SKELETAL SYSTEM

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Skeletal System of Vertebrates

 The skeletal system or skeleton forms the

framework that supports and protects an
animal’s body. It consists of bones, cartilage,
joints, ligaments, and tendons.
 Endoskeleton is the skeleton inside the body.
 Division of skeleton
1. The axial skeleton
- Composed of bones that lie around
the body’s center of gravity.
- i.e., skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid
bones, vertebral column, ribs, and
sternum.
2. The appendicular skeleton
- Composed of the bones of the
limbs.
- i.e., extremities, shoulder, and pelvic girdle
3. Bones
- A form of connective tissue
- One of the hardest tissues in the body.
- Embryonically, the skeleton is made of cartilage and fibrous membranes that
harden into bone before birth.
- Normal bone goes through a continuous process of building up and breaking down
throughout an animal’s life allowing the bone to heal and repair itself.
- Osteogenic cells
- Bone growth is balanced between the actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
1. Osteoblasts (oste/o = bone,
-blasts = immature)
o Bone building cells
o Immature bone cells
that produce bony
tissue.
o Osteogenic or
osteoprogenitor cells
are precursors of
osteoblasts
o When osteoblasts mature, they become osteocytes.
2. Osteoclasts (oste/o = bone, -clasts = break)
o Bone resorbing cells
o Phagocytic cells that eat away bony tissue from the medullary cavity
of long bone.
- Bones responds to specific hormones
1. Somatotropin (growth hormone)
o A hormone from anterior pituitary gland that promotes bone growth
by accelerating protein synthesis in the epiphyseal plates and
increases the rate of osteoblast formation.
2. Parathyroid hormone
o A hormone from parathyroid gland which stimulates bone resorption.
3. Calcitonin
o A hormone from the thyroid gland which inhibits bone resorption
- Ossification – the formation of bone from fibrous tissue, continues until maturity,
which varies with species.
1. Endochondral ossification
o Ossification occurs within the cartilaginous template and also within
the surrounding fibroblastic perichondral sheath to form the bone
collar.
o It involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bony tissue.
o Most of the bones of the skeleton are formed in this manner, thus
they are called endochondral bones.
2. Intramembranous bone
o Ossification develops via direct osteoblast differentiation within the
mesenchyme.
o It involves the replacement of sheet-like connective tissue
membranes with bony tissue.
o They include certain flat bones of the skull and some of the irregular
bones.
- Bone Marrow (myeloid tissue) – a soft, gelatinous tissue that fills the cavities of
the bones.
1. Red bone marrow
o Located in cancellous bone
o It is describes as hematopoietic (hemat/o means blood, -poietic
means formation.
2. Yellow bone marrow
o Located in the medullary cavity of long bone.
o In adult animals, yellow bone marrow replaces red bone marrow.
o Yellow bone marrow is composed mainly of fat cells and serves as a
fat storage area.
- Bone is divided into different categories based on bone types, bone shapes, and
bone functions
- Types of Bone
1. Cortical bone
o Also called compact bone.
o Hard, dense, strong bone that forms the outer layer of bone.
2. Cancellous bone
o Also called spongy bone.
o Lighter, less strong bone that is found in the ends and inner portions
of long bones.

- Parts of Bone
1. Epiphysis
o The wide end of a long bone, which
is covered with articular cartilage
and is composed of cancellous bone
proximal epiphysis = located nearest
the midline of the body distal
epiphysis = located farthest away
from the midline of the body.
o Epi- means above, physis means
growth.
2. Diaphysis
o Shaft of a long bone that is
composed mainly of compact bone.
o Dia- means between
3. Physis
 o Also called the growth plate or epiphyseal cartilage.
o Cartilage segment of long bone that involves growth of the bone
4. Metaphysis
o Wider part of long bone shaft located adjacent to the physis.
o In adult animals, it is considered part of the epiphysis
o Meta- means beyond
5. Periosteum
o Tough, fibrous tissue that forms the outer covering of bone.
o Peri means surrounding
6. Endosteum
o Tough, fibrous tissue that forms the lining of the medullary cavity.
o Endo- means within or inner
- Bone extensions are enlargements, usually at the ends of bones, where muscles,
tendons, and other bones are attached.
Condyle = rounded projection (that Process = rounded projection (distal end of
articulates with another bone). tibia and fibula)
Crest = high projection or border Protuberance = projecting part
projection

Crista = ridge Ramus = branch or smaller structure given

off by a larger structure
Dens = toothlike structure Spine = sharp projection

Eminence = surface projection Suture = seam

Facet = smooth area Trochanter = broad, flat projection (on

femur)
Head = major protrusion Trochlea = pulley-shaped structure in
which other structures pass or articulate
Lamina = thin, flat plate Tubercle = small, rounded surface
projection
Line = low projection or ridge Tuberosity = projecting part

Malleolus = rounded projection (distal end

of tibia and fibula)

- Bone depressions allow bones to attach to each other or serve as passageways

for blood vessels and nerves
Aperture = opening Fovea = small pit
Canal = tunnel Meatus = passage or opening
Fissure = deep cleft Sinus = space or cavity
Foramen = hole Sulcus = groove
Fossa = trench or hollow depressed area
 - Bone Classification
1. Long bones
o Bones consisting of a shaft, two ends, and a marrow cavity.
o i.e., humerus, femur, radius, ulna, phalanges, metacarpals,
metatarsals, tibia, fibula.
2. Short bones
o cube-shaped bones
with no marrow cavity
o i.e., Carpal and tarsal
bones
3. Flat bones
o Thin, flat bones
o i.e., cranial bones,
pelvic bones, scapula
4. Pneumatic bones
o Sinus-containing bones
o i.e., frontal bone and
bone of birds
5. Irregular bones
o Unpaired bones
o i.e., vertebrae)
6. Sesamoid bones
o Small bones
embedded in a tendon
o i.e., patella
4. Cartilage
- Another form of connective tissue that is more elastic than bone.
- The elasticity of cartilage makes it useful in the more flexible portions of the
skeleton.
- Articular cartilage, a specific type of cartilage, covers the joint surfaces of bone.
- The meniscus is a curved fibrous cartilage found in some joints that cushions
forces applied to the joint.
- The combining form for cartilage is chondr/o.
5. Joints
- Joints or articulations are connections between bones.
- Articulate means to join in a way that allows motion between the parts.
- The combining form for joint is arthr/o.
- The different types of joints are classified based on their function and degree of
movement.
- Synarthroses allow no movement (immovable).
o A form a nonmovable joint is suture found in the skull.
- Amphiarthroses allow slight movement (semimovable).
o Symphysis is a form of semimovable joint. They are found in the pelvis and
mandible.
- Diarthroses allow free movement.
o Synovial joints are freely movable joints.
 1. Ball-and-socket joints (enarthroses) allow a wide range of motion in
many directions, such as the hip and shoulder joints.
2. Arthrodial or condyloid joints have oval projections that fit into a
socket, such as the carpal joints
3. Trochoid joints include pulley-shaped joints like the connection
between the atlas to the axis.
4. Hinge joints allow motion in one plane or direction, such as canine
stifle and elbow joints.
5. Gliding joints move or glide over each other, as in the radioulnar joint
or the articulating process between successive vertebrae.
6. Saddle joint allows primates to flex, extend, abduct, adduct, and
circumduct the thumb.
o Bursa is a fibrous sac that acts as a cushion to ease movement in areas of
friction. Within the shoulder joint is a bursa where a tendon passes over
bone.
o Synovial Membrane is an inner lining of bursae and synovial joints. It
secretes synovial fluid which acts as a lubricant to make joint movement
smooth.
6. Ligaments
- A ligament is a band of fibrous connective tissue that connects one bone to
another bone to help stabilize joints.
7. Tendons
- A tendon is a band of fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone to
help the animal move.

Skeletal System of Invertebrates

A. Exoskeleton
- The rigid or articulated envelope that supports and protects the soft tissues of
certain animals.
- It is most commonly applied to the chitinous integument of arthropods, such as
insects, spiders, and crustaceans.
- An exoskeleton does not grow; it must be molted regularly and a new one
secreted, at which time the animal is soft and vulnerable to both predators and
environmental changes.

B. Hydrostatic Skeleton

- A flexible skeleton supported by fluid pressure

- Found in some worms (earthworms)

CHAPTER VII. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

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Muscular System
  This system functions for the
movement and locomotion of
animals.
 Three types of mammalian
muscles:

1. Skeletal muscle - attached to

bones and move them
relative to each other
2. Cardiac muscle - comprises
the heart, which pumps blood through the vasculature
3. Smooth muscle - does not contain sarcomeres but uses the contraction of
filaments of actin and myosin to constrict blood vessels and move the contents of
hollow organs in the body

Three Principal Kinds of Animal Movement

1. Ameboid

o It is a form of movement especially characteristic of amoebas and

other unicellular forms
o It is also found in many wandering cells of metazoans, such as white
blood cells, embryonic mesenchyme, and numerous other mobile cells
that move through the tissue spaces.
o Ameboid cells change their shape by sending out and withdrawing
pseudopodia (false feet) from any point on the cell surface.

2. Ciliary/Flagellar

o Cilia

 These are minute, hairlike, motile processes that extend from the
surfaces of the cells of many animals.
 Distinctive feature of ciliate protistans.
 Performs roles such as:
 moving small organisms such as unicellular ciliates,
flagellates, and ctenophores through their aquatic
environment
 Propelling fluids and materials across epithelial surfaces of
larger animals.

o Flagellum (flagella)

 It is a whiplike structure which is longer than a cilium and usually

present singly or in small numbers at one end of a cell.
 They are found in:
  Flagellate protistans
 animal spermatozoa
 Sponges

3. Muscular

o Found in higher forms of animals

o It is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers or myocytes
whose predominant function is contractibility.

Types of Invertebrate Muscle

1. Transversely striated muscle

2. Obliquely striated muscle
3. Smooth muscle

Insect flight muscles

 Fibrillar muscle
 Unique characteristic of the wings of
some small flies
 It operates at frequencies greater than
1000 beats per second.
 It has very limited extensibility
 Flight muscles of insects
 Upstroke is by indirect muscles
 Downstroke is by direct muscles.
 In insects such as flies and bees, both
upstroke and downstroke are by
indirect muscles.
 The figure-eight path followed by the wing of a flying insect during the
upstroke and downstroke is depicted in the picture.

Nematodes (roundworms)

 All the muscle cells are assigned against the body wall and parallel to the
longitudinal body axis.
 Flatworms have muscle fibers arranged longitudinally, transverse and dorsoventrally.

Annelids body wall consist of an outer circular and inner longitudinal muscle layer.

Types of Vertebrate Muscle

1. Skeletal muscle
 Appears transversely striped (striated), with alternating dark and light
bands
 Multinucleated
2. Cardiac muscle
 Possesses striations like skeletal muscle
 Uni-nucleated and with branching cells
3. Smooth (or visceral) muscle
 Not striated.
 Uni-nucleated
Structure of Striated Muscle

 Epimysium
 Connective tissue sheath
covering each muscle.
 Perimysium
 Connective tissue sheath
surrounding each muscle
bundles
 A muscle bundle
composed of muscle fibers
surrounded by perimysium
is called Fasciculus.
 Endomysium

 Connective tissue sheath

surrounding individual muscle
fiber
 Muscle cell (fiber) or Myocytes

 Long and cylindrical cells with

many nuclei for the production
for the production of large
amounts of proteins and
enzymes.
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a
specialized smooth endoplasmic
 reticulum important in transmitting the electrical impulse as well as in the
storage of calcium ions.
 Sarcolemma – the thin plasma membrane of muscle cell.
 Sarcoplasm – the cytoplasm of muscle fiber.
 A muscle fiber contains hundred to thousand myofibrils.
 Myofibrils – also known as muscle fibril or sarcostyle; a basic rod-like
organelles in the sarcoplasm which runs parallel to each other along the
length of the muscle fiber. It is made up of thick and thin myofilaments which
give the muscle its striped appearance. They are polymers, or repeating
units, of sarcomere.
 The thick filaments are composed strands of the protein myosin while the
thin filaments are strands of the protein actin
 Sarcomere is the basic contractile unit of muscle fiber. It is responsible
for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle. Each sarcomere is
composed of two main contractile protein filaments – actin (thin filament)
and myosin (thick filament).
 Z-line
 Serve as a boundary at each end of sarcomere.
 I-band (isotropic band or light band)

 The region in sarcomere that contains actin filaments only.

 A-band (anisotropic band or dark band)

 The region in sarcomere that contains both actin and myosin filaments.
 H-Zone

 The pale region in the A-band

without actin filaments.

 M-Line

 The middle of the sarcomere

within the H-zone.

 Myosin
 Made up of myosin molecules
packed together in an
elongate bundle.
 Composed of two polypeptide chains, each having a club-shaped head.
 The head faces outward from the center of the filament
 Heads act as molecular cross bridges that interact with the thin filaments
during contraction.
  Actin Filament
 It is composed of three
different proteins.
 Protein actin
 The backbone of the
thin filament
 Tropomyosin
 Two stranded, coiled protein that surrounds the actin filament
 It regulates muscle contraction and relaxation
 Troponin complex
 It is a complex of three globular proteins attached to tropomyosin and
is lies within the groove of actin filaments.
 Present in skeletal and cardiac muscle.
 It is a calcium-dependent switch that acts as the control point in the
contraction process by exposing the myosin binding site.

Sliding Filament Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

 In the relaxed state, the ends of the actin filaments extending from two successive Z
disks barely overlap one another.
 In the contracted state, the actin filaments have been pulled inward among the
myosin filaments, so their ends overlap one another to their maximum extent. Also,
the Z disks have been pulled by the actin filaments up to the ends of the myosin
filaments
Control of Contraction

 Muscle contracts in response to nerve stimulation.

- Skeletal muscle fibers are innervated by motor neurons whose cell bodies are
located in the spinal cord.

- If the nerve supply for a muscle is cut or severed the muscle atrophies, or
wastes away.

 Acetylcholine is secreted in the nerve endings and it acts on the muscle fiber to
generate action potential.
 Action potential stimulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release large quantities of
calcium ions.
 The calcium ions initiate attractive forces between the actin and myosin filaments,
causing them to slide alongside each other, which is the contractile process.
 After a fraction of a second, the calcium ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum by a Ca++ membrane pump and remain stored in the reticulum until a new
muscle action potential comes along; this removal of calcium ions from the myofibrils
causes the muscle contraction to cease.
ATP is the Source of Energy for Muscle Contraction

 The Energy source for contraction.

 It is the immediate source of energy, but the amount present will sustain contraction
for only a second or two.
 Large amounts of ATP are cleaved to form ADP during the contraction process, and
the greater the amount of work performed by the muscle, the greater the amount of
ATP that is cleaved.
 The ADP is rephosphorylated to form new ATP within another fraction of a second,
which allows the muscle to continue its contraction.
 The three sources of the energy for rephosphorylation.
1. Phosphocreatine – It is instantly cleaved, and its released energy causes
bonding of a new phosphate ion to ADP to reconstitute the ATP.
2. Glycolysis – The rapid enzymatic breakdown of the glycogen to pyruvic acid
and lactic acid liberates energy that is used to convert ADP to ATP
3. Oxidative Metabolism – It is the combination of oxygen with the end products
of glycolysis and with various other cellular foodstuffs to liberate ATP.
The Fast and Slow Muscle Fiber

1. Slow Fibers (Type I, Red Muscle)

 Provide endurance
 Smaller than fast fibers.
 Innervated by smaller nerve fibers.
 They have a more extensive blood vessel system and more capillaries to
supply extra amounts of oxygen.
 They have greatly increased numbers of mitochondria to support high levels
of oxidative metabolism.
 They contain large amounts of myoglobin

- Myoglobin is an iron-containing protein similar to hemoglobin in red

blood cells.
- It combines with oxygen and stores it until needed, which also greatly
speeds oxygen transport to the mitochondria.
- It gives the slow muscle a reddish appearance and hence the name red
muscle.

2. Fast Fibers (Type II, White Muscle)

 A deficit of red myoglobin in fast muscle gives it the name white muscle
 They deliver extreme amounts of power for a few seconds to a minute or so.
 Fast fibers are large for great strength of contraction.
 An extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum is present for rapid release of calcium
ions to initiate contraction.
 Large amounts of glycolytic enzymes are present for rapid release of energy
by the glycolytic process.
 Fast fibers have a less extensive blood supply than do slow fibers because
oxidative metabolism is of secondary importance.
 Fast fibers have fewer mitochondria than do slow fibers, also because
oxidative metabolism is secondary.

CHAPTER VIII. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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 Food

 Any substance which contains nutrients

and essential requirement of an
organism like proteins, carbohydrates
and fats to supply energy, sustain growth
and vital processes.

Digestion

 The process of preparing food for

absorption and assimilation.
 It is the process of breaking down of food
into small water-soluble food molecules so that it can be absorbed into the body of
organisms.

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Categories of animals based on dietary habits

1. Herbivorous animals
 These animals feeds mainly on plants
 Examples: Cattle, deer, goat, sheep, horse etc...
2. Carnivorous animals
 They eat entirely or largely on meat of other animals
 Examples: Cat, Lion, Tiger, sharks, flesh flies etc...
3. Omnivorous animals
 They eat various plants and animals
 They are known as general feeders
 Examples: human, bears, rats, etc.

4. Saprophagous animals
 Animals feed on decaying organic matter
5. Scavengers
 They eat dead animals
 Example: vultures and some insects
6. Insectivorous animals
 They feed primarily on insects
 Example: Frogs, lizards, birds, and other mammals
Feeding mechanism

1. Microphagous feeders
 They feed on small particles either living or dead.
 Examples: paramecia, certain protozoans, some sea anemones,
certain fishes, and tadpoles.

2. Macrophagous feeders
 They use larger particles as feeds.
 Examples: humans, mammals and other higher forms of animal

3. Animals that feed on fluids

 Mosquitoes and ticks (they suck blood)
 Aphids (they pump in plant juices)

Digestive Mechanisms of various animals

 Various animals differ in general form, structural details and physiologic

processes according to the nature of the food, manner of life, and other
factors.
 The means for taking and using food are essentially alike in that materials
from the external environment are brought into intimate contact with the
internal membranous surfaces where digestion and absorption takes place.

Invertebrate Digestion

 Many protozoans have no permanent structures for

taking or digesting food.
 The digestion of protozoans and sponges are
intracellular.
 Intracellular digestion

 A small food particle that are engulfed by the process of phagocytosis at the
cell surface become surrounded by fluid filled vacuoles into which digestive
enzymes are released.
 These enzymes is probably carried by lysosomes.

Extracellular digestion

 The food that has entered the digestive tract is acted upon by enzymes
secreted from gland cells in the interior lining of the digestive tract.
 It occurs in the higher form of animals.

In invertebrates the digestive tract is either

1. Coelenteronic or incomplete

2. Enteronic or complete

Coelenteronic

 The food enters an opening (mouth) and the undigested residues pass out on
the same opening.
 Examples are:

 Cnidarians with definite mouth connected to a sac-like digestive

(gastrovascular) cavity.
 Flatworms (except tapeworms) have a mouth and a branched
digestive tract extending to all parts of the body.

Enteronic

 In most other vertebrates the digestive tract is essentially a tube within the
body.
 It opens to the outside through the mouth and anus and is separated from the
interior body spaces by selectively permeable membranes.
  The food enters the mouth and passes through various organs for storage,
digestion, or absorption and any residues pass out the anus at the opposite
end of the system.
 Example: digestive tract of earthworm

Entoronic digestive tract is composed of:

 Mouth with lips to grasp food

 Esophagus to carry food to the crop
 Crop for the storage of food
 Gizzard where food is ground against particles of
sand
 Intestine with pouchlike lateral extensions
providing a large surface for absorption of
digested portion.
 Anus on the posterior end for the passage of
undigested residues.
 Incomplete vs. complete digestive tract

Vertebrate Digestion

Organization and Regional Function of the Alimentary Canal of animals

The animals’ alimentary canal can be divided into five major regions:

1. Reception
2. Conduction and storage
3. Grinding and early digestion
4. Terminal digestion and absorption and
5. Water absorption and concentration of solids

1. Reception- this region is composed of organs of the digestive tract which is responsible
for the entry of food particles into the animals body
 Mouth and mouth cavity

Teeth to grasp, tear or chew food

Tongue may help in capturing or manipulating the food

Salivary glands secretes saliva to lubricate the food and start digestion.

Pharynx

 Has no direct digestive function

 Contains gill slits on fishes and some aquatic amphibians

Salivary amylase (Ptyalin)

 It is a carbohydrate splitting enzyme that begins hydrolysis of plant and

animal starches.
 It is found only in certain herbivorous molluscs, some insects, and in
primate mammals, including humans.
 Salivary amylase does not completely hydrolyze starch, but breaks it
down mostly into two glucose fragments called maltose.

2. Conduction and Storage Region- this region serves as a passage way of food paricles
from the upper region to the lower region were the process of digestion
occurs.

Esophagus (gullet)

 Is a flexible tube that served to carry food down to lower part of the digestive
tract.
 Serves to transfer food to the digestive region.
 In many invertebrates (annelids, insects, octopods) the esophagus is
expanded into a crop.

Crop

 It is used for food storage before digestion.

 Among vertebrates only birds have a crop.
 This crop serves to store and soften food (grain, for example) before it passes
to the stomach, or to allow mild fermentation of food before it is regurgitated
to feed nestlings (crop milk of pigeons).
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Digestive tract of humans and birds

3. Region of Grinding and Early Digestion- this region is the site wherein food particles
from the upper part is further broken down into smaller food particles.

Stomach

 Is a large pouch where food is stored and some digestion occurs.

 It provides initial digestion as well as storage and mixing of food with digestive
juices.
 The stomach of carnivorous and omnivorous vertebrates is typically a U-
shaped muscular tube provided with glands that produce proteolytic enzymes
and strong acid.

Gizzard
  A muscular organ in the digestive system of worms and birds in which the
digestion is assisted by stones and grit swallowed along with food.

Cellulase

 The woody cellulose that encloses plant cells can be broken down
only by this type of enzyme.
 Has limited distribution in the living world.
 No metazoan animals can produce intestinal cellulase for the direct
digestion of cellulose.
 However many herbivorous metazoans harbor microorganisms
(bacteria and protozoa) in their gut that do produce cellulase.

Sphincters of the stomach

1. Cardiac sphincter
 It opens reflexively to allow the food to enter, then closes to
prevent regurgitation back into the esophagus.
2. Pyloric sphincter
 It regulates the flow of food into the intestine and prevents
regurgitation in the stomach.

Secretions of the stomach (Gastric juice)

 Secreted by Deep tubular glands in the stomach wall.

 In humans it is approximately 2 liters each day.
 This include mucin, hydrochloric acid, and enzymes.

Two types of cell in stomach

1. Chief cells
 Cells that secrete pepsin
2. Parietal cells
 Cells that secrete hydrochloric acid.

Pepsin

 It is a protease (proteins-plitting enzyme) that acts only in an acid medium

(pH 1.6 to 2.4).
 Pepsin is present in the stomach of nearly all vertebrates.
 Mucin

 It further lubricates the food mass

 A highly viscous organic compound that coats and protects the mucosa from
both chemical and mechanical injury.

Rennin

 It is a milk-curdling enzyme found in the stomach of ruminant mammals.

 It causes the casein in milk to curdle or coagulate.
 The rennin that is extracted from the stomach of calves is used to form the
curd in cheese making.

Chyme

 The mixture of partly digested food particles and secreted fluids that
accumulate in the stomach.

Factors responsible for the protection of gastric epithelium from self digestion

1. A mildly alkaline mucus

2. Low permeability to the uptake of hydrogen ions
3. Tight “leakproof” intercellular junctions and
4. Rapid cellular replacement.

4. Region of Terminal Digestion and Absorption (The intestines)- the region in which the
partly digested food from the stomach is further digested into absorvable
substances.

Small intestine

 A long, slender, and coiled tube

 It is the principal region for digestion and absorption.
 It is about 7.6 m (25 ft) long
 Parts:
 Duodenum
 Jejunum (long central part)
 Ileum
Digestive glands

 Liver and pancreas

 Ther are connected by ducts to the upper part of the small intestine

 Digestion in small intestine

 Chyme will pass through the pyloric sphincter to the duodenum.

 This will stimulate secretion of pancreatic juice and fluid from tubular
glands in the much folded wall of the intestine.
 A bile will be added fro the liver through the bile duct.
 This secretions will fascilitate digestion and will function as protectants
or neutralizers.

Pancreatic enzymes

1. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases

 They break down proteins and polypeptides to amino acids.

2. Amylase
 It breaks down polysaccharides into mixture of glucose and
maltose
 This completes the action of salivary amylase
3. Lipase
 It breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Bicarbonates

1. It is also secreted in pancreatic ducts

2. It neutralizes the hydrochloric acid in the chyme, making the the
intestinal contents mildly alkaline.
3. This prevents ulcerative damage to the intestines and creates an
environment in which the pancreatic enzymes can act.
  Bile
 It is secreted from the liver.
 This greenish yellow liquid contains bile salts that fascilitates digestion by
physically reducing fats to small droplets (emulcification).
 This gives the urine and feces their characteristic yellowish to brownish color.
 Gallbladder
 An expansible storage sac that releases bile when stimulated by the presence
of fatty food in the duodenum.

 Liver is the largest gland of the body

 Other functions of liver aside from secretion of bile includes:
 Stores and provides glucose (glycogen) to the body as needed.
 Serve in protein synthesis and regulates the concentration of amino acids in
the blood.
 Functions in the breakdown and disposal of waste nitrogenous products,
converts ammonia to urea, and helps to dispose the toxic substances
 Forms a substance aiding in the RBC production but also breaks down old
RBC.
 Produces heparin which is a blood anticoagulant
 Stores vitamins
 It is also involved in hormone metabolism.

5. Region of Water Absorption and Concentration of Solids

Large intestine (colon)

 It is the portion where water and salt absorption occurs

 Some cellulose are partly digested by bacterias
 Undigested residues are formed into relatively dry masses (feces) for
expulsion.
 It serves principally to store and concentrate undigested and indigestable
residues and to dispose of them by way of the rectum and anus.
 It conserves water and takes up small amounts of vitamins synthesize by
intestinal bacteria.

Cloaca

 It is an exit for the excretory wastes and sex cells in sharks, amphibians,
reptiles and birds but enters it by seperate ways.
 It is absent in most mammals.

Rectum, Anus or Vent

 It is where the feces is held and expelled out of the body of animals.
Action of digestive enzymes

 Digestive enzymes are hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases) so called because

food molecules are split by the process of hydrolysis.
 Hydrolysis is the breaking of a chemical bond dy adding the components of
water accross it.
  Example:
 Proteins must be separated to individual amino acids before it can be
absorbed.
 Carbohydrates must be reduced to simple sugars.
 Fats (lipids) are reduced to glycerol, fatty acids, and monoglycerides.
 There are specific enzymes for each class of organic compounds and
these enzymes are located in the specific regions of the alimentary
canal.

Motility in the Alimentary Canal

 Food is moved through the digestive tract by cilia or by specialized

musculature, and often by both.
 In animals with well-developed coeloms, the gut is usually lined with
two opposing layers of smooth muscle:
 Longitudinal layer and
 Circular layer

Longitudinal layer

 The smooth muscle fibers run parallel with the length of the gut

Circular layer

 The muscle fibers embrace the circumference of the gut

Segmentation

 The alternate constriction of rings of smooth muscle of the intestine that

constantly divide and squeeze the contents back and forth.
 It is the most characteristic gut movement.
  It serves to mix food in the gut.

Peristalsis

 It is a series of relaxation and contraction that serve to force food through the
alimentary canal.
 It sweeps the food down the gut with waves of contraction of circular muscle.
 It serves to move food through the gut.
Control of Digestion

 The muscular and secretory activities of the gastrointestinal tract are

influenced by:

Autonomic nerves

 Chiefly controled by the vagus nerve and symphathetic fibers and internal
nerve plexuses within the walls of the tract itself.
 Hormones secreted by gastrointestinal glands are chiefly automatic involving
reflex responces to physical and chemical characteristics of food.

 The food entering the mouth stimulates salivary secretion by activating taste
bud cells from which impulses pass along sensory nerves to a salivary center
in the medulla.
 Simultaneously gastric juices is secreted in the stomach.
 The digestive process is coordinated by a family of hormones produced by
the body’s most diffuse endocrine tissue in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

Among the principal GI hormones are

1. Gastrin
2. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
3. Secretin

Gastrin

 It is a small polypeptide hormone produced by endocrine cells in the

pyloric portion of the stomach.
 It is secreted in response to stimulation by the parasympathetic nerve
endings, and when protein food enters the stomach.
 Its main actions are to stimulate hydrochloric acid secretion and
to increase gastric motility.
Cholecystokinin (CCK)/ pancreozymin

 CCK is secreted by endocrine cells in the walls of the upper small

intestine in response to the presence of fatty acids and amino acids in
the duodenum.
 It has 3 main functions:
 It stimulates gallbladder contraction and thus increases the flow of bile
salts into the intestine.
 It stimulates an enzyme-rich secretion from the pancreas; and
 It acts on the brain to contribute a feeling of satiety after a meal,
particularly one rich in fats.
 Secretin

 It is the first hormone to be discovered

 It is produced by endocrine cells in the duodenal wall.
 It is secreted in response to food and strong acid in the stomach and
small intestine
 Its principal action is to stimulate the release of an alkaline pancreatic
fluid that neutralizes stomach acid as it enters the intestine.
 It also aids fat digestion by inhibiting gastric motility and increasing
production of an alkaline bile secretion from the liver.

Absorption

 The small intestine is the principal area for absorption.

 It is defined as the selective taking up of fluids or other substances by cells or
tissues.
 This process fulfills the purpose of digestion.
 Through the intestinal wall the chemical substances derived from food enters the
blood stream and are distributed to the body to be built into living tissues or used for
energy.
 The absorbing surface has a mobile projetions (villi), which bears smaller projections
(micovilli).
 Each villus contains blood capillaries and a central lacteal vessel.
 The end product of protein and carbohydrates (animo acid and simple sugars) are
actively transported through cells of the intestinal mucosa and released into blood
capillaries connecting to the hepatic portal vein and they will be carried to the liver.
 The end product of fat digestion enters the lacteals which connects to the lymphatic
system. These lymphatic vessels from the intestine joins the thoracic duct that enters
the venous system close to the heart.

Assimilation

 It is the incorporation of digested nutriments after absortion into living protoplasm.

Metabolism

 The sum of constructive and destructive processes (anabolism and catabolism),

physical and chemical that occurs in living organisms.
 As the absorbed nutrients is assimilated they are:
 Broken down chemically to supply energy (catabolism) and stored as ATP until
energy is needed by the cells.
 Stored as glycogen or as depot fat.
 build into new cellular structures (anabolism).
Nutritional Requirements

 The food of animals must include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, water, mineral
salts, and vitamins.

Carbohydrates and fats are required as fuels for energy and for the synthesis of
various substances and structures.

Proteins (actually the amino acids of which they are composed) are needed for the
synthesis of specific proteins and other nitrogen-containing compounds.

Water is required as the solvent for body chemistry and as a major component of all
fluids of the body.

Inorganic salts are required as the anions and cations of body fluids and tissues
and form important structural and physiological components throughout the body.

Vitamins are accessory factors from food that are often built into the structure of
many enzymes. It is either water soluble vitamins or lipid soluble vitamins.

CHAPTER IX. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

_________________________________________________________________________

Blood

Heart

Blood vessels

Functions

 The primary function of circulatory system is

to transport nutrients and respiratory gases to and from all tissues of the body.
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horses

Additional functions of circulatory systems:

o It moves hormones from the glands that produce them to target organs where
they assist the nervous system to integrate organismal function.
o For the distribution of water, electrolytes, and the many other constituents of body
fluids and exchanged between different organs and tissues.
o An effective response to disease and injury is vastly accelerated by an efficient
circulatory system.
o For the maintenance of constant body temperature.

A. Vertebrate and Invertebrate Circulatory System

Invertebrate Circulatory System

 Single-celled organisms
o They obtain nutrients and oxygen and release wastes directly across the cell
surface.
o These organisms as so small that no special internal system of transport,
beyond normal streaming movements of cytoplasm, is required.

 Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms

o Invertebrates that do not have circulatory systems
o They use simple diffusion as means for the transport of materials between
various parts of their bodies

Blood of Invertebrates that lack a circulatory system

 Example: flatworms and cnidarians

 It is not possible to distinguish a true “blood.”
 These forms possess a clear, watery tissue fluid containing some phagocytic
cells, a little protein, and a mixture of salts similar to seawater.
https://grbodysystems.wordpress.com/circulatory/

Open and closed circulatory system

 Blood of invertebrates with open circulatory systems

 It is more complex and is often called hemolymph (Gr. haimo, blood, L.

lympha, water).

Blood of Invertebrates with closed circulatory systems

 They maintain a clear separation between blood contained within blood

vessels and tissue (interstitial) fluid surrounding blood vessels.

Types of circulatory system/ circulation

1. Closed circulation

 The vessels convey blood from the heart in various blood vessels and
capillary beds among the tissues and back to the heart.
 Found in: Nemerteans, holothurians, cephalods, annelids, and vertebrates.

2. Open circulation

 The blood is being pumped from the heart through blood vessels through
various organs but returning partly or entirely through body spaces
(hemocoel) to the heart.
 There are no small blood vessels or capillaries connecting arteries with veins.
 Found in most mollusk and arthropods.
VERTEBRATE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Essential parts of the circulatory system of vertebrates

 Blood
 Heart
 Blood vessels

A. BLOOD

 It is a complex liquid
tissue composed of plasma and formed
elements, mostly red cells (also called
corpuscles), suspended in plasma.
 Blood is approximately
55% plasma
 45% formed elements
 Separation of red blood
corpuscles and other formed elements
from the fluid components is done thru the process of
centrifugation.

Blood Serum

 It is the plasma without the proteins involved in clot formation.

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

 To carry oxygen and carbon dioxide between respiratory organs and tissues.
 To carry water and digested foods from the digestive tract to other organs.
 To carry stored foods from one organ or tissue to another as needed.
 To carry organic wastes, excess minerals in solution and water to the excretory
organs.
 To carry Hormones from the glands where produced to the places of use.
 To carry antibodies for immune defense.
COMPOSITION OF MAMMALIAN BLOOD

 Plasma
 Water 90%
 Dissolved solids
 Plasma proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen)
 Glucose and amino acids
 Electrolytes and various enzymes
 Antibodies and hormones
 Metabolic wastes and traces of many other organic and inorganic materials
 Dissolved gases
 Oxygen
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrogen

PLASMA PROTEINS

Albumins

 The most abundant group, constituting 60% of the total.

 It help to keep plasma in osmotic equilibrium with the cells of the body.

Globulins

 A diverse group of high-molecular weight proteins (35% of total) that includes

immunoglobulins and various metal-binding proteins.

Fibrinogen

 A very large protein that functions in blood coagulation.

Formed elements

1. Red blood cells = Erythrocytes

2. White blood cells = Leukocytes
 3. Cell fragments = Platelets in mammals or thrombocytes in other vertebrates

FORMED ELEMENTS

1. Red blood cell (erythrocyte)

 In mammals and birds, red cells form
continuously from large nucleated
erythroblasts in red bone marrow,
 In other vertebrates kidneys and
spleen are the principal sites of red
blood cell production.
 The mammalian RBC is biconcave
shape which provides a larger surface
for gas diffusion.
 Other vertebrates like birds and
reptiles have nucleated erythrocytes
that are usually ellipsoidal in shape.
 An erythrocyte enters the circulation for an average life span of approximately 4
months.
 The old RBC is engulfed by the macrophages in the liver, bone marrow and spleen.
 Iron from hemoglobin is salvaged to be used again; the rest of the heme is converted
to bilirubin, which is a bile pigment.
 It is estimated that a human body produces 10 million erythrocytes and destroys
another 10 million every second.
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White blood cells

2. White blood cells (Leukocytes)

 They form a wandering system of protection for the body

Granulocytes are white blood cells that have small granules inside them.

Basophils

Eosinophils

Neutrophils

Agranulocytes are white blood cells that do not have visible granules inside them.

Monocytes

Lymphocytes

Neutrophils
  The most abundant WBC
 They provide the first line of phagocytic defense in an infection.

Eosinophils

 They often important in response to allergic diseases and parasitic infections.

Basophils

 They are important cellular components of the defense system and usually releases
enzymes during allergic reactions.

Mast cells

 These are basophil-like cells found in the dermis and other tissues.

Monocytes

 They are the cells capable of phagocytosis.

 They are called macrophage if they enters the tissue.

Other macrophages

Kupfer cells

 Found in the sinusoids of the liver

Microglial cells

 Found in the central nervous system

Lymphocytes

 This WBC is concerned with cellular immunity, hypersensitivity, and production of

antibodies.
Platelets

 They are important in blood coagulation.

HEMOSTASIS: PREVENTION OF BLOOD LOSS

 It is essential that animals have ways of

preventing rapid loss of body fluids after an
injury.
 Invertebrates and other vertebrates uses a
simple but highly effective means of
preventing blood loss.
 If there is a cut on blood vessel the smooth
muscles surrounding the blood vessels
contract which causes the lumen of the
vessel to narrow in order to stop the
bleeding.
 Other animals have in their blood some
special cellular elements and proteins that
are capable of forming plugs, or clots, at the
injury site.
 In vertebrates blood coagulation is the
dominant hemostatic defense.
BLOOD CLOTTING/ blood coagulation

 When a blood
vessel is cut the
issuing blood will
soon be stopped
by a protective clot.
 Platelets stick to
the edges of the
cut and form a
plug.
 Thromboplastin
forms from factors
present in the
tissues and blood
plasma.
 In combination with
calcium ions it acts upon prothrombin (produced from liver) and vit. K is required to
produce thrombin.
 Thrombin converts a soluble blood protein fibrinogen into fibrin.
 Fibrin becomes a mass of fine fibers entangling corpuscles to form a clot.

Clotting factors are proteins that are important in the formation of clot thru the process of
blood coagulation.
 The blood clotting factors

ANTICOAGULANT

 It is a substance that serves to prevent the coagulation of blood.

 Examples: Heparin, Sodium citrate, EDTA

Some anticoagulants are secreted by:

 Leeches
 Blood sucking arthropods
 Cyclostomes
 Vampire bats

Vertebrate heart
Heart of fish

 Has two chambers

 One atrium and one ventricle
 All blood passing the heart is unoxygenated

Amphibians and most reptiles

 Has three chambers

 The right atrium receives venous blood from the
body.
 The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs.
 The ventricle is undivided, but venous and arterial
blood remain mostly separate by the arrangement
of vessels leaving the heart.

Double circulation

Pulmonary circuit
  The right side pumping only from the body to the lungs.

Systemic circuit

 It provides oxygenated blood to the capillary beds of body organs.

 Left side from lungs to the body

Avian and Mammalian heart

 Has four chambered heart

 Two atria
 Two ventricles
 B. Heart

 It is a muscular organ located in the thorax and covered

by a tough, fibrous sac, the pericardium. These organ
pumps blood to the blood vessels of the animals body.

Chambers of the heart

Left atrium

o Receives blood from the lungs

o It passes blood to the left ventricle

Left ventricle

o Receives blood from the left atrium

o It pumps blood to the body circulation
Right atrium

o It receives blood from the systemic circulation

o It passes blood into right ventricle

Right ventricle

o It receives blood from the right atrium

o It pumps blood into the lungs
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Parts of mammalian heart

Valves of the heart

1. Mitral valve/ bicuspid valves

 The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle
2. Tricuspid valves
 The valve between right atrium and right ventricle

3. Semilunar valves
 It prevents the backflow of the blood to the ventricles
 Found in between the pulmonary artery or aorta and the ventricles.

Systole and Diastole

Systole

 Contraction of atrium or ventricles

Diastole

 Relaxation of atrium or ventricles

Excitation and control of the heart

 Heart is compose of cardiac muscle

 The cardiac muscle cells are striated
however, the cells are branched and
joined end-to-end by junctional
complexes to form a complex
branching network.
Two types of heart muscle cells

 The muscle cells that makes up the bulk of the heart and
 The pacemaker cells that generates the rythmic heart beat

Specialized Cardiac Cells

Sinoatrial (Sinus) node

o The pacemaker of the heart

o Found in the wall of right atrium
o It initiates contraction from the atria

Atrioventricular node

 Found in the septum between atria

 This is the second center that is stimulated by the SA node after a brief delay.
 The AV node will then stimulate the band of fibers which is called the bundle
of his.
 The bundle of his will affect the specialized fibers “Purkinje fibers” on the
walls of the ventricles to start simultaneous contractions.
Myogenic Heart

 Heartbeat is initiated by specialized muscle cells.

 Even the heart is removed from the body the heart will still beat for a minute or even
for hours if place in salt solution.
 Found in vertebrates and Molluscs

Neurogenic Heart

 The heartbeat is nerve origin

 A cardiac ganglion is located in the heart and serves as pacemaker.
 Found in decopod crustaceans and some arthropods

C. Blood vessels

Arteries

 These are all the vessels

leaving the heart
 They carries oxygenated
and unoxygenated blood
 With elastic and tough
inelastic connective
fibers
 They carry blood away
from the heart.

Arterioles

 Small branches of the arteries

 With smooth muscles on their walls
 They control the blood flow to body organs
 Artery
 Capillaries

 The Italian Marcello

Malpighi was the first to
describe capillaries in
1661.
 Minute blood vessels found
between the aterial and
venous system.
 Their walls are formed by a
single layer of thin
endothelial cells, held
together by a delicate
basement membrane and
connective tissue fibers.
 This vessels are narrow
slightly wider than RBC for
them to be able to pass.

Veins and venules

 Receives the blood from the capillaries

 They have thinner walls
 Returns blood to the heart.

Lymphatic system

 It is an extensive network of thin-walled vessels that arise as blind-ended lymph

capillaries in most tissues of the body.
 A principal function of the lymphatic system is to return to the blood the excess fluid
(lymph) filtered across capillary walls into interstitial spaces.
 Similar to plasma but with much lower protein content.
 They passes absorb fats from the gut to the circulatory system.
 Play an important role in body defences by having lymp nodes.
 This system serves for the production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes
that produces antibodies.
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Lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes of dogs

Internal Fluid Environment

 The body fluid of a single-celled organism is cellular cytoplasm.

 The cytoplasm is a liquid-gel substance in which the various membrane systems and
organelles are suspended.

In multicellular animals body fluids are divided into two mainphases:

 Intracellular
 Extracellular

The intracellular phase/ fluid

 It is the collective fluid inside all the body’s cells.

The extracellular phase/ fluid

  It is the fluid outside and surrounding the cells.
 Extracellular fluid in higher forms of animals is further subdivided into blood plasma
and interstitial (intercellular) fluid.

COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS

 The plasma, interstitial, and intracellular fluids differ from each other in solute
composition.
 However, all have one common feature, they are mostly water.
 Animals are 70%-90% water
 Humans are approximately 70% water by weight.
 50% is cell water
 15% is interstitial fluid water
 It is the remaining 5% is in blood plasma.

Chief extracellular electrolytes

 Sodium
 Chloride, and
 Bicarbonate ions

Major intracellular electrolytes

 Potassium
 Magnesium
 Phosphate ions and
 Proteins (it is more in plasma than interstitial fluid)

CHAPTER X. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

_________________________________________________________________________
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Parts of the respiratory system

The respiratory system is a group of specialized organs whose specific function is to

transport oxygen from air to the blood and the waste carbon dioxide from the blood to the air.

Respiration

 It is defined as the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the
body.

Respiratory processes

1. External respiration
 The exchange between the environment and respiratory organs.
 The focus of this chapter
 2. Cellular respiration
 The utilization of oxygen in the cells and release of carbon dioxide.

Respiratory organs of different animals:

a. Body covering
b. Tracheal system
c. Gills
d. Lungs

Body covering

 Protozoa, sponges, cnidarians, and many worms

 The Gas Exchange is by Direct Diffusion
 Cutaneous respiration
 This respiratory organ frequently supplements gill or lung breathing in
larger animals such as amphibians and fishes.
 It is not adequate when the cellular mass exceeds approximately 1 mm in
diameter however, by greatly increasing the surface of the body relative to
its mass, many multicellular animals can supply part or all of their oxygen
requirements by direct diffusion.

Tracheal Systems

 In this system, the gas

exchange occurs in tubes
located in the body of the
animal.
 It is found in insects and
certain other terrestrial
arthropods (centipedes,
millipedes, and some
spiders)
 The simplest, most direct,
and most efficient respiratory
system found in active
animals.
 It is consists of a branching
system of tubes that extends to all parts of the body.
 The smallest end channels of trachea are fluid-filled tracheoles that sinks in the
plasma membrane of body cells.
  Spiracles
 These ae valve like openings in which the air enter towards the tracheal
system.

Gills

These respiratory organ are effective devices for animals that lives in water.

Kinds of gills

 Dermal papulae of sea stars

 Branchial tufts of marine worms and aquatic amphibians,

 Parapodia is an external respiratory surface for some marine polychaete worms

 Internal gills of fishes and arthropods

 Fish gills are thin

filamentous structures,
richly supplied with blood
vessels arranged so that
blood flow is opposite to the
flow of water across the gills
 Gill ventilation is often
assisted by the fish’s
forward movement through
the water.

Lungs

 This is the primary organ for respiration and all land vertebrates have lungs.
 It is chamber located in the chest or thorax, lined by most epithelium which is
underlaid by network of blood capillaries.
 Lung is like a blood gill but is invaginated rather than evaginated.
 Lungs that can be ventilated by muscle movements to produce a rhythmic
exchange of air are characteristic of terrestrial vertebrates.
 Invertebrate lungs- these structures cannot be very efficiently ventilated like in
Pulmonate snails, scorpions, some spiders, some small crustaceans.

Lung of spiders

Amphibian lungs

 They vary from simple, smooth-walled, baglike lungs of some

salamanders to the subdivided lungs of frogs and toads.
 Amphibians employ a positive pressure action to force air into their lungs.
 Frogs ventilate the lungs by first drawing air into the mouth through the
external nares (nostrils).
 Then, closing the nares and raising the floor of the mouth, they drive air
into the lungs
 Lungs of reptiles

 The total surface

available for gas
exchange is much
increased which are
subdivided into
numerous
interconnecting air
sacs.

In Birds

 The lung efficiency is improved vastly by adding an extensive system of

air sacs that serve as air reservoirs during ventilation.
 On inspiration, some 75% of incoming air bypasses the lungs to enter the
air sacs (gas exchange does not occur here).
 At expiration some of this fresh air passes directly through the lung
passages and eventually into one-cell thick air capillaries where gas
exchange occurs.
 Thus air capillaries receive nearly fresh air during both inspiration and
expiration.
 Mammalian lungs

 Most elaborate and compose of complexes of millions of small sacs,

called alveoli, each veiled by a rich vascular network.

Alveoli (Air sac)

 Are microscopic chambers

 Open to pulmunary air flow and surrounded by many body capillaries.
 It is where respiratory exchanges occurs.
 The singlelayered endothelial walls of the alveoli are thin and moist to
facilitate exchange of gases between air sacs and adjacent blood
capillaries.

Parts of respiratory tract

Upper respiratory tract

 Nostrils (External nares)

 Nasal cavity
 Internal nares
 Mouth (Alternative)
 Pharynx - glottis
 Larynx
Lower respiratory tract

 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Alveolar ducts
 Alveolar sacs (alveoli)

Mouth, nose & nasal cavity

 The mouth serves as alternate route for air.

 In the nose air is filtered by hairs and turbinal bones or conchae.
 The function of this part of the system is to warm, filter and moisten the
incoming air.

Pharynx

 It is where pathways of digestion and respiration cross.

 Inhaled air leaves the pharynx by passing into a narrow opening, the
glottis.
 The food enters the esophagus to pass to the stomach.

Larynx (voice box)

 This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated.

 It also helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any
solid objects pass the epiglottis.
 Vocal chords
 Two folds of mucous membranes with embedded with fibroelastic ligaments.

The trachea (wind pipe)

 It branches into two bronchi , one to each lung.

 Within the lungs each bronchus divides and subdivides into small tubes
(bronchioles) that lead via alveolar ducts to the air sacs (alveoli).
Human lungs

Viscerel pleura

 A membrane covering the lungs

Parietal pleura

 A membrane lining the chest cavity.

Intrapleural fluid

 A lubricating fluid that fills the space between the visceral and parietal pleura.

Diaphragm

 A dome-shaped, muscular partition between the chest cavity and abdomen.

 A muscular diaphragm is found only in mammals.
Human breathing

 It involves muscular movement that alters the volume of the thoracic cavity and
thereby that of the lungs.

Inspiration (Inhalation)

 The drawing of air into the lungs.

 The ribs are raised and the diaphragm is flattened so that the thoracic or
chest is enlarge.
 Pressure in the lungs is reduced
 The air moves down to the trachea and into the lungs
 The elastic framework of lungs is stretched.

Expiration (Exhalation)

 The act of breathing out or expelling air from the lungs.

 The reverse process of inspiration
 Relaxation of muscles controlling the ribs and diaphragm.
 The lungs are compressed
 The elastic tissue contracts
 Air is forced outward
 The lungs moved freely and is lubricated by the pleural fluid.
 https://www.simply.science/images/content/biology/human_physiology/respiratory_system/conceptmap/Respiratory_cycle.html

Human breathing mechanism

Respiratory center in the medulla of the Brain

 Controls the basic rate of breathing that sends out respiratory stimuli.

Lung volume and capacity

It measures the amount of air for one function (such as inhalation or exhalation) and any
two or more volumes (for example, how much can be inhaled from the end of a maximal
exhalation).
1. Tidal air
 Is the volume of air that enters and leaves the lungs at each natural
respiratory effort.
2. Inspiratory reserve volume
 Is the volume of air that can be taken in by a maximal inspiratory effort over
and above the inspired tidal air.
3. Expiratory reserve volume
 Is the volume of air that can be expelled by the most powerful expiratory effort
after the tidal air has been allowed to escape naturally.

4. Vital capacity
 Is the sum of tidal air and the inspiratory and expiratory reserves
 The volume of air that can be expelled by most vigorous possible expiratory
effort after the deepest possible inspiration

5. Residual volume
 Is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after the strongest possible
expiration.
 It cannot be measured directly but can be determined by indirect methods.

6. Total lung capacity

 Is the sum of the vital capacity and residual air.
7. Functional residual capacity
 Is the volume of air left in the lungs at the end of natural, unforced expiration.
8. Pulmunary midcapacity
 Is the functional residual volume together with one half of an unforced tidal
volume.
9. Inspiratory capacity
 Is the volume that can be inspired from the end-expiratory level.
Exchange of respiratory gases in lungs and tissue cells

 The partial pressure of

oxygen in lung alveoli is
greater than it is in
venous blood of lung
capillaries so oxygen
diffuses into the lung
capillaries.
 In a similar manner
carbon dioxide in blood of
the lung capillaries has a
higher concentration than
has this same gas in lung
alveoli so carbon dioxide
diffuses from the blood
into the alveoli.
 In tissues respiratory
gases also move along
their concentration
gradients.
 Partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is greater than in the tissues, and partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in tissues is greater than that in blood.
 In each case gases diffuse from a location of higher concentration to one of lower
concentration.

How Respiratory Gases Are Transported

 In some invertebrates respiratory gases are simply carried, dissolved in body fluids.
 In many invertebrates and in virtually all vertebrates, nearly all oxygen and a
significant amount of carbon dioxide are transported by special colored proteins, or
respiratory pigments, in the blood.

Respiratory pigments

 These are special colored proteins that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
blood.
 In most animals these respiratory pigments are packaged into the blood cells.

Hemoglobin
 It is the most widespread respiratory pigment in the animal kingdom.
 It is red colored and iron-containing protein present in all vertebrates and many
invertebrates.
 5% heme and 95% globin

1. Heme
 An iron containing compound giving the red color to blood.
 Heme portion of hemoglobin has a great affinity for oxygen.
2. Globin
 A colorless protein which binds to the heme compound.

Respiratory Pigments of invertebrates

1. Hemocyanin
 A copper containing protein which gives blue color.
 Occurs in crustaceans and most molluscs.
2. Chlorocruorin
 A green colored, iron-containing pigment found in four families of
polychaete tube worms.
 Its structure and oxygen-carrying capacity are very similar to those of
hemoglobin, but it is carried free in the plasma rather than being enclosed
in blood corpuscles.
3. Hemerythrin
 It is a red pigment found in some polychaete worms.
 Although it contains iron, this metal is not present in a heme group
(despite the name of the pigment!)
 The oxygen-carrying capacity is poor compared to hemoglobin.