change of phase is called LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of sublimation, melting and
vaporization exist. If water is boiled in an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature does not rise above
100°C (212°F), no matter how much heat is added. For example, the heat that is absorbed without changing the
temperature of the water is the latent heat, it is not lost but expended in changing the water to steam and is then
stored as energy in the steam, it is again released when the steam is condensed to form water (Condensation).
Similarly, if the mixture of water and ice in a glass is heated, its temperature will not change until all the ice is
melted. The latent heat absorbed is used up in overcoming the forces holding the particles of ice together and is
stored as energy in the water.

Temperature Scales

Five different temperature scales are in use today, they are:

1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0°C and a boiling point of 100°C. It is widely used throughout the
world, particularly for scientific works.

2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-speaking countries for purposes other than scientific works and
based on the mercury thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point of water is 32°F and the boiling point is 212 °F.

3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero is defined as
absolute zero of temperature, that is, - 273.15 °c, or –459.67 °F.

4. Rankine – is another temperature scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point in which each degree of
temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The freezing point of water under this scale is 492
°R and the boiling point is 672 °R.

5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, scientist of 31 nations adopted a new international

temperature scale with additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and thermodynamic principles.
The international scale is based on the property of electrical resistively, with platinum wire as the standard for
temperature between –190 ° and 660°C.

Heat Production

There are five ways to produce heat:

1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.

2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of two sticks together to generate
enough heat is an example.

3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical malfunction. Poor wire
connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing through an improperly sized wire
are other sources of electrical heat.

4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is greatly increased producing heat.
5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic particles (Fission or fusion
respectively). The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear power plant produces steam to turn steam turbines.

Heat Transfer

The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between bodies are conduction and
radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of matter, is called convection.

Hence, there are three ways to transfer heat: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.

Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a material or medium, usually a solid. Direct
contact is the underlying factor in conduction. Example, if you touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a first result of
conducted heat passing from the stove directly to your hand. In a structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders, and
other structural members such as walls and floors may conduct enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the
structure.

Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually air or liquid. Heat transfer by
convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures. The supper-heated gases evolved from a fire are
lighter than air, and consequently rise, they can and do initiate additional damage. In large fires, the high fireball that
accompanies the incident is referred to as a firestorm and is an example of convected heat.

Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight. Radiated heat travels the speed, as does
visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the exposure hazards that develop and exist
during a fire. Heat waves travel in a direct or straight line from their source until they strike an object. The heat that
collects on the surface of the object or building in the path of the heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass
through conduction.

Conduction requires physical contact between bodies or portions of bodies exchanging heat, but radiation does not
require contact or the presence of any matter between the bodies. Convection occurs when a liquid or gas is in
contact with a solid body at a different temperature and is always accompanied by the motion of the liquid or gas.
The science dealing with the transfer of heat between bodies is called heat transfer.

Oxidizing Agent (Oxygen): The 3rd Element

Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous chemical element, the most abundant
of all elements: it occurs free in the atmosphere, forming one fifth of its volume, and in combination in water,
sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active, being able to combine with nearly all other elements, and is essential to
life processes and to combustion.

The common oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air. Air composes 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1 % inert gas
(principally Argon). 21% normal oxygen is needed to produce fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12% oxygen is
insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen can support flash point, and 16-21% oxygen can support fire point.

FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and thermal
imbalance.

Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the normal behavior when the pattern
is undisturbed. Thermal imbalance, on the other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to the interference of
foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire
originated.
Dangerous Behavior of Fire

Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:

1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs in
the form of explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If a room is not properly ventilated, highly
flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is suddenly opened, the room violently
sucks the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden combustion occur, which may happen as an
explosion (combustion explosion).

2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete
combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or flash produced when
temperature rises until flash point is reached.

When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable
of causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with in
a few seconds.

3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations and become
stronger and bigger instead.

4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is completely
covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus
creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.

The Three Stages of Fire

1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this stage, the following characteristics are observed: normal room
temperature, the temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800 °F, ceiling temperature is about 200 °F, the pyrolysis
products are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, small quantities of carbon monoxide and sulfides maybe
present

2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following characteristics: accelerated pyrolysis process take place,
development of convection current: formation of thermal columns as heat rises, temperature is 800-1000 °F at the
base of fire, 1200-1600 °F at ceiling, pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls(crawling of the flame)
leaving burnt patterns (fire fingerprints), occurrence of flashover.

3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the following characteristics: oxygen content drops to 13% or below
causing the flame to vanish and heat to develop in layers, products of incomplete combustion increase in volume,
particularly carbon monoxide with an ignition temperature of about 1125 °F, ceiling temperature is 1000-1300 °F,
heat and pressure in the room builds up, building/room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure
but little oxygen, when sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, backdraft occurs.

Classification of Fires

Based on Cause

1. Natural causes – such as

• Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous combustion due to
auto-ignition of organic materials, the gradual rising of heat in a confined space until ignition temperature is
reached.
• Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural current with a great magnitude, producing tremendous
amperage and voltage. Lightning usually strikes objects that are better electrical conductors than air. It can cause fire
directly or indirectly. Indirectly when it strikes telephone and other transmission lines, causing an induced line
surge. It can also cause flash fire or dust explosion. When lightning strikes steel or metal rod covered with dust, the
dust will suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion.

A lightning may be in the form of:

Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible materials

Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of splintering a property or literally blowing apart an entire structure,
produces electrical current with tremendous amperage and very high temperature.

• Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a combustible
material thereby igniting it.

2. Accidental Causes – such as

• Electrical accidents in the form of:

Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections between two points at different potentials (charge) in an electrical
circuit of relatively low resistance.

Arcing – the production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated electrodes; an electric hazard
that results when electrical current crosses the gap between 2 electrical conductors.

Sparking – production of incandescent particles when two different potentials (charged conductors) come in
contact; occurs during short circuits or welding operations.

Induced Current – induced line surge – increased electrical energy flow or power voltage; induced current; sudden
increase of electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating materials, explosion of the fuse box, or burning of
electrical appliances.

Over heating of electrical appliances – the increase or rising of amperage while electric current is flowing in a
transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating materials, maybe gradual or rapid, internal or
external.

• Purely accidental causes

• Negligence and other forms of human error

3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)

If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelerant, plants and trailers, then the cause of fire is
intentional.

Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame propagation.

Plant – the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials needed to start a fire.

Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire.

Based on Burning Fuel (the classes of fire)

1. Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; they are the types of fire resulting from the burning wood, paper, textiles,
rubber and other carbonaceous materials. In short, this is the type of fire caused by ordinary combustible materials.

2. Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by flammable and or combustible liquids such as kerosene,
gasoline, benzene, oil products, alcohol and other hydrocarbon deviations.

3. Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in live electrical wires, equipment, motors,
electrical appliances and telephone switchboards.

4. Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the combustion of certain metals in finely divided
forms. These combustible metals include magnesium, potassium, powdered calcium, zinc, sodium, and titanium.

FIRE FIGTHING OPERATIONS AND EXTINGUISHMENT

Fire fighting is an activity intended to save lives and property. It is one of the most important emergency
services in a community. Fire fighters battle fires that break out in homes, factories, office buildings, shops, and
other places. Fire fighters risk their lives to save people and protect property from fires.

The people who work as fire fighters also help others who are involved in many kinds of emergencies
besides fires. For example, fire fighters rescue people who may be trapped in cars or vehicles after an accident.
They aid victims of such disasters as typhoons, floods, landslides, and earthquakes.

Before the advent of modern fire fighting techniques, fires often destroyed whole settlements. When a fire broke
out, all the people in the community rushed to the scene to help. Today, fire fighting organizations in most
industrialized nations have well-trained men and women and a variety of modern fire fighting equipment.

History of Fire Fighting

Most fire services around the world were formed after a major fire made people realize that lives and
property would have been saved if they had had a proper body of people trained to fight fires. One of the first
organized fire fighting forces was established in Rome, about 500 B.C. The first fire fighters were Roman slaves
who, under the command of the city's magistrates, were stationed on the walls and the gates of Rome. These units
were called Familia Publica.

However, this system was not very effective, probably because the slaves had no choice in whether they
fought fires or not. In A.D. 6, after an enormous fire devastated Rome, the Emperor Augustus created the vigiles, a
fire fighting force of 7,000 men that was divided into seven regiments. Like many of today's fire services, the
vigiles had the power to inspect buildings to check for fire risks, and could punish property owners whose
negligence led to fires. The vigiles' fire fighting equipment included pumps, squirts, siphons, buckets, and ladders.
Wicker mats and wet blankets were used for rescue and salvage work. The Romans developed advanced fire
fighting equipment. But when the empire fell, much of this technology was lost for centuries.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, European cities and towns became disorganized and nobody
coordinated fire fighting. Some people even thought that prayer was the best way to control fires. Slowly, however,
some fire laws evolved. In many cities people were required to put out their cooking and home fires at night. In
some towns, thatched roofs were forbidden and night watchmen were employed to raise the alarm if they discovered
a fire.

Organized fire services in Europe were usually only formed after hugely destructive fires. The Great Fire
of London in 1666 led to the development of fire insurance industries in England. These companies marked their
insured properties with metal badges called fire marks and formed private fire brigades to protect those properties.
Each company's brigade attended only those premises bearing the company's own fire mark. There was much
competition, and occasionally rival fire brigades even obstructed each other in their fire fighting efforts. It was not
until the 1800's that London insurance companies began to cooperate and a single London Fire Engine
Establishment was formed. The new service fought fires in any premises within the London area.

Serious blazes also caused death and destruction elsewhere in Europe, and rulers began to realize that it
was necessary to have organized forces to deal with fires. In France, groups of citizens kept watch for outbreaks of
fire, and regulations controlled rescue operations. In the 1600's, a number of serious fires spread terror throughout
Paris. The king of France bought 12 pumps, and a private fire service was established. In 1750, the company of
firemen was mostly taken over by the army, but fires continued to ravage the city and fire fighting efforts were not
always effective. In 1810, the Emperor Napoleon attended a ball at the Austrian Embassy. A candle set the curtains
ablaze, and the fire spread quickly, causing a dreadful panic. After this fire, Napoleon ordered the creation of the
Battalion de Sapeurs Pompiers and the French Fire Brigade was born.

Better equipment for getting water to fires and for fighting fires was developed in the 1500's. Tools
included syringes, which squirted water, but most people relied on bucket brigades, relays of men passing buckets of
water. The problems with bucket brigades were that many men were needed, it was very tiring work, and it was not
very efficient--buildings often burned to the ground. In 1672, an uncle and nephew in Amsterdam, both called Jan
van der Heide, invented a flexible hose, which could be joined together to form a long pipe. Later, the same men
invented a pump to deliver water through the hose, and fire fighting became much more efficient. In many places
around the world, fire pumps were first drawn to fires by horses or even by people. Warning bells enabled people to
get out of the way when the pumps were rushing to a fire. The German company Daimler invented the first petrol-
driven pump in 1885, but the pump still had to be taken to fires by horses. Petrol-powered fire engines were
introduced in the early 1900's, but many countries were slow to change from horse-drawn pumps. Although today's
fire services have a range of modern equipment, fire can be just as dangerous now as it was thousands of years ago.

The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)

Republic Act # 6975, the DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4, Section 53-59) created the Bureau of Fire
Protection (BFP) to be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires and to enforce the laws
on fire.

Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used by the bureau to stop, extinguish and
control destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life and property. It has the following objectives: To
prevent destructive fire from starting, To extinguish (stop or put out) on going destructive fire, To confine a
destructive fire at the place where it began, To prevent loss of life and property when fire starts

Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the various safety measures utilized to stop harmful or destructive
fires from starting.

The laws related with the fire prevention and fire protection in the Philippine setting includes PD # 1185, Fire Code
of the Philippine (26 August 1977), PD # 1096, Building Code of the Philippine (19 February 1977)

The Bureau of Fire Protection is composed of well-trained fire fighters. In fighting fires, they bring with
them ladders and pumps. Additional specialist vehicles can provide turntable ladders, hydraulic platforms, extra
water, foam, and specialist appliances for hazardous incidents.

In some countries, such as the United States, fire-fighting units are divided into engine companies and ladder
companies. Engine companies operate trucks called engines, which carry a pump and hoses for spraying water on a
fire. Ladder companies use ladder trucks, which carry ladders of various lengths. Ladder trucks also have a
hydraulically extended ladder or elevating platform to rescue people through windows or to spray water from a
raised position.
 Fire fighters in the Philippines handle many types of fires. Each type requires a different plan of action to
put it out. For example, the methods used to fight a building fire differ greatly from those used to fight a forest or
grassland fire.

Factor Affecting Fire Protection and Control

Fire protection and control is affected by the accumulation of fire hazards in a building or area.

Fire Hazard is any condition or act that increases or may cause increase in the probability that fire will
occur or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the safeguarding of life and
property

Conditions of Fire Hazards

1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of combustible or explosives in the building not designed to
store such materials.

2. Defective or improperly installed facilities/ equipment.

3. Lack of adequate exit facilities.

4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated opening for fire fighters.

5. Dangerous occumulation of rubbish waste and other highly combustible materials.

6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of grease in the kitchen.

7. Building under repair

8. Very old building or building is primarily made of combustible materials

Fire Fighting Operations

Fire fighting operations refers to fire suppression activities. In general the following procedures should be
observed:

1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves developing and defining systematic course of actions that
maybe performed in order to realize the objectives of fire protection: involves the process of establishing the SOP in
case fire breaks out.

2. EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the situation) - this is the process
knowing the emergency situation. It involves mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-charge to determine the
appropriate course of action that provides the highest probability of success.

3. EVACUATION – This the activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away from the burning
area to minimize damage or destruction that the fire might incur in case it propagates to other adjacent buildings.

4. ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the burning structure. Entry maybe done in a forcible manner.

5. RESCUE – This is the operation of removing (extricating), thus saving, people and other livestock from
the burning building and other involved properties, conveying them to a secure place
6. EXPOSURE – also called cover exposure, this is the activity of securing other buildings near the burning
structure in order to prevent the fire from the extending to another building.

7. CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place (room) where it started : the
process of preventing fire from extending from another section or form one section to another section of the
involved building.

8. VENTILATION – This the operation purposely conducted to displace toxic gases. It includes the process
of displacing the heated atmosphere within the involved building with normal air from outside atmosphere.

9. SALVAGE – The activity of protecting the properties from preventable damage other than the fire. The
steps are a) remove the material outside the burning area, and b) protecting or cover the materials by using tarpaulins
(cotton canvass treated with water proofing).

10. EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4 general
methods of fire extinguishments.

11. OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials therein to
eliminate conditions that may cause re-flash; involves complete extinguishments of sparks or smouldering (glowing)
substances (embers) to prevent possibilities of re-ignition or rekindling.

12. FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final stage of fire suppression activities. It is an inquiry
conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.

What is a Sprinkle System?

A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes installed throughout a building. The pipes carry water to nozzles
in the ceiling. The heat from a fire causes the nozzles directly above the fire to open and spray water.

The Fire Bureau personnel inspect public buildings to enforce the local code. The officials check the
operating condition of the fire protection systems. They note the number and location of exits and fire
extinguishers. The inspection also covers housekeeping practices and many other matters that affect fire safety.
Fire inspectors may also review plans for a new building to make sure it meets the safety code.

What is a Smoke Detector?

Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm if a small amount of smoke enters their sensors. Smoke detectors
are attached to the ceiling or wall in several areas of the home. Fire protection experts recommend at least one
detector for each floor of a residence.

Fire fighters also recommend that people have portable fire extinguishers in their homes. A person must be
sure, however, to call the fire fighting service before trying to extinguish a fire. It is also important to use the right
kind of extinguisher for the type of fire involved.

The Fire Extinguishment Theory

The Fire Extinguishments Theory maintains that “to extinguish a fire, interrupt or eliminate the supply of
any or all of the elements of fire.” Fire can be extinguished by reducing/ lowering the temperature, eliminating the
fuel supply, or by stopping the chemical chain reaction.

4 General Methods of Fire Extinguishment

1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction

- Cooling the temperature of the fire environment: usually done by using water.

- Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point where it does not produce sufficient vapors that
burn.

2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal

- Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which maybe done by stopping the flow of liquid fuel, preventing the
production of flammable gas, removing the solid fuel at the fire path, allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is
consumed

3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution - reduction of oxygen concentration at the burning area, by introducing
inert gases, by separating oxygen from the fuel

4. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition - Some extinguishments agents, like dry chemical and halon, interrupt
the production of flame resulting to rapid extinguishment of the fire. This method is effective only on burning gas
and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in smoldering mode of combustion.

What are the methods of extinguishing the 4 Classes of Fire?

1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling: water is the best agent in cooling the burning solid
materials; water has a quenching effect that can reduce the temperature of a burning material below its ignition
temperature; (Fire extinguishers which have water, sand, acid, foam and special solution containing alkali methyl
dust, as found in the loaded stream extinguisher, should be used for this type of fire.)

2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing (oxygen exclusion). This type of fire is put or controlled
by foam, loaded stream, carbon dioxide, dry chemical and vaporizing liquid.

3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing agent: the safest procedure is to always
de-energize the electrical circuit. Extinguishers that should be used to put out these type of fires are Carbon Dioxide
Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids.

4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing agents marked specifically for metals. GE type, meth
LX, Lith X, Meth L, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class D fires

5. CLASS E FIRES – only combination of the above methods.

Fire Extinguishers - A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of metal, containing chemicals,
fluids, or gasses for stopping fires, the means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting out fire
(particularly small fire ) before it propagates, and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.

It is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited size.

What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?

1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled with water use of fight Class A and Class B fires except
class C fires.

2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those extinguishers that contain Carbon Monoxide Gas use to fight class A,
B, and C fires
3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that contain chemical powder intended to fight all classes of fires.

4. Foam Extinguisher – contains sodium bicarbonate and a foam-stabilizing agent in a larger compartment
and a solution of aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinder; reaction between the two solutions forms a stabilized foam
of carbon dioxide bubbles.

5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with sodium bicarbonate mixed with water; a small bottle of sulfuric
acid is suspended inside (near the top) in such a way that when the extinguisher is turned up-side-down, the acid
mixes with sodium bicarbonate; carbon dioxide is formed by the reaction which results to the building of pressure
inside the extinguisher; this pressure forces the water solution out from the container through a hose.

6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains non-conducting liquid, generalization carbon

tetrachloride or chlorobromethane; operation is by manual pumping or using a stored pressure; the stream of liquid
that is expelled is vaporized by the heat of the fire and forms a smothering blanket. This type is usually used in fires
involving flammable liquids or electrical equipment.

7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective against burning liquids and fires in live electrical
equipment; used mainly to put out Class C fires.

What are examples of extinguishing agents?

1. MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CHEMICALS like the Mono-Ammonium Phosphate ( NH H PO )

2. BCF-HALON 1211 or Bromochlorodifluoromethane

3. AFFF – (Aqueous Film Forming Foam), is a synthetic foam-forming liquid designed for use with fresh
water.

4. CARBON DIOXIDE – a chemical that can deliver a quick smothering action to the flames, reducing the
oxygen and suffocating the fire. Carbon dioxide dissipates without leaving any contamination or corrosive residue.

What are the markings required on Fire Extinguishers?

Under (Rule 37, Sec. 106 of PD 1185), all fire extinguishers manufactured or sold in the Philippines must
be labelled or marked to show at least the following:

1. Date of original filling

2. Chemical Contents

3. Type of extinguisher

4. Operating Instruction and Safe Procedure in usage

5. Name and address of the manufacturer

6. Name and address of the dealer.

What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers?

Rule 37, Sec. 104 of IRR of PD 1185 provides that the following types of fires extinguishers are
prohibited for manufacture or sale:
1. All inverting types which make it necessary to invert the container before the extinguisher’s operation

2. Soda-acid extinguishers

3. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam solution, unless and air-aspiring nozzle is provided

4. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane in any concentration of

formulation

5. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers of less than one kilogram extinguishing agent

6. Glass bulb, “ grenade” type, or “bomb” type of vaporizing liquid extinguishers which have to be thrown to
the fire or are mounted on specific location and which operate upon the melting of a fusible link.

7. Thermatic special hazards single station extinguishers with extinguishing capability of less than four and a
half (4.5) cubic meters

8. Other types which maybe hereinafter prohibited.

What are the prohibited acts involving the operation of fire extinguishers?

From the same legal basis above, the following are declared prohibited acts concerning the use of fire
extinguishers:

1. Removal of inspection tags attached to fire extinguishers

2. Refilling a discharge extinguisher with a extinguishing agent other than what the unit was designed to
contain

3. Selling fire extinguishers not appropriate to the hazard

4. Selling fire extinguishers prohibited by Rule 37, Section 104

5. Selling defective or substandard extinguishers

6. Using/installing two or more thermatic special hazard vaporizing liquid units in rooms with volume greater
than the nominal capability of one unit.

7. Installing pressure gauges in fire extinguishers which do not indicate the actual pressure of the interior of
vessel such as, but not limited to use of uncalibrated gauges, not providing or blocking the connection between the
gauge and the interior, or fixing the indicator/needle to indicate a certain pressure.

What are the General Operating Procedures in Fire Extinguishment?

The general operating procedures in using a fire extinguisher may be modified by the acronym PASS.

P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed. Press the plastic or
thin wire inspection band.

A– Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies are dipped to the extinguisher body.
Released it and then point at the base of the fire.
 S – Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The handle can
be released to stop the discharge at any time.

S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the extinguishing agent.

After the fire is out, probe for remaining smouldering hot spots or possible re-flash of flammable liquids. Make sure
the fire is out before leaving the burned area.

Fire Fighting Equipment

The most important equipment for fire fighters includes:

1. Communication Systems

They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the outbreak of a fire. Most fire alarms are telephoned to the fire
department. Many countries have introduced a simple, 3-digit number as the telephone number to call in
emergencies. This number can be dialed from almost any telephone and from most pay phones without a coin.
Dialing this number is free. In the Philippines, the emergency line is 166.

2. Fire Vehicles

Fire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The main types are (1) engines, (2) ladder appliances, and
(3) rescue vehicles.

Engines, also called water tenders, have a large pump that takes water from a fire hydrant or other source.
The pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it through hoses. Engines carry several sizes of hoses and
nozzles. Many also have a small-diameter hose called a booster line, which is wound on a reel. The booster line is
used chiefly to put out small outdoor fires.

Ladder appliances - There are two kinds of ladder appliances--turntable ladders and hydraulic platforms.

A turntable ladder appliance has a metal extension ladder mounted on a turntable. The ladder can be raised as high
as 30 meters, or about eight storeys.

A hydraulic platform truck has a cage-like platform that can hold several people. The platform is attached to a
lifting device that is mounted on a turntable. The lifting device consists of either a hinged boom (long metal arm) or
an extendable boom made of several sections that fit inside each other. The boom on the largest vehicles can extend
46 meters. A built-in hose runs the length of the boom and is used to direct water on a fire. In most cases, a pump
in a nearby engine generates the pressure needed to spray the water.

Fire Fighting Vehicles - are equipped with portable ladders of various types and sizes. They also carry
forcible entry tools, which fire fighters use to gain entry into a building and to ventilate it to let out smoke.
Common forcible entry tools include axes, power saws, and sledge hammers.

Rescue Vehicles are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the same kinds of forcible entry tools that
ladder appliances carry. But rescue vehicles also carry additional equipment for unusual rescues. They have such
tools as oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal, and hydraulic jacks, for lifting heavy objects. They may
also carry other hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue tool, fire fighters can apply a large amount of pressure to
two objects to squeeze them together or prise them apart. The tool is often used to free people trapped in cars and
other vehicles after an accident. Many rescue vehicles also carry small hand tools, such as crowbars and saws, and
ropes and harnesses for rescuing people from water or high places. In addition, they carry medical supplies and
equipment.
 Special Fire Vehicles include airport crash tenders and hazardous materials units. Airport crash tenders are
engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft. Water is ineffective against many aircraft fires, such
as those that involve jet fuel or certain metals.

In addition to the above fire fighting equipment, fire fighters are also required to use protective clothing.

Protective Clothing - clothing for protection against flames, falling objects, and other hazards. They wear
coats and trousers made of fire-resistant material. Other clothing includes special boots, gloves, and helmets. Fire
fighters also use a breathing apparatus to avoid inhaling smoke and toxic gases.

Fire Prevention and Public Safety

As mentioned earlier, Fire Prevention is a term for the many safety measures used to keep harmful fires from
starting. Fires not only cause extensive damage to valuable property, but also responsible for large numbers of
deaths.

BASIC FIRE INVESTIGATION

In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is the main government agency responsible for the
prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on buildings, houses and other structures, forest, land
transportation vehicles and equipments, ships or vessels docked at piers or major seaports, petroleum industry
installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire Code and other related
laws. It has the major power to investigate all causes of fires and necessary, file the proper complaints with the
proper authority that has jurisdiction over the case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54).

Why Fires should be investigated?

The very reason why fires should be investigated is to determine the cause of the fire in order to prevent
similar occurrences. The determination of the origin and cause of fire is arrived at only after a thorough
investigation. Since basic investigation is prelude to the discovery of the true cause of the fire, an understanding of
the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior should be a concern for successful investigation.

Who are qualified to investigate fires?

A fire investigator should have the following traits:

1. Possession of knowledge of investigational techniques.

2. He should have an insight of human behavior.

3. He should have a first hand knowledge of the chemistry of fire and its behavior

4. He should be resourceful.

Is Fire Investigation Complex and Unique?

Fire investigation is complex and unique because of the following reasons:

1. Fire destroys evidence

2. If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and committed is discreet.

3. Rarely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.

What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire Investigation?

Firemen are usually at the crime scene ahead of the fire investigators. Hence, they are valuable sources of
information. They are the so-called “Eyes and Ears” of the police before, during and after the fire has been placed
under control. The information taken from them may be categorize as:

1. Information attainable or developed prior to the arrival at the scene

2. Information available to the firemen at the scene

3. Information available during overhaul and thereafter.

Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation

ARSON - Arson is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.

It is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be proved, otherwise, no
crime exist. The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence criminal designs must be shown. Fire cause by
accident or criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or negligence does not constitute arson.

What is Destructive Arson?

Under Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended, the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall
be imposed upon any person who shall burn:

1. One (1) or more buildings or edifices, consequent to one single act of burning, or as a result of
simultaneous burnings, or committed on several or different occasions.

2. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted to the public in general or where people usually
gather or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but not limited to official governmental function or business,
private transaction, commerce, trade workshop, meetings and conferences, or merely incidental to a definite purpose
such as but not limited to hotels, motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or stops or terminals, regardless of
whether the offender had knowledge that there are persons in said building or edifice at the time it is set on fire and
regardless also of whether the building is actually inhabited or not.

3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or airplane devoted to transportation or conveyance, or for
public use, entertainment or leisure.

4. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and any appurtenances thereto, which are devoted to the
service to public utilities.

5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealing or destroying evidence of another
violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing bankruptcy or defrauding creditors or to collect from insurance.

Irrespective of the application of the above enumerated qualifying circumstances, the penalty of reclusion
to death shall likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated or committed by two or more persons or by group
of persons, regardless of whether their purpose is merely to burn or destroy the building or the building merely
constitutes an overt act in the commission or another violation of law.

The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall also be imposed upon any person who shall burn:
1. any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military power or firework factory, ordinance, storehouse, archives or
general museum of the government.

2. in an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or explosives materials.

If the consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized under this Article, death results, the mandatory
penalty of death shall be imposed (sec. 10, RA 7659).

What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?

1. Kind and character of the building burned

2. Location of the building

3. Extent or value of the damage

4. Whether inhabited or not.

What are other forms of arson?

Other forms of arson refers to those enumerated under Article 321 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended
like the following:

1. Setting fires to any building, farmhouse, warehouse, hut, shelter, or vessel in port, knowing it to be
occupied at the time by one or more person.

2. Building burned is a public building and value of damage exceeds six thousands pesos (P6000.00).

3. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence kept therein to be used in instituting
prosecution for punishment of violators of law, irrespective of the amount of damage.

4. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence kept therein to be used in
legislative, judicial or administrative proceeding, irrespective of the damage, if the evidence is to be used against
defendant of any crime punishable under existing law.

Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)

Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn, shed, or any other property, under circumstances clearly
excluding all danger of the fire spreading, value of the property not exceed 25.00 pesos.

Crimes Involving Destruction (Art 324, RPC)

The offender causes destruction by any of the following means:

1. explosion

2. discharge of electric current

3. inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel

4. taking up the rails from a railway track

5. malicious changing of railway signals for the safety of moving trains

6. destroying telegraph wires and telegraph post or those any other communication system

7. by using any other agency or means of destruction as effective as the above

Burning one’s own property as a means to commit arson (Read Case of U.S vs. Budiao, 4 Phil. 502)
(Article 325, RPC)

Article 326, RPC – Setting Fire to Property Exclusively Owned By the Offender

This act is punished if the purpose of the offender is to:

1. Defraud or cause damage to another or

2. damaged is actually caused upon another’s property even if such purpose is absent

3. thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.

Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson

Special Aggravating Circumstance in Arson

1. If committed with intent to gain:

2. If committed with the benefit of another:

3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property burned:

4. If committed by a syndicate (3 or more persons).

Prima Facie Evidence of Arson

1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment

2. If substantial amounts of flammable substance or materials are stored within the building not necessary in
the business of the offender nor for house hold use.

3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or materials soaked

therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a
fire, a fire, or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or
property.

4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of the issuance
of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have occurred in the
same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and / or insured.

6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a building or property had
been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.

7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in exchange for the
desistance of the offender or the safety of the person or property of the victim.

Arson Investigation

What Constitutes Arson?

1. Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must takes place. In other words, there must be burning or
changing, i.e. the fibber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.

2. Wilfulness – means intentional, and implies that the act was done purposely and intentionally.

3. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.

4. Motive – is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.

5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.

Methods of Proof in Arson

Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed, Corpus Delicti must be shown and
identify of the arsonist must be established. Corpus Delicti (body of the crime) is the fact of that crime was
committed. The following must show it:

1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint, firemen responding to
the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also indicate location.

2. Criminal Design – must show that it was wilfully and intentionally done. The presence of incendiary
devices, flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is not accidental.

3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were removed from the building before the fire, ill-feeling between
the accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to put off fire and such other indications.

What are basic lines of inquiry in Arson Investigation?

The arson investigator must have to inquire on the following a) point of origin of fire b) motives of arsonist
c) prime suspects d) the telltale signs of arson.

1. Point of origin of fire

Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of fire. In other words, at what particular place in
the building the fire started? This may be established by an examination of the witness, by an inspection of the
debris at the fire scene and by studying the fingerprint of fire. The fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning
stage of the fire when pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls leaving a bunt pattern.

Witnesses must be questioned as to:

1. His identity

2. What attracted his attention

3. Time of observation

4. His position in relation to the fire at the time of observation

5. Exact location of the blaze

6. Size and intensity

7. Rapidity of spread

8. Color of flame and odor if he is in a position this

9. Any other person in the vicinity beside the witness

Note fire setting mechanism

1. matches

2. candles

3. electrical system

4. mechanical means

5. chemical methods

2. Motive of Arsonist

To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator have to note the following that fires are set by:

Persons with Motives

a. Those with desire to defraud the Insurer

b. Employees or such other person who have a grievance (Fire revenge)

c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime

d. Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation

People without motives

a. Those who are mentally ill

b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros and the Psychos

Motives of Arsonist

1. Economic Gain

a. Insurance fraud – benefiting

b. Desire to dispose merchandise – lost of market value being out of season, lack of raw materials, over
supply of merchandise can be a big reason for arson.

c. Existing business transaction that the arsonist would like to avoid such as impending liquidation, settlement
of estate, need for cash, prospective business failure, and increase rentals

d. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the Assured like insurance agents wishing business with the assured,
business competitors planning to drive others, person seeking job as personnel protection, salvagers and contractors
wishing to contact another building

2. Concealment of Crime - When the purpose of hiding a crime or committing a crime, arson was used as
means.

3. Punitive Measure - Committing arson to inflict injury to another due to hatred, jealousy and revenge.

4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - Arsonist as saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to intimidate

management or employer.

5. Pyromania

A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any motivation. They do not run away
from the fire scene since they love watching fire burning.

Types of Pyromania

a. Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles and morons

b. Hero Type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn on the alarm or make some
rescue works to appear as “hero”

c. Drug addicts and alcoholics

d. Sexual deviates and perverts.

3. Prime Suspects (and the Prima Facie Evidences)

The development of prime suspects - this involves identification results from the full development of leads,
clues and traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the development of expert testimony, The following
technique may serve the investigation:

1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence:

a. Protection of the scene

b. Mechanics of search

c. Collection and preservation of evidences

d. Laboratory aids

2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other person having
major interest in the fire.

3. Interviews and interrogations of persons who discovered the fire, and the one who turned the first
alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.

4. Surveillance

4. The Tell Tale Signs of Arson

These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the scene will suspects arson or they maybe so well
concealed that moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will be required.

1. Burned Building – the type of the building may indicate a set fire under certain circumstance. A fire of
considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-
concrete building.

2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building. The fire is certainly
suspicious.

3. Color of Smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The observation of the
smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has assumed a major proportion, the value of the
smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used by the arsonist

a.) When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire, it indicates
humid material burning. Example – burning hay, vegetable materials, phosphorus (with garlic odor).

b.) Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and coughing indicates presence of
chlorine.

c.) Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large flames it indicates petroleum products and
rubber.

d.) Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04, HN03, or HCI.

e.) Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire:

• Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics, etc.

• Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products

• White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products

• Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt

• Purple-violet flame – potassium products

• Greenish-yellow flame – Chloride or Manganese products

• Bright reddish yellow flame – Calcium products

8. Color of flame – The color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an important factor
in determining incendiarism.

9. Amount of Heat – A reddish glow indicates heat of 5000 degrees centigrade, a real bright read about 100
degrees centigrade. Red flames indicate of petroleum. Blue flame indicates use of alcohol as accelerant.

10. Smoke Marks – An experience investigation will determine the volume of smoke involved at a fire and the
character as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smoke in marks have often been of assistance in determining
the possibility of a fire having more than one place of origin.

11. Size of Fire – This is important when correlated with the type of alarm, the time received and the time of
arrival of the first fire apparatus. Fires make what might be termed a normal progress. Such progress can be
estimated after an examination of the material burned the building and the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The
time element and the degree of headway by the flames become important factors to determine factors to determine
possible incendiarism.

12. Direction of Travel – While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it can be shown
that fire makes normal progress through various types of building materials, combustibility of contents, channel of
ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether
a fire spread abnormally fast.

13. Intensity – The degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes indicate that some
accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a building and the investigator must look for further
evidence pointing to use of such accelerant. Difficulty in extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of
such fluid as gasoline and kerosene.

14. Odor – The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often used as
accelerant is characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this telltale sign. Most of fire – setters are
inclined to use substance which will make the blaze certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their
crime.

15. Condition of Content – Persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects of value either
materially or sentimentally. Store and other business establishments oftentimes remove a major portion of their
content or replace valuable merchandise without of style articles.