By: Dr.

Fathy El-Wahsh
1.1. Introduction:
• Air Conditioning (A/C):
Is the science and practice of controlling the indoor climate in term of
temperature , air motion , humidity , air purity and noise.
• Psychrometry:
Psychrometry consists of the interactions between heat, moisture and air.
It is basically the study of moist air. and / or; the study of the properties of
mixtures of air and water vapor.

Atmospheric air:
Is a mixture of many gases plus water vapor and a number of pollutants
(Fig.1.1).

Moist Air :
Working substance in air conditioning is the moist air which is a mixture of two
gases .
One of these is dry air which itself is a mixture of a number of gases and the
other is water vapor which may exist in a saturated or super heated state.
 Both are treated as perfect gases since both exist in the atmosphere at low
pressures . By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
1.1. Introduction:

Moist Air :
Working substance in air conditioning is the moist air which is a mixture of two
gases .
One of these is dry air which itself is a mixture of a number of gases and the
other is water vapor which may exist in a saturated or super heated state.
 Both are treated as perfect gases since both exist in the atmosphere at low
pressures .
In addition Gibbs-Dalton laws for non reactive mixture of gases can be applied
to the dry air part only to obtain its properties as a single pure substance .
T1 = T2 = T
V1 = V2 = V
P1 + P2 =P
m1 + m2 = m
P1 V1 = m1 R T1 & P2 V2 = m2 RT2

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
State Of Water Vapor In Air

Figure. Mixture of dry air and water vapor.

where n, m, and M denote the

moles, mass, and molecular
weight of the mixture,
respectively, and n=m/M.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Properties of Moist Air
 The actual temperature of moist air is called the dry bulb temperature DBT .

 The total pressure which is equal to the barometric pressure is constant.

 Indoor air for human comfort typically contains ~1% moisture by mass.

 Moist air conditions are determined by properties such as:

• Dry-bulb temperature (DBT, c).
• Wet-bulb temperature (WBT,c).
• Dew point temperature (DPT, c)
• Relative humidity (RH, %).
• Humidity Ratio (HR, kg of H2O/kg of dry air).
• Enthalpy (h, KJ/kg of dry air).
• Specific volume (v, m3/kg)

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Definitions
• The dry bulb temperature, DBT:
The air temperature measured by an ordinary/ standard thermometer.
• The thermodynamic wet bulb temperature, WBT:
The temperature when air is saturated adiabatically.
• The dew point temperature, DPT:
The temperature at which water vapor start to condense when air is cooled at
constant pressure.
• Relative humidity:
The ratio between partial pressure of water vapor and partial pressure of water
vapor of saturated air at the same temperature.
• Humidity ratio,ω:
The ratio between the mass of water vapor and the mass of dry air.

Sensible heat ( Qs ) :
Is the heat added or removed from the moist air at constant moisture content ( ω )

Latent heat ( Ql ) : Is the heat added or removed from the moist air at constant
DBT i.e. increases or decreases its By:
moisture contents .
Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Thermometers, dry bulb and
wet bulb

A SLING PSYCHROMETER.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Humidity Ratio ω, Relative Humidity Ø, and Mixture Enthalpy H.

Moist air also can be described in terms of the relative humidity Ø , defined as the
ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor in a given moist air sample to the mole
fraction in a saturated moist air sample at the same mixture temperature and
pressure :

,Also, the specific enthalpy of moist air per kg of dry air is given by

h = ha + ω hv
ha= Cpa T = 1.005 T
hv= Cpw Td + hfg + Cpv (T- Td) at Td= 0.0
hv= 2501 + Cpv T =2501 + 1.84 T
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
h = 1.005 T + ω ( 2501 + 1.84 T )
Humidity Ratio:

Mass Flow of Water Vapour mv
  
Mass Flow of Dry Air ma

 
  m v RuT
paV  m a RaT 
m a RuT pvV  m v RvT 
Ma Mv

M v pvV
RuT  M v   pv   pv 
         0.622 
M a paV  M a   pa   pa 
RuT
Calculation of psychrometric properties from p, DBT and WBT:
Empirical Relations:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Modeling Moist Air in Equilibrium with Liquid Water
Evaluating the Dew Point Temperature

States of water for moist air cooled at

constant mixture pressure.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
E X A M P L E .Cooling Moist Air at Constant Pressure

(a) The initial humidity ratio can be evaluated . This requires the partial pressure of
the water vapor, pv1, which can be found from the given relative humidity and pg
from Table at 70F as follows

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Mass and Energy Applications Psychrometrics
Mass Balance

At steady state, the amounts of dry air and

water vapor within the control Volume
don't vary. Therefore for each component
the total incoming and outgoing mass flow
rates remain the same.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Mass and Energy Applications Psychrometrics
Energy Balance

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• The humidity ratio of an air–water vapor mixture can be determined, in principle,
knowing the values of three mixture properties: the pressure p, the temperature T,
and the adiabatic saturation temperature Tas introduced in this section.

1
3

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

When the air-water vapor mixture of humidity ratio ! enters the saturator
at pressure P and Temperature T. As the mixture passes through the device
it crosses over a pool of water which if the mixture is not saturated, some
of the water evaporates. The energy required to evaporate the water,
comes from the moist air.
At steady state, the mass flow rate of the makeup water is the deference
between the exiting and entering vapor flow rate. Therefore:
ma1 = ma3
mv1 + mω2 = mv3
Conservation of Energy

ω1 = mv1/ma1
ω3 = mv3 /ma3
ω3 - ω1 = mω2/ma1
And dividing by ma1

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Psychometric Chart :

• All data essential for the complete thermodynamic and psychometric analysis of
air conditioning processes can be summarized in a psychometric chart .
• Based on a barometric pressure of 101.325 kPa
• Sensible/total heat ratio for water added at 30°C
• Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
• Wet bulb temperature (°C) (sling)
• Specific volume (m3/kg)
• Percentage saturation
• Dry bulb temperature (°C)
• Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
• Moisture content (kg/kg) (dry air

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
PSYCHOMETRIC CHARTS

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

PSYCHOMETRIC CHARTS

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• AIR-CONDITIONING PROCESSES

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• E X A M P L E . Heating Moist Air in a Duct
• Moist air enters a duct at 10:C, 80% relative humidity, and a volumetric flow
rate of 150 m3/min. The mixture is heated as it flows through the duct and
exits at 30:C. No moisture is added or removed, and the mixture pressure
remains approximately constant at 1 bar. For steady-state operation,
determine (a) the rate of heat transfer, in kJ/min, and (b) the relative humidity
at the exit. Changes in kinetic and potential energy can be ignored.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Simple(sensible) Cooling (ω= constant)

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Heating with Humidification

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Cooling with Dehumidification

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Cooling and dehumidification (Process O-C):

ADP

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Example :
• Air at 24°C dry bulb, 45% saturation, passes through a coil having an ADP of 7°C
and a contact factor of 78%. What is the off-coil condition?
• (a) By construction on the chart (see Figure), 10.7°C dry bulb,85% saturation.
• (b) By calculation, the dry bulb will drop 78% of 24 to 7°C:24 – [0.78 × (24 – 7)] =
10.7°C and the enthalpy will drop 78% of 45.85 to 22.72 kJ/kg:45.85 – [0.78 × (45.85
– 22.72)] = 27.81 kJ/kg. The two results obtained here can be compared with
tabulated figures for saturation and give about 84% saturation.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Example:
• Air is to be cooled by a chilled water coil from 27°C dry bulb, 52% saturation,
to 15°C dry bulb, 80% saturation. What is the ADP?
• This must be done by construction on the chart, and gives an ADP of 9°C.
The intersection of the process and saturation lines can also be computed.
Again, it has been assumed that the process line is straight.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Dehumidification & sensible heating

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Dehumidification. (a) Equipment schematic. (b) Psychometric chart representation.
 • Humidification
• Two methods(injecting steam or liquid water can be sprayed into the air).

Humidification. (a) Control volume. (b) Steam injected. (c) Liquid injected.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Evaporative Cooling

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Air Washers:

Tw

DBT
DBT WBT
WBT w
w

Tw

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Air Washers:
a. Cooling and dehumidification: tw <t DPT. Since the exit enthalpy of air is
less than its inlet value, from energy balance it can be shown that there is
a transfer of total energy from air to water. Hence to continue the process,
water has to be externally cooled. Here both latent and sensible heat
transfers are from air to water. This is shown by Process O-A in Fig.2.10.

b. Adiabatic saturation: tw = tWBT. Here the sensible heat transfer from air to
water is exactly equal to latent heat transfer from water to air. Hence, no
external cooling or heating of water is required. That is this is a case of
pure water recirculation. This is shown by process O-B in Fig. 2.11. This
the process that takes place in a perfectly insulated evaporative cooler.

c. Cooling and humidification: tDPT < tw < tWBT. Here the sensible heat
transfer is from air to water and latent heat transfer is from water to air, but
the total heat transfer is from air to water, hence, water has to be cooled
externally. This is shown by Process O-C in Fig.2.11.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Air Washers:
d. decoking and humidification: tWBT < tw < tDBT. Here the sensible heat
transfer is from air to water and latent heat transfer is from water to air, but
the total heat transfer is from water to air, hence, water has to be heated
externally. This is shown by Process O-D in Fig.211. This is the process
that takes place in a cooling tower. The air stream extracts heat from the
hot water coming from the condenser, and the cooled water is sent back
to the condenser.

e. e) Heating and humidification: tw > tDBT. Here both sensible and latent
heat transfers are from water to air, hence, water has to be heated
externally. This is shown by Process O-E in Fig.2.11..
.

Thus, it can be seen that an air washer works as a year-round air

conditioning system. Though air washer is a and extremely useful simple
device, it is not commonly used for comfort air conditioning applications due
to concerns about health resulting from bacterial or fungal growth on the
wetted surfaces. However, it can be used in industrial applications.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Enthalpy potential:
In air washer, whenever water (or a wetted surface) and air contact each
other, there is possibility of heat and moisture transfer between them.

The directions of heat and moisture transfer depend upon the

temperature and vapor pressure differences between air and water. As a
result, the direction of the total heat transfer rate, which is a sum of
sensible heat transfer and latent heat transfers also depends upon water
and air conditions.

The concept of enthalpy potential is very useful in quantifying the total

heat transfer in these processes and its direction.

The sensible (QS) and latent (QL) heat transfer rates are given by:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 by manipulating the term in the parenthesis of RHS, it can be shown that:

Thus the total heat transfer and its direction depends upon the enthalpy
difference (or potential) between water and air (hi-ha).
If hi > ha; then the total heat transfer is from water to air and water gets
cooled.
If hi < ha; then the total heat transfer is from air to water and water gets
heated.
If hi = ha; then the net heat transfer is zero, i.e., the sensible heat transfer
rate is equal to but in the opposite direction of latent heat transfer.
Temperature of water remains at its wet bulb temperature value

The concept of enthalpy potential is very useful in psychrometric

calculations and is frequently used in the design and analysis of
evaporative coolers, cooling towers, air washers etc.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 • Evaporative Cooling(Adiabatic saturation process)
• Cooling in hot, relatively dry climates can be accomplished by evaporative
cooling. This involves either spraying liquid water into air or forcing air through
a soaked pad that is kept replenished with water, as shown in Fig.

Evaporative cooling. (a) Equipment schematic. (b) Psychometric chart representation.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Example : Air at 37°C dry bulb, 24% saturation, is drawn through a desert cooler having
an adiabatic saturation efficiency of 75%.What is the final dry bulb, and how much water is
required?
• The entering enthalpy is 62.67 kJ/kg, and this remains constant through the process. By
construction on the chart, or from tables, the ultimate saturation condition would be 21.5°C,
and 75% of the drop from 37°C to 21.5°C gives a final dry bulb of 25.4°C.The water
requirement can be calculated from the average latent heat of water over the working
range, which is 2425 kJ/kg. The amount of water to be evaporated is 1/2425 = 0.4 × 10–3
kg/(s kW).This process is very much used for ambient control in textile mills and, to a lesser
extent, in greenhouses for vegetable production in hot, dry climates.

Desert cooler. (a) Apparatus. (b) Process line

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• A two-stage evaporative cooler uses the cooled water from the first stage to pre-cool the air
entering the second stage. The two air systems are separate. Outside air is drawn through
the first stage, passing through the upper wetted pad, and so cools the water down to a
temperature approaching the ambient wet bulb. This chilled water then circulates through a
dry coil to cool another supply of outside air, thus reducing its wet bulb temperature. This
second-stage air then passes through the lower wetted pad and into the cooled space. Water
make-up is required to both circuits.

Figure: Two-stage desert cooler.

By: Dr.(a) Apparatus.
Fathy El-Wahsh (b) Process line
• Example:
• Taking the first stage as Example 25.1, the water
• would be cooled to 25.4°C and could be used in a coil of 80%
• contact factor to pre-cool outside air to 37 – 0.8(37 – 25.4) =
27.7°C (point D, Figure 25.4b) The wet bulb is now 18.9°C and
the enthalpy is 53 kJ/kg. A second stage evaporative cooler
with an efficiency of 75% will bring this down to 21°C dry bulb
(point F ).The evaporative cooler has no refrigeration system
and only requires electric power for fans and water pumps
plus, of course, an adequate supply of water.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Example : Water is sprayed into an airstream at 21°C dry bulb,50% saturation. What
would be the ultimate condition of the mixture?
• No heat is being added or removed in this process, so the enthalpy must remain constant,
and the process is shown as a movement along the line of constant enthalpy. Latent heat
will be taken in by the water, from the sensible heat of the air, until the mixture reaches
• saturation, when no more water can be evaporated.
• Initial enthalpy of air = 41.08 kJ/kg
• Final enthalpy of air = 41.08 kJ/kg
• Final condition, 14.6°C dry bulb, 14.6°C wet bulb, 14.6°C dew point, 100% saturated.
• It should be noted that this ultimate condition is difficult to reach , and the final condition
in a practical process would fall somewhat short of saturation, possibly to point C in Figure
. The proportion AC/AB is termed the effectiveness of the spray system.

Adiabatic saturation to ultimate condition

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 • Air washer with chilled water
• The process of adiabatic saturation assumed that the spray water temperature had no
effect on the final air condition.If, however, a large mass of water is used in comparison
with the mass of air, the final condition will approach the water temperature.
• If this water is chilled below the dew point of the entering air, moisture will condense out
of the air, and it will leave the washer with a lower moisture content (see Figure).
• The ultimate condition will be at the initial water temperature Practical saturation
efficiencies (the ratio AC/AB) will be about 50–80% for air washers having a single bank of
sprays and 80–95% for double spray banks (see Figure).

Chilled water spray

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Air washer with chilled water
• Example :
• Air at 23°C dry bulb, 50% saturation, enters a single bank air washer having a
saturation efficiency of 70% and is sprayed with water at 5°C. What is the final
condition?
• (a) By construction on the chart , the final condition is 10.4°C dry bulb, 82% saturation.
• (b) By proportion: Dry bulb is 70% of the way from 23°C down to 5°C
• 23 – [0.7(23 – 5)] = 10.4°C
• Moisture content is 70% down from 0.008 9 to 0.005 4 kg/kg (i.e. saturated air at 5°C)
• 0.008 9 – [0.7(0.008 9 – 0.005 4] = 0.006 45 kg/kg

• Example: In the previous example, water is sprayed at the rate of 4 kg water for every 1
kg air. What is the water temperature rise?
• Enthalpy of air before = 45.79 kJ/kg
• Enthalpy of air after = 26.7 kJ/kg
• Heat lost per kilogram air = 19.09 kJ
• Heat gain per kilogram water = 19.09/4 = 4.77 kJ
• Temperature rise of water =4.77/4.187= 1.1 K

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Example:
• Return air from a conditioned space at 21°C, 50% saturation, and a mass flow of 20
kg/s, mixes with outside air at 28°C dry bulb and 20°C wet bulb, flowing at 3 kg/s. What
is the condition of the mixture?
• Method (a) Construct on the psychometric chart as shown in Figure and measure off:
• Answer = 22°C dry bulb, 49% sat.
• Method (b): By calculation, using dry bulb temperatures along the horizontal component,
and moisture content along the vertical. For the dry bulb, using AC × ma = CB × mb
• (tc – 21) × 20 = (28 – tc) × 3
• Giving ;tc = 21.9°C
If only enthalpy is required, this can be
obtained from the same formula in a single
equation:
(hc – ha) × ma = (hb – hc) × mb
(hc – 41.8) × 20 = (56.6 – hc) × 3
giving
hc = 43.7 kJ/kg dry air

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh Mixing of two airstreams

 Sensible–total ratio(Room sensible heat factor)
• On the psychometric chart in general use (Figure ), the ratio of sensible to total heat is
indicated as angles in a segment to one side of the chart. This can be used as a guide to
coil and plant selection.
• Example : Air enters a coil at 23°C dry bulb, 40% saturation. The sensible heat to be
removed is 36 kW and the latent 14 kW. What are the ADP and the coil contact factor if air
is to leave the coil at 5°C?Plotting on the chart (Figure 24.10) from 23°C/40% and using the
ratio.

The process line meets the saturation curve

at – 1°C, giving the ADP (which means that
condensate will collect on the fins as
frost).Taking the ‘off’ condition at 5°C dry
bulb and measuring the proportion along the
process line gives a coil contact factor of 5%.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
PSYCHROMETRIC FACTORS

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
GSHF Line Plotted Between Mixture Conditions to Apparatus and
Leaving Condition from Apparatus

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

REQUIRED AIR QUANTITY

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

  The air quantity required
to satisfy the room load:

 The air quantity required through

the air conditioning apparatus,
to satisfy the total air conditioning
load(including the supplementary loads):

Where :
 trm which is the room dry-bulb temperature
 tsa which is the supply air dry-bulb temperature
 cfmsa which is the supply air quantity
 tm which is the mixture of outdoor and return air dry-bulb temperature
 tldb which is the leaving dry-bulb temperature
 cfmda which is the dehumidfied air quantity
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 • Definitions
• Room Sensible Heat Ratio ( SHR ) = Room Sensible heat/Room Total heat;

• SHR = Qs /(Qs +Ql )

• By Pass Factor (BPF) : Is the factor that determine the quantity of air that by pass
the cooling coil with out contacting its surfaces ;.

• BPF =( Ts – TADP) / (Tr – TADP )

• Where TADP is the apparatus dew point temperature of the cooling coil .
• Grand sensible heat factor GSHF (for cooling coils):Is defined as the ratio
between grand sensible heat and the total heat removed by the coil;

• GSHF = Qs /(Qs+Ql ) and is assigned for cooling coils

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams

When two airstreams at states 1 and 2 are

mixed adiabatically, the state of the mixture
lies on the straight line connecting the two
states.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 • Multistep processes
• Some air treatment processes cannot be made in a single operation, and the air
must pass through two or more consecutive steps to obtain the required leaving
condition.

Figure : Cooling with dehumidifying, followed by re-heat –process lines

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Example:
• If air is to be cooled and dehumidified, it may be found that the process line
joining the inlet and outlet conditions does not meet the saturation line, e.g. in
cooling air from 24°C dry bulb, 45% saturation, to 19°C dry bulb, 50% saturation,
the process line shows this to be impossible in one step (Figure). The air must first
be cooled and dehumidified to reach the right moisture level of 0.006 9 kg/kg and
then re-heated to get it back to 19°C.

• The first part is identical to that in the previous Example , and the second step is
the addition of sensible heat in a reheat coil.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Example:
• Winter outside air enters at 0°C dry bulb, 90% saturation, and is to be heated to
30°C, with a moisture content of 0.012 kg/kg. This can be done in several ways,
depending on the method of adding the moisture and final dry bulb control (see
Figure).If by steam injection, the air can be pre-heated to just below 30°C and the
steam blown in (line ABC). To give better control of the final temperature, the
steam may be blown in at a lower condition, with final re-heat to get to the right
point (line ADEC ).

Figure : Pre-heating and humidification in

winter – process lines

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• If by water spray or washer, the necessary heat must be put into the air first to
provide the latent heat of evaporation. This can be done in two stages, A to F to C,
or three stages A to H to J to C, if reheat is required to get the exact final
temperature. The latter is easier to control.
• Example : Air enters a packaged dehumidifier at 25°C dry bulb and 60%
saturation. It is cooled to 10°C dry bulb and 90% saturation, and then re-heated by
its own condenser. What is the final condition?

A typical cycle is shown in Figure and

indicates a final condition of about
47°C dry bulb and 10% saturation.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 HUMAN COMFORT AND AIR-CONDITIONING

A body feels comfortable

A comfortable environment. when it can freely dissipate its
waste heat, and no more.

ASHRAE Standard 55 recommends temperature range guidelines perceived as

“comfortable” to be 73 to 79°F (22.8 to 26.1°C) during the summer and 68 to
74.5°F (20 to 23.6°C) during winter.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Comfort is influenced by a combination of temperature, humidity, and air flow
and can be affected by parameters outside of the HVAC system such as time of
day, activity level, clothing, number of individuals in a space and other factors.

It can have a profound impact on human concentration and productivity.

If people are uncomfortable, they may also distract other people with their
complaints.

Indoor relative humidity levels should generally be maintained between 30

and 65 percent to be perceived as comfortable by most individuals.

The Standard suggests a goal of satisfying 80% or more of the occupants.

Temperature, humidity, and air flow are often linked together to provide a
measure of thermal comfort.

ASHRAE Standard 55 offers guidelines and the chart illustrates thermal

comfort ranges for summer and winter.
The objective is to adjust the system to satisfy at least of 80% of the
occupants.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
INSIDE AND OUTSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Design and analysis of air conditioning systems involves:
.
 Selection of suitable inside and outside design conditions
 Estimation of the required capacity of cooling or heating equipment
 Selection of suitable cooling/heating system
 Selecting supply conditions
 Design of air transmission and distribution systems etc.

 Generally, the inputs are the building specifications and its usage
pattern and any other special requirements.

 The required inside design conditions depend on the intended use of

the building and vary widely depending on the specific requirement.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Thermal comfort:
Thermal Comfort: The condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with
the thermal environment.

Metabolism The process of conversion of chemical energy contained in

food into heat and work.

Metabolic Rate: The rate at which the chemical energy is converted into
heat and work.

Thermal Efficiency of a Human Being: The ratio of useful work output to

the energy input.

The thermal efficiency of a human being can vary from 0% to as high as

15-20% for a short duration.

A human body is very sensitive to temperature. The body temperature

must be maintained within a narrow range to avoid discomfort, and within a
somewhat wider range, to avoid danger from heat or cold stress.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Fig.3.2: Affect of the variation of core temperature on a human being
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Heat balance equation for a human being:
The temperature of human body depends upon the energy balance
between itself and the surrounding thermal environment.

Taking the human body as the control volume, one can write the
thermal energy (heat) balance equation for the human body as:

Qgen =Qsk +Qres +Qst

Where:
Qgen = Rate at which heat is generated inside the body
Qsk = Total heat transfer rate from the skin
Qres = Heat transfer rate due to respiration, and
Qst = Rate at which heat is stored inside the body

The heat generation rate Qgen is given by:

Qgen = M(1− η)≈M
Where:
M = Metabolic rate, and
η = Thermal efficiency ≈ 0 for most of the activities
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
The metabolic rate depends on the activity. It is normally measured in the
unit “met”.
A met is defined as the metabolic rate per unit area of a sedentary person
and is found to be equal to about 58.2 W/m2.
This is also known as “basal metabolic rate”. Table 3.1 shows typical
metabolic rates for different activities:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Since the metabolic rate is specified per unit area of the human body
(naked body), it is essential to estimate this area to calculate the total
metabolic rate.

 The human body is considered to be a cylinder with uniform heat

generation and dissipation. The surface area over which the heat dissipation
takes place is given by an empirical equation, called as Du Bois Equation.

Where:
ADu = Surface area of the naked body, m2
m = Mass of the human being, kg
h = Height of the human being, m
 The total heat transfer rate from the skin Qsk is given by:
Qsk = ± Qconv ±Qrad + Qevp

Where:
Qconv = Heat transfer rate due to convection (sensible heat)
Qrad = Heat transfer rate due to radiation (sensible heat), and
Qevp = Heat transfer rate due to evaporation (latent heat)
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
  According to Belding and Hatch, the convective, radiative and
evaporative heat transfer rates from the naked body of an average adult ,
Qc, Qr and Qe, respectively, are given by:

 The heat transfer rate due to respiration Qres is given by:

Qres = Cres +Eres
Where:
Cres = Dry heat loss from respiration (sensible, positive or negative)
Eres = Evaporative heat loss from respiration (latent, always positive)

The air inspired by a human being is at ambient conditions, while air expired is
considered to be saturated and at a temperature equal to the core temperature.

For comfort, the rate of heat stored in the body Qst should be zero, i.e.,
Qst = 0 at neutral condition
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Factors affecting thermal comfort:
1. Physiological factors such as age, activity, sex and health. These factors
influence the metabolic rate. It is observed that of these factors, the most
important is activity. Other factors are found to have negligible effect on
thermal comfort.

2. Insulating factor due to clothing. The type of clothing has strong influence
on the rate of heat transfer from the human body. The unit for measuring the
resistance offered by clothes is called as “clo”. 1 clo is equal to a resistance of
about 0.155 m2.K/W.

3. Environmental factors. Important factors are the dry bulb temperature,

relative humidity, air motion and surrounding surface temperature. Of these
the dry bulb temperature affects heat transfer by convection and evaporation,
the relative humidity affects heat loss by evaporation, air velocity influences
both convective and evaporative heat transfer and the surrounding surface
temperature affects the radiative heat transfer.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Inside design conditions for Winter:
Top between 20.0 to 23.5oC at a RH of 60%
Top between 20.5 to 24.5oC at a DPT of 2oC
Inside design conditions for Summer:
Top between 22.5 to 26.0oC at a RH of 60%
Top between 23.5 to 27.0oC at a DPT of 2oC

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Indices for thermal comfort:
It is seen that important factors which affect thermal comfort are the activity,
clothing, air DBT, RH, air velocity and surrounding temperature.

To evaluate the effectiveness of the conditioned space, several comfort indices

have been suggested, these indices can be divided into direct and derived
indices.

The direct indices are the dry bulb temperature, humidity ratio, air velocity and
the mean radiant temperature (Tmrt).

The mean radiant temperature Tmrt affects the radiative heat transfer and is
defined (in K) as:

where:
Tg = Globe temperature measured at steady state by a thermocouple placed at
the center of a black painted, hollow cylinder (6” dia) kept in the conditioned
space, K.
Ta = Ambient DBT, K
V = Air velocity in m/s,
and C = A constant, 0.247 X 109 By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
The derived indices combine two or more direct indices into a single factor.
Important derived indices are the effective temperature, operative temperature,
heat stress index, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Percent of People Dissatisfied
(PPD) etc.

Effective temperature (ET): This factor combines the effects of dry bulb
temperature and air humidity into a single factor.
It is defined as the temperature of the environment at 50% RH which results in
the same total loss from the skin as in the actual environment.

Operative temperature (Top): This factor is a weighted average of air DBT and
Tmrt into a single factor. It is given by:

Where:
hr and hc are the radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients and Tamb is
the DBT of air.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Percent People Dissatisfied (PPD):
Based on the studies of Fanger and subsequent sampling studies, ASHRAE has
defined a thermal sensation scale, which considers the air temperature, humidity,
sex of the occupants and length of exposure.

The scale is based on empirical equations relating the above comfort factors. The
scale varies from +3 (hot) to –3 (cold) with 0 being the neutral condition.

Then a Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) that predicts the mean response of a large
number of occupants is defined based on the thermal sensation scale.
The PMV is defined by Fanger as: PMV=[0.303exp(−0.036M)+ 0.028]L
where
M: is the metabolic rate and L: is the thermal load on the body that is the
difference between the internal heat generation and heat loss to the actual
environment of a person experiencing thermal comfort.

The thermal load has to be obtained by solving the heat balance equation for the
human body.

Fanger related the PMV to Percent of People Dissatisfied (PPD) by:

[
PPD=100 − 95 exp − (0.03353 PMV 4 +El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy 0.2179 PMV2 ) ]
Selection of outside design conditions:
 The ambient temperature and moisture content vary from hour-to-hour and
from day-to-day and from place-to-place.

 For most of the major locations of the world, meteorological data is available
in the form of mean daily or monthly maximum and minimum temperatures
and corresponding relative humidity or wet bulb temperature.

 To estimate the required cooling capacity of an air conditioning plant, it is

essential to fix the outside design conditions in addition to the inside
conditions.

 The design outside conditions also depend on the following factors:

a) Type of the structure
b) Insulation characteristics of the building
c) Area of glass or other transparent surfaces
d) Type of usage
e) Nature of occupancy
f) Daily range (difference between maximum and minimum temperatures
in a given day) By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Examples :
 1- Air at a state of DBT = 14 ċ , RH= 50% is passed through a heating coil . The DBT is
increased up to 42 ċ . The moisture content remain constant in this process. Find : a) WBT
of the exit air. b) The dew point temperature. c) The sensible heat added by the heating
coil for 1.0 kg/s of air .{answers a) 19.5ċ , b) 3.9ċ , c) 28.6 kW}

 2-Air at condition of DBT = 45ċ , RH= 20 % enter to an air cooler and exit at RH= 60 % . Find
: a) DBT of exit air . b) The moisture content (ω ) at exit . c) plot the psychometric process .
( answers a- 31.5 ċ , b- 5.5 kg wv /kg da ) .

 3- Moist air at DBT =30ċ and WBT = 25ċ enter a cooling coil and exit from it at saturation
state with DBT = 15 ċ . IF the air is supplied to the coil at 3 m3 /s find : a) All the properties
of air at inlet and outlet . b) The sensible heat that has been removed by the cooling coil .
c) The a mount of moisture that has been removed from the air by the cooling coil. (
answers a-hin = 77 kJ/kg , ω1=0.018 kg wv/kg da ,ν1= 0.882 m 3/kg , RH1 = 68%. , Tdp =
23.4 ċ , h2 = 42 kJ/kg , ω2 =0.0106 kg wv /kg da ,ν2= 0.831 m3/kg , RH2 = 100 % b- 115.6
kW c- 0.0248 kg wv/s ) .

 4-Two air streams are mixed the first at DBT=21ċ ,WBT= 14ċ and the second at DBT= 28ċ
,WBT= 20 ċ with mass flow rates of 1 kg/s and 3 kg/s for the first and second respectively .
Find the moisture content ,enthalpy ,and the DBT for the mixture and plot the process on
the psychometric chart . (answers : 0.01 kgwv/kgda , 52.15 kJ/kg , 26.25 ċ ) .
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Psychometric analysis and air conditioning cycles :
 These analysis include summer air conditioning cycle and winter air conditioning
cycle which may cover the four basic combined processes discussed previously :

 1- Cooling and dehumidification process: There four methods that may be used
to carry out the dehumidification process . a) cooling the air to temperature
below its dew point, b) using absorption process , d) using adsorption materials,
c) compress and cool the air . The first method represents the normal practice to
cool and dehumidify the moist air in air conditioning systems .

 2-Humidification of air : It is take place by injecting saturated or super heated

steams inside the air conditioning ducts using fine nozzles and the equipment is
called a humidifier.

 Summer cooling and dehumidification processes:

1- All outside air :
2- All return air :
3- Mixing of fresh air with return air : as shown in the figure below .
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Calculation procedure :
• In order to solve the psychometric questions the following steps should be done :
• 1- Mark the inside and outside design conditions on the chart .
• 2- calculate the SHF if the sensible and latent heat are given , and plot it as a
parallel line starting from the inside design conditions.
• 3- Plot the assumed supply condition of RH= 90 % . IF other conditions is given
plot them and neglect this value .
• 4- IF a state of mixing is given , calculate the mixing conditions and plot them on
the line between the inside and out side conditions .
• 5- Connect the mixing point with the supply point by a line and find TADP which
• represent the point where this line cross the saturation line.
• 6-Use the following equations to calculate the required variables :
• Qs=1.22 Vs (Tr – Ts) , this can be used to find Vs .
• Qcoil = 1.2 Vs (hm – hs ) , if there is mixing
• Qcoil = 1.2 Vs (ho – hs ) , for all ouside air
• Qcoil = 1.2 Vs ( hr – hs ) , for all return air
• mvap = ms Δω and the condition as in Qcoil
• Qwater = mwater cp ΔTwater where cp = 4.2
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Air Conditioning Cycles :
• There are two air conditioning cycle one for summer air conditioning and the
other for winter air conditioning .

• The summer cycle is as explained previously of three types i.e.

• All out side air ,
• All return
• Mixed air .

• The winter air conditioning cycle can be done into two methods .
• The first method is to preheat the air and then cooling it adiabatically up to a
given point and then reheat it to the supply conditions .
• The other method is to heat the air and then used an air washer to humidify the
air up to a given point then reheat it to the supply conditions .

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Example :
 An air conditioned space is need to be maintained at DBT =24 c , RH= 50% . The
sensible heat loss of the space is 66 kW and its latent is 16.5 kW . The space
required 28.3 m3/min fresh air .The outside design condition is DBT= 7 c , RH= 80%
a ) plot the air conditioning process on the chart . b) find the mass flow rate of the
supplied air given that Ts= 49 ċ , c) the heating coil load d) the humidifier heating
load , e ) the amount of steam required by the humidifier . ( answers ms= 2.77
kg/s , Qcoil=78.0 kW , Qhum= 16.9 kW , mvap= 0.00825 kg/s )

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Simple summer system with 100 % re-circulated air:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Summer system with outdoor air for ventilation:

Fig.4.2: A summer air conditioning system with outdoor air for ventilation and
a zero by-pass factor

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Fig.4.3: A summer air conditioning system
with outdoor air for ventilation and a
nonzero by-pass factor
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Fig.4.4: A summer air conditioning system with
reheat coil for high latent cooling
load applications

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Advantages and disadvantages of reheat coil:

a) Refrigeration system can be operated at reasonably high evaporator

temperatures leading to high COP and low running cost.

b) However, mass flow rate of supply air increases due to reduced

temperature rise (ti-ts) across the conditioned space.

c) Wasteful use of energy as air is first cooled to a lower temperature

and then heated. Energy is required for both cooling as well as reheat
coils. However, this can be partially offset by using waste heat such
as heat rejected at the condenser for reheating of air.

Thus the actual benefit of reheat coil depends may vary from system.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Guidelines for selection of supply state and cooling coil:
i. As much as possible the supply air quantity should be minimized so that
smaller ducts and fans can be used leading savings in cost of space, material
and power.
However, the minimum amount should be sufficient to prevent the feeling of
stagnation.
If the required air flow rate through the cooling coil is insufficient, then it is
possible to mix some amount of re-circulated air with this air so that amount of
air supplied to the conditioned space increases.
This merely increases the supply air flow rate, but does not affect sensible and
cooling loads on the conditioned space.
Generally, the temperature rise (ti-ts) will be in the range of 8 to 15oC.

ii. The cooling coil should have 2 to 6 rows for moderate climate and 6 to 8
rows in hot and humid climate. The by-pass factor of the coil varies from 0.05
to 0.2. The bypass factor decreases as the number of rows increases and vice
versa. The fin pitch and air velocity should be suitable.

iii. If chilled water is used for cooling and dehumidification, then the coil ADP
will be higher than about 4oC. By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
EVAPORATIVE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:
Introduction
 Evaporative air conditioning systems are inexpensive and offer an attractive
alternative to the conventional summer air conditioning systems in places,
which are hot and dry.

 Evaporative air conditioning systems also find applications in hot industrial

environments where the use of conventional air conditioning systems
becomes prohibitively expensive.

 This system is based on the principle that when moist but unsaturated air
comes in contact with a wetted surface whose temperature is higher than the
dew point temperature of air, some water from the wetted surface
evaporates into air.

 The latent heat of evaporation is taken from water, air or both of them. In
this process, the air loses sensible heat but gains latent heat due to transfer
of water vapor. Thus the air gets cooled and humidified.

 The cooled and humidified air can be used for providing thermal comfort.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Classification of Evaporative Cooling Systems:
1. Direct evaporation process
2. Indirect evaporation process
3. A combination or multi-stage systems

1. Direct evaporation process

In this type, the process or conditioned air comes in direct contact with the
wetted surface, and gets cooled and humidified

The air gets cooled and dehumidified due to simultaneous transfer of sensible
and latent heats between air and water- air is brought in contact with the
wetted surface or spray of water droplets in the air washer-

The cooled and humidified air is supplied to the conditioned space, where it
extracts the sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Fig.5.1: A direct, evaporative cooling system

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

2. Indirect evaporation process,
The primary air stream becomes cooled and humidified by coming in direct
contact with the wetted surface (o-o’), while the secondary stream which is used
as supply air to the conditioned space, decreases its temperature by exchanging
only sensible heat with the cooled and humidified air stream.

Thus the moisture content of the supply air remains constant in an indirect
evaporative cooling system, while its temperature drops.

However, since the moisture content of supply air remains constant in an

indirect evaporation process, this may provide greater degree of comfort in
regions with higher humidity ratio.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Fig.5.2: An indirect, evaporative
cooling system
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
3. Multi-stage evaporative cooling systems

The objective is to improve efficiency of the evaporative cooling systems

One simple improvement is to sensibly cool the outdoor air before sending it
to the evaporative cooler by exchanging heat with the exhaust air from the
conditioned space.

It is also possible to mix outdoor and return air in some proportion so that
the temperature at the inlet to the evaporative cooler can be reduced,
thereby improving the performance.

By using multistage evaporative cooling systems we can obtain supply air

temperatures lower than the wet bulb temperature of the outdoor air.

Evaporative cooling systems are ideal in hot and dry places, i.e., in
places where the dry bulb temperature is high and the coincident wet
bulb temperature is low.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Fig.5.3: A two-stage evaporative
cooling system

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Advantages and disadvantages of evaporative cooling systems:
1. Lower equipment and installation costs

2. Substantially lower operating and power costs. Energy savings can be

as high as 75 %

3. Ease of fabrication and installation

4. Lower maintenance costs

5. Ensures a very good ventilation due to the large air flow rates involved,
hence, are very good especially in 100 % outdoor air applications

6. Better air distribution in the conditioned space due to higher flow rates

7. The fans/blowers create positive pressures in the conditioned space,

so that infiltration of outside air is prevented

8. Very environment friendly as no harmful chemicals are used

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Disadvantages:

1. The moisture level in the conditioned space could be higher, hence,

direct evaporative coolers are not good when low humidity levels in the
conditioned space is required. However, the indirect evaporative cooler
can be used without increasing humidity

2. Since the required air flow rates are much larger, this may create
draft and/or high noise levels in the conditioned space

3. Precise control of temperature and humidity in the conditioned space

is not possible

4. May lead to health problems due to micro-organisms if the water

used is not clean or the wetted surfaces are not maintained properly.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Winter Air Conditioning Systems

Fig.5.4: A winter air conditioning system with a pre-heater

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Fig.5.4: A winter air conditioning system with a pre-heater

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Fig.5.4: A winter air conditioning
system with a pre-heater

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Fig.5.5: A winter air conditioning
system without a pre-heater

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

All year (complete) air conditioning systems:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Air-Conditioning Methods IMP ###
Requirement:
• The cooling load of an air-conditioned space comprises estimates of the
sensible and latent heat gains, and is QS + QL. This rate of heat flow is to be
removed by a cooling medium which may be air, water, brine or refrigerant,
or a combination of two of these. (See Figure)

Figure: Removal of sensible and latent

heat from conditioned space.
(a) Flow of cooling medium.
(b) Process line
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Example: IMP ###
• Winter outside air enters at 0°C dry bulb, 90% saturation, and is to be heated to
30°C, with a moisture content of 0.012 kg/kg. This can be done in several ways,
depending on the method of adding the moisture and final dry bulb control (see
Figure).If by steam injection, the air can be pre-heated to just below 30°C and the
steam blown in (line ABC). To give better control of the final temperature, the
steam may be blown in at a lower condition, with final re-heat to get to the right
point (line ADEC ).

Figure : Pre-heating and humidification in

winter – process lines

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• If by water spray or washer, the necessary heat must be put into the air first to
provide the latent heat of evaporation. This can be done in two stages, A to F to C,
or three stages A to H to J to C, if reheat is required to get the exact final
temperature. The latter is easier to control.
• Example : Air enters a packaged dehumidifier at 25°C dry bulb and 60%
saturation. It is cooled to 10°C dry bulb and 90% saturation, and then re-heated by
its own condenser. What is the final condition?

A typical cycle is shown in Figure and

indicates a final condition of about
47°C dry bulb and 10% saturation.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Example :
• (All air ) A space is to be held at 21°C dry bulb and 50% saturation, and has an internal
load of 14 kW sensible and 1.5 kW latent heat gain. The inlet grille system is suitable for
an inlet air temperature of 12°C. What are the inlet air conditions and
• the mass air flow?
• Inlet air temperature = 12.0°C ,Air temperature rise through room, 21 – 12 = 9.0 K
• Air flow for sensible heat,14/(9 × 1.02)= 1.525 kg/s
• Moisture content of room air, 21°C, 50% = 0.007 857 kg/kg
• Moisture to pick up, 1.5/(2440 × 1.525)= 0.000 403
• Moisture content of entering air = 0.007 454
• From tables [4], this gives about 85% saturation.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Example :
• Chilled water For the same duty, a chilled water fan coil unit is fitted within the space.
Water enters at 5°C and leaves at 10.5°C. The fan motor takes 0.9 kW. What water flow is
required?
• Total cooling load, 14.0 + 1.5 + 0.9 = 16.4 kW
• Mass water flow, 16.4/[4.19 (× 10.5 – 5)]= 0.71 kg/s

• Example :
• Refrigerant For the same duty, liquid R.22 enters the expansion valve at 33°C, evaporates
at 5°C, and leaves the cooler at 9°C. Fan power is 0.9 kW. What mass flow of refrigerant is
required?
• Total load, = 16.4 kW
• Enthalpy of R.22, evaporated at 5°C,superheated to 9°C = 309.39 kJ/kg
• Enthalpy of liquid R.22 at 33°C = 139.84 kJ/kg
• Refrigerating effect = 169.55 kJ/kg
• Required refrigerant mass flow, 16.4/(169.55)= 0.097 kg/s

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Example :
• Primary air and chilled water For the same application,
• primary air reaches induction units at the rate of 0.4 kg/s and at conditions of 13°C dry
bulb and 72% saturation. Chilled water enters the coils at 12°C and leaves at 16°C. What
will be the room condition and how much water will be used?
• The chilled water enters higher than the room dew point temperature, so any latent heat
must be removed by the primary air, and this may result in a higher indoor condition to
remove the design latent load:
• Moisture in primary air, 13°C DB, 72% sat. = 0.006 744 kg/kg
• Moisture removed, 1.5/(2440 × 0.4)= 0.001 537 kg/kg
• Moisture in room air will rise to = 0.008 281 kg/kg
• which corresponds to a room condition of 21°C dry bulb, 53% saturation.
• Sensible heat removed by primary air, 0.4 × 1.02 × (21 – 13) = 3.26 kW
• Heat to be removed by water, 14.0 – 3.26 = 10.74 kW
• Mass water flow, 10.74/(4.19 × (16 – 12))= 0.64 kg/s

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Central station system. All air

Figure: All-air system

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 • All air

Figure : Re-heat for individual zones

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Figure: Variable air flow with re-heat to
individual zones

Example :
A room is to be maintained at 21°C, with a preferred 50% saturation, using air at 13°C dry
bulb, 78% saturation and reheat. The load is 0.7 sensible/total ratio. (See Figure below) .Air at
the supply condition can be re-heated to about 18°C and will rise from 18°C to 21°C in the
room, picking up the quantity of heat ‘B’ as shown. The final condition will be 50% saturation,
as required (line abc).
Alternatively, supply air is used directly, without re-heat. It now picks up the quantity of heat
‘A’ (about three times as much) and only one-third the amount of air is needed. The final
condition will be about 55% saturation. This is still well within comfort conditions, and should
be acceptable (line ad).

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• All air(cont.)

Figure : Zone differences with re-heat

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 • Dual Duct
With this variable volume method, the
cold-air supply system will
be required to deliver less air into the
building during colder weather
and must be capable of this egree of
‘turn-down’. Below 30% of
design flow it may be necessary to
spill air back to the return duct,
with loss of energy and, in some
types, cold air in the ceiling void
when trying to heat the room. If the
final throttling is at the inlet
grille, the reduction in grille area will
give a higher outlet velocity,
which will help to keep up the room Figure : Dual duct supplying separate zones
circulation, even at lower mass flow.
One type releases the room air in
pulses, to stimulate room circulation.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• The dual-duct system, having the second method of heating by blending cold
and warm air, has reached a considerable degree of sophistication, normally
being accommodated within the false ceiling and having cold and warm air
ducts supplying a mixing chamber
• and thence through ceiling grilles or slots into the zone (see Figure).The
blending of cold and warm air will be thermostatically controlled, so that the
humidity in each zone must be allowed to float, being lowest in the zones with
the highest sensible heat ratio.
• Example: A dual-duct system supplies air at 14°C dry bulb,75% saturation
through one duct, and at 25°C dry bulb, 45% saturation through the other. Two
zones are to be maintained at 21°C and in both cases air leaves the mixing
boxes at 17°C. Room A has no latent load. Room B has a sensible/total heat
ratio of 0.7.What room conditions will result?

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Dual duct

Air leaving the mixing boxes

will lie along the line HC. For
these two zones it will be at
M (17°C dry bulb). For room
A, air will enter at M and
leave at A, the process line
being horizontal, since there
is no latent heat load. The
final condition is about 50%
saturation.
For room B, air enters at M
and the slope of the line MB
is from the sensible/total
angle indicator. Condition B
falls at about 56% saturation.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

HVAC COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS AND PRINCIPLES

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Cooling Load Principles

Space heat gain

Heat Flow Rates

Space cooling load

Space heat extraction

Cooling coil load

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 1- Space Heat Gain
This instantaneous rate of heat gain is the rate at which heat enters into
and/or is generated within a space at a given instant.
Heat gain is classified by:
1. the mode in which it enters the space
 solar radiation through transparent surfaces
 heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs
 heat conduction through interior partitions, ceilings, and floors
 heat generated within the space by occupants, lights, and appliances
 energy transfer as a result of ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air
 miscellaneous heat gains

2. whether it is a sensible or latent gain

 sensible heat gain is directly added to the conditioned space .
 latent heat gain occurs when moisture is added to the space .
 in selecting cooling apparatus, it is necessary to distinguish between the
sensible and latent heat gain. Every apparatus has a maximum sensible heat
removal capacity and a maximum latent heat removal capacity for particular
operating conditions.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 2- Space Cooling Load:

 The rate at which heat must be removed from the space to

maintain a constant space air temperature.

 The sum of all space instantaneous heat gains at any given

time does not necessarily equal the cooling load for the space
at that same time. ?

 The space heat gain by radiation is not immediately

converted into cooling load.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 3- Space Heat Extraction Rate:

 The rate at which heat is removed from the conditioned space

equals the space cooling load only to the degree that room air
temperature is held constant.

 In con-junction with intermittent operation of the cooling

equipment, the control system characteristics usually permit a
minor cyclic variation or swing in room temperature.

 Therefore, a proper simulation of the control system gives a

more realistic value of energy removal over axed time period
than using the values of the space cooling load.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

4- Cooling Coil Load:

 The rate at which energy is removed at the cooling coil that

serves one or more conditioned spaces equals the sum of the
instantaneous space cooling loads (or space heat extraction
rate if it is assumed that the space temperature does not vary)
for all the spaces served by the coil, plus any external loads.

 Such external loads include heat gain by the distribution

system between the individual spaces and the cooling
equipment, and outdoor air heat and moisture introduced
into the distribution system through the cooling equipment.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 HEAT GAIN CALCULATION CONCEPTS

1-Heat Gain through Exterior Surfaces:

• Heat gain through exterior opaque surfaces is derived from

the same elements of solar radiation and thermal gradient.

• It differs primarily as a function of the mass and nature of

the wall or roof construction, since those elements affect
the rate of conductive heat transfer through the composite
assembly to the interior surface.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 HEAT GAIN CALCULATION CONCEPTS

1- Sol-Air Temperature:

• Sol-air temperature is the temperature of the outdoor air

that, in the absence of all radiation, radiant energy exchange
with the sky and other outdoor surroundings, and convective
heat exchange with the outdoor air.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Ventilation Standards
The amount of ventilation required varies with several factors, such as.
 Total number of people within the conditioned space
 The height of the ceiling on the conditioned space
 The number of people smoking
People give off body odors which require a minimum of 5cfm per person for a
satisfactory dilution; however it is recommended to allow for 7:5cfm per
person.
When people smoke additional odors are given off by cigarettes or cigars.
To dilute these odors a minimum of 15 to 25cfm per person is required, and if it
is within a special gathering room(cigar lounge), 30 to 50cfm per person is
recommended.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Scheduled Ventilation
The capacity requirements can be reduced at times of peak in order to, minimize
the outdoor air load. AT times other than peak load, the calculated outdoor air quantity
is used. This type of ventilation technique is recommended only for installations which
operate for more than 12 hours, or 3 hours longer than there is occupancy, to allow for
some time to flush out the buildings when no odors are being generated. It has been
found through tests that as long as the flushing period is provided very few people
complain about the stuffiness in the conditioned space.
The procedure for estimating and controlling scheduled ventilation is:
In estimating cooling loads, reduce air quantity at design conditions to a
minimum of 40 % of the recommended air quantity.
Use a dry-bulb thermostat following the cooling and dehumidifying apparatus
to control the leaving dew-point such that:
With the dew-point at design, the damper motor closes the outdoor air
damper to 40 % of the design ventilation air quantity.
As the dew point decreases below design, theEl-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy outdoor air damper opens
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• COOLING LOAD CALCULATION METHOD
• For a thorough calculation of the zones and whole-building loads, one of the
following three methods should be employed:
• a. Transfer Function Method (TFM): This is the most complex of the methods
proposed by ASHRAE and requires the use of a computer program or advanced
spreadsheet.
• b. Cooling Load Temperature Differential/Cooling Load Factors (CLTD/CLF):
This method is derived from the TFM method and uses tabulated data to
simplify the calculation process. The method can be fairly easily transferred
into simple spreadsheet programs but has some limitations due to the use of
tabulated data.
• c. Total Equivalent Temperature Differential/Time-Averaging (TETD/TA): This
was the preferred method for hand or simple spreadsheet calculation before
the introduction of the CLTD/CLF method.

• These three methods are well documented in ASHRAE Handbook

Fundamentals, 2001
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Air-conditioning cooling load estimation
• Components of load
• The cooling load to maintain steady temperature and humidity in a conditioned space
will have four components representing EXTERNAL and INTERNAL SOURCES:
• External Cooling Loads. These loads are formed because of heat gains in the
conditioned space from external sources through the building envelope or building
shell and the partition walls. Sources of external loads include the following cooling
loads:
• 1. Heat gain entering from the exterior walls and roofs(sensible)
• 2. Solar heat gain transmitted through the fenestrations(sensible)
• 3. Conductive heat gain coming through the fenestrations(sensible)
• 4. Heat gain entering from the partition walls and interior doors(sensible)
• 5. Infiltration of outdoor air into the conditioned space(sensible and latent)
• Internal Cooling Loads. These loads are formed by the release of sensible and latent
heat from the heat sources inside the conditioned space. These sources contribute
internal cooling loads:
• 1. People(sensible and latent)
• 2. Electric lights(sensible)
• 3. Equipment and appliances(sensible and may be latent)
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Conduction heat gains(sensible heat only)
• Conduction of heat through plain surfaces under steady-state conditions is
given by the product of the area, temperature difference, and overall
conductance of the surface.
Where :

and Rsi is the inside surface thermal resistance, Rso is the outside surface
thermal resistance, and R1, R2, etc. are the thermal resistances of the
composite layers of the fabric.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Solar heat(sensible heat only)
• Solar radiation through windows has no time lag and must be estimated by finite
elements (i.e. on an hour-to-hour basis), using calculated or published data for angles
of incidence and taking into account the type of window glass

Windows may be shaded, by either internal or

external blinds, or by overhangs or projections
beyond the building face. The latter is much
used in the tropics to reduce solar load.
Windows may also be shaded for part of the
day by adjacent buildings.
Plain single glass 0.75 transmitted
Heat-absorbing glass 0.45 transmitted
Coated glass, single 0.55 transmitted
Metalized reflecting glass 0.25 transmitted

Angle of incidence of sun’s rays on window

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Fresh air(sensible and latent heat)

• The movement of outside air into a conditioned building will be balanced

by the loss of an equal amount at the inside condition, whether by intent

(positive fresh air supply or stale air extract) or by accident (infiltration

through window and door gaps, and door openings).

• The amount of heat to be removed (or supplied in winter) to treat the fresh

air supply can be calculated, knowing the inside and ambient states.

• It must be broken into sensible and latent loads, since this affects the coil

selection.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Example :
A building is to be maintained at 21°C dry bulb and 45% saturation in an
ambient of 27°C dry bulb, 20°C wet bulb. What are the sensible and latent
air-cooling loads for a fresh air flow of 1.35 kg/s?
There are three possible calculations, which cross-check.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Components of Cooling Coil Load
• If the conductive heat gain from the coil’s framework and the support is ignored, the
cooling coil load consists of the following components, as shown in Fig. 6.4 by the
summer air conditioning cycle O-m-cc-s-r-rf-m of a constant volume of supply air, single
supply duct, and serving a single zone.
• 1. Space cooling load Qrc, including sensible and latent load

• 2. Supply system heat gain qss, because of the supply fan heat gain qsf , and supply
duct heat gain qsd

• 3. Return system heat gain qrs because of heat gains of recessed electric lights and
ceiling plenum qrp, of return duct qrd , and return fan qrf , if any

• 4. Sensible and latent load because of the outdoor ventilation rates Qo to meet the
requirements of the occupants and others. In Fig., the summer air conditioning cycle O-
m-cc-s-r-rf-m consists of an adiabatic mixing process O-m-rf, a cooling and
dehumidifying process m-cc, a supply system heat gain process cc-s,a space conditioning
process r-s, and a return system heat gain process r-rf. Here, O indicates the status of
outdoor air, m the mixture of outdoor air and recirculating air, cc the conditioned air
leaving the coil, s the supply air, r the conditioned space, and rf the recirculating air
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Sensible and latent load because of the outdoor ventilation
rates Qo to meet the requirements of the occupants and
others

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Difference between Cooling Load and Cooling Coil Load
• For the same air conditioning cycle shown in Fig. 6.4, note the following:
• 1. The space cooling load is represented by Qrc, and the cooling coil load is represented
by Qc.
• Since supply system heat gain qss and return system heat gain qrs are both instantaneous
cooling loads, then

2. The space cooling load is used to determine the supply volume flow rate , whereas the
coil load is used to determine the size of the cooling coil in an air-handling unit or DX coil in a
packaged unit.
3. A cooling load component influences both and the size of the cooling coil, whereas a
cooling coil load component may not affect .

4. Infiltration heat gain is an instantaneous cooling load. From Fig. 6.4, it is apparent that
the load due to the outdoor ventilation air Qo, sometimes called the ventilation load, is a coil
load. If Qo is considered a cooling load, the volume flow rate of the air system will be
oversized
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Air-conditioning methods
• Requirement
• The cooling load of an air-conditioned space comprises estimates of the sensible
and latent heat gains, and is QS + QL. This rate of heat flow is to be removed by a
cooling medium which may be air,water, brine or refrigerant, or a combination of
two of these.

Removal of sensible and latent heat from conditioned space. (a) Flow of cooling
medium. (b) Process line By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Central station system. All air

All-air system
The centralization of all plant away from the
conditioned space, originating from considerations of
safety, also ensures the best access for operation and
maintenance and the least transmission of noise.
Since all air passes through the plantroom, it is possible
to arrange for any proportion of outsideBy:air
Dr. Fathy
up toEl-Wahsh
100%.
 Re-heat for individual zones
Where a central plant serves a number of separate rooms and floors, this resolves
into a system with re-heat coils in each zone branch duct. It will be recognized that
this is wasteful of energy and can, in the extreme, require a re-heat load almost as
high as the cooling load.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

To make the central air system more
economical for multizone
installations, the quantity of cooled
air to the individual zones can be
made variable, and reduced when
the cooling load is less. This will also
reduce the amount of re-heat
needed. This re-heat can be by
means of a coil, as before, or by
blending with a variable quantity of
warmed air, supplied through a Variable air flow with re-heat
second duct system. In the first of to individual zones
these methods, the reduction in air
mass flow is limited by
considerations of distribution
velocities within the rooms, so at
light load more air may need to be
used, together with more re-heat, to
keep air speeds up. Within this
constraint, any proportion of
sensible and latent heat can be
satisfied, to attain correct room
conditions. By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Dual duct supplying separate zones
 Zone, all-air systems
• If the conditioned space can be broken down into a number of zones or areas in
which the load is fairly constant, then a single-zone air-handling unit with localized
ductwork may be able to satisfy conditions without re-heat in its branches.
• The air-handling unit for the zone may be one of several types:
• 1. Direct expansion, supplied with refrigerant from the central plantroom
• 2. Chilled water air-handling unit taking chilled water from a package or the central
plantroom.
• 3. Water-cooled packaged direct expansion unit, using condenser water from an
external tower
• 4. Remote condenser (split) air-cooled direct expansion unit; condenser remote,
possibly on roof
• 5. Air-cooled direct expansion unit, mounted adjacent to an outside wall, or through
the roof

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Air-handling units. (a)
Fan coil. (b) Induction

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Under-floor systems
• A room with a lot of heat-generating apparatus such as computers will have a high
cooling load, and require a high air flow to carry this heat away. If this amount of air
was circulated in the usual way it would be unpleasantly draughty for the occupants.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Raised floor computer room system
 Air Duct Design
• Types of Air Duct
• Air ducts can be classified into four types according to their transporting
functions:
• 1. Supply duct. Conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space.
• 2. Return duct. Space air is returned (1) to the fan room where the air-
handling unit is installed or (2) to the packaged unit.
• 3. Outdoor air duct. Outdoor air is transported to the air-handling unit, to the
fan room, or to the space directly.
• 4. Exhaust duct. Space air or contaminated air is exhausted from the space,
equipment, fan room, or localized area.
• Each of these four types of duct may also subdivide into headers, main ducts,
and branch ducts or runouts. A header is that part of a duct that connects
directly to the supply or exhaust fan before air is supplied to the main ducts in
a large duct system.
• Main ducts have comparatively greater flow rates and size, serve a greater
conditioned area, and, therefore, allow higher air velocities. Branch ducts are
usually connected to the terminals, hoods, supply outlets, return grilles, and
exhaust hoods. A vertical duct is called a riser. Sometimes, a header or a
main duct is also called a trunk.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Flow of air in ducts

• In air-conditioning systems, all flow is turbulent, and formulas and charts show the
resistance to air flow of ducting of various materials, together with fittings and changes
of shape to be met in practice.
• Velocities in common use are as follows:
• High-velocity system, main ducts 20 m/s
• High-velocity system, branch ducts 15 m/s
• Low-velocity system, main ducts 10 m/s
• Low-velocity system, branch ducts 6 m/s
• Ducts in quiet areas 3–4 m/s
• The frictional resistance to air flow within a duct system follows the general law:

where a is a coefficient based on the roughness of the duct surface and the density of the air.
Duct-sizing charts are based on this law. Since such charts cannot cater for all shapes, they
give resistances for circular ducts, and a subsidiary chart shows how to convert rectangular
shapes to an equivalent resistance round duct.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 • Pressure Characteristics of the Airflow

Ducted system with fittings and fans, showing static pressure

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

System pressure actually has three components:
• Static Pressure—the driving force to move air
• Velocity Pressure—the additional force exerted when air contacts an
obstruction
• Total Pressure—the sum of static and velocity pressure
Fans are “sized” to meet the requirements of adequate air distribution.
Characteristics of the blower, including size and rotational speed, combined
with the resistance of the ductwork determine how much air is moving and the
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
pressure in the HVAC system
 DUCT SIZING METHODS
• Duct sizing determines the dimensions of each duct section in the air duct system. After
the duct sections have been sized, the total pressure loss of the air duct system can then
be calculated, and the supply, return or relief fan total pressure can be calculated from the
total pressure losses of the supply and return duct systems and the pressure loss in the air-
handling unit or packaged unit.
• Four duct-sizing methods are currently used:
• 1. Equal-friction method with maximum velocity
• 2. Constant-velocity method
• 3. Static regain method
• 4. T method

• Equal-Friction Method
• This method sizes the air duct so that the duct friction loss per unit length at various duct
sections always remains constant. The final dimensions of sized ducts should be rounded
to standard size. The total pressure loss of the duct system equals the sum of the frictional
• losses and dynamic losses at various duct sections along the critical path.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 DUCT CONSTRUCTION

d
c

FIGURE .Various types of air duct: (a) rectangular duct; (b) round duct with spiral
seam; (c) flat oval duct; (d) flexible duct.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Heat Recovery
• The aim of heat recovery is to avoid wastage of any quantity of heat or cold
energy which has been generated within a system. Methods of recovery may
be passive or active. Mechanical heat recovery systems will generally be
found under the description of Heat Pumps. Recovery of rejected or wasted
heat requires a careful analysis of the heat flow within the systems under
survey.
Points to examine are:
1. Where cooled or warmed air is exhausted from a building or process, this
might be used in heat exchangers to pre-cool or pre-warm fresh air brought in to
replace it.
2. Where cooled or warmed liquids leave a process, heat exchangers can
provide the means of pre-cooling or pre-warming fresh liquids entering. One of
the main instances of this is the warm waste water from showers in changing
rooms.
3. Hot discharge gas from a refrigeration circuit can be used to heat water .
4. Condenser heat can be diverted into a building, for heating in winter.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

• Apparatus and methods
• Passive heat exchanger equipment for air heat exchange is described . This can
only be used where the ducts are adjacent. Other methods are:

• 1. The rotating heat exchanger wheel. The wheel has a rotating matrix, the
mass of which picks up heat from one duct air flow and transfers it to the other.
If the matrix is coated in a hygroscopic material, there may also be some
transfer of moisture.

• 2. Coils in the two ducts, with a fluid circulated between them. It is important to
get the fluid in counterflow in the two airstreams (see also Figure 1.4c). If fresh
air is to be heated in winter, the fluid must be a non-freeze solution.

• 3. Heat pipes between the two ducts. These comprise a coil made with closed
pipes, filled with a volatile liquid. This liquid will condense in one coil and
evaporate in the other, at the same pressure and therefore at the same
temperature

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Control Systems
• Function
• The purpose of a control system on a refrigeration or air-conditioning plant is to:
• 1. Provide automatic operation, i.e. avoid the cost of attendant labor or for
where control is too complex for manual operation
• 2. Maintain the controlled conditions closer than could be achieved by manual
operation
• 3. Provide maximum efficiency and economy of operation.
• 4. Ensure safe operation at all times
• The control system will consist of a loop, with detector (sensor),controller and
controlled device. The communication between these parts of the loop will be:
• Electric,
• Pneumatic
• or mechanical

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 • Detectors (sensors)
• Types of detector are two-position (on–off) and proportional .The two-position will be
set to actuate at upper and lower limits, and will respond when its sensitive element
reaches these set limits.

A two-position detector can be

used to operate a floating control.
At the upper limit it will operate
the control in one direction and
if it reaches the lower limit it will
operate the control in the other
direction. Between the two limits
the control is not actuated.

Limits of controlled variable with two-position control.(a) Capacity

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
closely matched to load. (b) Capacity much greater than load
• Two-position detectors can be classified according to the purpose:
• Thermostatic bimetal
• liquid expansion
• solid expansion
• vapour pressure
• Pressure diaphragm
• bellows
• bourdon tube
• Fluid flow moving vane
• Time clock
• bimetal and heater
• dashpot
• Humidity dimensional change of hygroscopic element
• Level float

• Many of these devices are direct acting on the controlled device and do not
require a controller to process the signal.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
• Proportional detectors measure the process condition, which can then be compared
by the controller with the required value. They are not direct acting, and need a
controller to convert the signal to a working instruction to the controlled device.
Proportional detectors include:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Controllers
• If a controller is used with an on–off detector, it functions only as an amplifier
to transmit the detector signal to the controlled device.It can modify the
speed of this action by a bias or by a slow-speed operating motor, as in the
floating control.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

AIR DUCTS CONCEPT
AND DESIGN

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Air Handling Unit

The primary function of an AHU is to transmit processed air from the air
conditioning plant to the conditioned space and distribute it properly
within the conditioned space.

A typical AHU consists of:

1. A duct system that includes a supply air duct, return air duct, cooling
and/or heating coils, humidifiers/dehumidifiers, air filters and dampers

2. An air distribution system comprising various types of outlets for

supply air and inlets for return air

3. Supply and return air fans which provide the necessary energy to
move the air throughout the system

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 The fundamental equation to be used in the analysis of air conditioning
ducts is the Bernoulli’s equation.

Where:
Ρ/ρg is the pressure head, V2/2g is the velocity head and Z is the static head,

 The above equation can be written in terms of static, velocity, datum

and total pressures as:

 In all actual fluid flows, some energy will be lost in overcoming friction, this is
referred to as head loss.
 The head loss will cause the total pressure to decrease in the flow direction.
Then Bernoulli’s equation can be modified to:

To overcome the fluid friction and the resulting head, a fan is required in
air conditioning systems.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Fan Total Pressure (FTP).
 The required power input to the fan is given by:

 The FTP should be such that it overcomes the pressure drop of air
as it flows through the duct and the air finally enters the conditioned
space with sufficient momentum so that a good air distribution can
be obtained in the conditioned space.

 Applied between any two sections 1 and 2 of the duct,

 The Air pressure drop through a duct is due to:

1. Fluid friction: is known as frictional pressure drop or friction loss, Δpf.
2. Momentum change due to change of direction and/or velocity: is known as
momentum pressure drop or dynamic loss, Δpd.

Thus the total pressure drop Δpt is given by:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Evaluation of frictional pressure drop in ducts:

 The Darcy-Weisbach equation is one of the most commonly used

equations for estimating frictional pressure drops in internal flows. This
equation is given by:

Where:
f is the dimensionless friction factor, L is the length of the duct and D is the diameter
in case of a circular duct and hydraulic diameter in case of a non-circular duct.

Taking GI as the reference material and properties of air at 20 ⁰C and 1

atm. pressure, the frictional pressure drop in a circular duct is given by:

Where:
Q. air is the volumetric flow rate of air in m /s, L is the length and D is the inner
3

diameter of the duct in meters, respectively.

Rectangular ducts:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 Dynamic losses in ducts:
 Dynamic pressure loss takes place whenever there is a change in either the
velocity or direction of airflow due to the use of a variety of bends and
fittings in air conditioning ducts.

 However, exact analytical evaluation of dynamic pressure drop through

actual bends and fittings is quite complex. Hence for almost all the cases,
the dynamic losses are determined from experimental data.

 In turbulent flows, the dynamic loss is proportional to square of velocity.

Hence these are expressed as:

Where:
K is the dynamic loss coefficient, which is normally obtained from experiments.

 Sometimes, an equivalent length Leq is defined to estimate the dynamic

pressure loss through bends and fittings. The dynamic pressure loss is
obtained from the equivalent length and the frictional pressure drop
equation or chart, i.e.,

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Evaluation of dynamic pressure loss through various fittings:

a) Turns, bends or elbows: The most common type of bends used in air
conditioning ducts are 90⁰ turns shown in Fig.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Installing turning vanes in the bends reduces the dynamic pressure drop as it
is equivalent to increasing W/H, as shown in Fig. 7.2(c).

 The equivalent lengths are available as function of geometry for other types
of turns and bends

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 b) Branch take-offs: Branch take-offs (Fig. 7.3) are commonly used in
air conditioning ducts for splitting the airflow into a branch and a
downstream duct. The dynamic pressure drop from the upstream (u) to
downstream (d), Δpu-d is given by:

Where:
Vd and Vu are the air velocities in the downstream and upstream ducts, respectively.

The dynamic pressure drop from the upstream (u) to branch (b), Δpu-b is given by:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

c) Branch entries: Branch entries (Fig. 7.4) are commonly used in return
air ducts.
Similar to branch take-offs, the values of dynamic pressure loss
coefficients from upstream-to-downstream (Cu-d) and from branch-to-
downstream (Cu-d) are available in the form of tables and graphs as
functions of upstream, branch and downstream velocities and the angle β.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

d) Sudden enlargement: The pressure loss due to sudden enlargement,
shown in Fig. 7.5(a), ΔPd,enl is given by Borda-Carnot equation as:

e) Sudden contraction: A sudden contraction is shown in Fig. 7.5(b).

Similar to sudden enlargement, the dynamic pressure loss due to sudden
contraction ΔPd,con can be obtained analytically. This expression is also
known as Borda-Carnot equation. It is given by:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Static Regain:
Whenever there is an enlargement in the cross-sectional area of the
duct, the velocity of air decreases, and the velocity pressure is converted
into static pressure.
The increase in static pressure due to a decrease in velocity pressure is
known as static regain.

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 The pressure loss due to enlargement Δploss is expressed in terms of
a Static Regain Factor, R as:

where the static regain factor R, ≤ 1, is given by:

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

 Design of Air Conditioning Ducts

Introduction:
The purpose of the duct design is to select suitable dimensions of duct
for each run and then to select a fan, which can provide the required
supply airflow rate to each conditioned zone.

The chief requirements of an air conditioning duct system are:

1. It should convey specified rates of air flow to prescribed locations

2. It should be economical in combined initial cost, fan operating cost

and cost of building space

3. It should not transmit or generate objectionable noise

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

General rules for duct design:
1. Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to save space,
power and material

2. Sudden changes in directions should be avoided. When not

possible to avoid sudden changes, turning vanes should be used to
reduce pressure loss

3. Diverging sections should be gradual. Angle of divergence ≤ 20o

4. Aspect ratio should be as close to 1.0 as possible. Normally, it
should not exceed 4

5. Air velocities should be within permissible limits to reduce noise

and vibration

6. Duct material should be as smooth as possible to reduce frictional

losses

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

Classification of duct systems:
Ducts are classified based on the load on duct due to air pressure and turbulence.
The classification varies from application to application, such as for residences,
commercial systems, industrial systems etc. For example, one such classification is
given below:
Low pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 5 cm H2O (g)
Medium pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 15 cm H2O (g)
High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s, static pressure 15<ps ≤ 25 cm H2O (g)

High velocities in the ducts results in:

1. Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower space requirement
2. Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power consumption
3. Increased noise and hence a need for noise attenuation

Recommended air velocities depend mainly on the application and the

noise criteria. Typical recommended velocities are:
General: velocity of 5 to 8
Residences: 3 m/s to 5 m/s m/s is used for main ducts
Theatres: 4 to 6.5 m/s and a velocity of 4 to 6 m/s is
Restaurants: 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s used for the branches.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
Commonly used duct design methods:

The following methods are most commonly used for simpler lay-outs
such as the one shown in Fig.8.1.

1. Velocity method
2. Equal Friction Method
3. Static Regain method

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

1. Velocity method:
The various steps involved in this method are:
i. Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts

ii. Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow rates and velocities
for circular ducts. For rectangular ducts, find the cross-sectional area from flow
rate and velocity, and then by fixing the aspect ratio, find the two sides of the
rectangular duct

iii. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find the
frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts using friction chart or
equation.

iv. From the duct layout, dimensions and airflow rates, find the dynamic pressure
losses for all the bends and fittings

v. Select a fan that can provide sufficient FTP for the index run

vi. Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in the index
run is left completely open, while the other dampers are throttled to reduce the
flow rate to the required design values.
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
 2. Equal friction method:
In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the main and
branch ducts (Δpf/L) are kept same, i.e.,

Then the stepwise procedure for designing the duct system is as follows:

I. Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length (Δpf/L) so that the
combined initial and running costs are minimized.

ii. Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is obtained from the selected value
of (Δpf/L) and the airflow rate. As shown in Fig.8.1, airflow rate in the main duct Q. A is
equal to the sum total of airflow rates to all the conditioned zones, i.e.,

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh

By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh
By: Dr. Fathy El-Wahsh