EMG 2301: FLUID MECHANICS II

Dr.-Ing. Peter Oketch

November 14, 2022

Contents
1 Introduction 4

2 Types of Fluid Flow 4

2.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Criterion of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Momentum Equations 7
3.1 Linear momentum equations for steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Angular momentum equations for steady flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Application of Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.1 Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.2 Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.3 Impact of a jet on a plane surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.4 Force due to flow round a curve vane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4 Laminar Flow Between Solid Boundaries 18

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Steady laminar flow in circular pipes (The Hagen-Poiseuille law) . . . . . . . 18
4.3 Steady laminar flow between parallel plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.4 Simple cylindrical dash-pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Fundamentals of the Theory of Hydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Turbulent Flow in Pipes 29

5.1 Frictional Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1.1 Variation of Frictional Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2 Minor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2.1 Loss at Abrupt Enlargement (Sudden expansion) . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2.2 Loss Due to Sudden Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 Power Transmission Through Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.4 Pipes in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5 Pipes in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.6 Pipe Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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6 Unsteady Flow 38
6.1 Unsteady Flow in Closed Pipeline System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2 Surge Tanks and Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.3 Water Hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7 Open Channel Flow 41

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.2 Classification of Open Channel Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.2.1 Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

8 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity Laws 47

8.1 Methods of Determination of Dimensionless Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8.2.1 Determination of π Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8.3 Similitude and Model Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.3.1 Conditions for Similarity Between Models And Prototypes . . . . . . 50
8.3.2 Types of Model Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Purpose
The aim of this course is to enable the student to;

1. use the principle of conservation of momentum to understand and design for forces in
fluid flow systems involving for example vibrations damping, hydrodynamic lubrication
and power transmission.

2. get adequate knowledge in dimensional analysis and its importance in setting up and
interpretation of experimental results.

3. be able to size and design simple pipe networks.

Course Objectives
At the end of this course, the student should be able to;

1. apply the momentum equation to fluid flow in a variety of applications.

2. calculate various flow parameters in a variety of closed pipe and open channels connec-
tions/configurations and pipe networks.

3. carry out dimensional analysis in fluid flow applications; derive, identify and apply the
dimensionaless numbers encountered in fluid mechanics.

Course Description
Types of fluid flows. Reynolds number.
Momentum equation: applications of linear and angular momentum equations. Jet propul-
sion. Steady flow between solid boundaries; applications in dashpots and slider bearings.
Steady flow in pipes.
Unsteady flows in closed pipelines; water hammer; surge tanks; shafts; surge control. Power
transmission through pipelines. Pipe networks.
Flow in open channels; the optimum cross-section of a channel; varying flow.
Dimensional analysis: Theorem; dimensionless groups; physical significance of dimensionless
groups; similarity laws.

Prescribed text books

1. Douglas, J.F., Gasiorek J.M. & Swaffield J.A., (2001), Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall,
4th Ed.

2. Munson B.R., Young D.F. & Okiishi T.H. (1998) Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
John Wiley and Sons, 3rd Ed.

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 3. Roberson J.A., Crowe C.T. & Elger D.F. (1999) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, John
Wiley and Sons, 9th Ed.
4. Bansal R.K. (1992) Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, R.K. Laxmi Publications,
4th Ed.
5. Massey B.S. (1994) Mechanics of Fluids, Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd, 5th
Ed.

1 Introduction
This unit deals with the study of fluid in motion (fluid dynamics). The motion of fluids
can be predicted in the same way as the motion of solids are predicted using the fundamental
laws of physics together with the physical properties of the fluid. A fluid is defined as a
substance that deforms continuously whilst acted upon by any force tangential to the area
on which it acts. Such a force is termed shear force, and the ratio of the shear force to the
area on which it acts is known as the shear stress. Hence, when a fluid is at rest neither
shear force nor shear stress exist in it. A solid on the other hand, can resist a shear force
while at rest.

2 Types of Fluid Flow

Definitions
Uniform flow: The flow velocity has the same magnitude and direction at every point in
the fluid.
Non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the flow
is non-uniform. (In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a solid boundary
will be non-uniform - as the fluid at the boundary must take the speed of the boundary,
usually zero. However, if the size and shape of the of the cross-section of the stream of fluid
is constant the flow is considered uniform.)
Steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-section)
at a point do not change with time.
Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described
as unsteady. (In practise there is always slight variations in velocity and pressure, but if the
average values are constant, the flow is considered steady.

Combining the above we can classify any flow into one of four type:
1. Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with
time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant
velocity.
2. Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the stream but
do not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity
at the inlet - velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the
exit.

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 3. Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every point
are the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter
connected to a pump pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off.
4. Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from point to
point and with time at every point. For example waves in a channel.

2.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

The flow of real fluids exhibits viscous effect, that is they tend to stick to solid surfaces and
have stresses within their body. The shear stress resulting from viscosity may be included
in the equations of motion for small element of fluid, but the resulting partial differential
equations (the Navier-Stokes equations) have no known solutions. For studying the behavior
of real fluids engineers must therefore resort to experiments. One such experiment is the use of
Osborne Reynold apparatus (named after Osborne Reynold (1842-1912)) to demonstrate
different flows. The apparatus used by Reynolds is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: The Reynolds apparatus

A fine nozzle connected to a small reservoir of liquid dye discharge a coloured filament
into the inlet of the glass tube. The flow rate in the glass pipe is controlled by a valve.
By observing the behaviour of the stream of dye, the flow can be classified according to the
velocity of flow into:
• Laminar flow: This kind of flow occur at very low velocities. The particles of fluid
are moving in straight lines as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Laminar flow

• Transition flow: The flow that occur in the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
(figure3).

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 Figure 3: Transition flow

• Turbulent flow: This kind of flow occur at high velocities. The fluid particles move
in a disorderly manner. A single particle follows an erratic path involving movements
in three dimensions (figure4).

Figure 4: Transition flow

2.2 Criterion of Flow

As laminar and turbulent flow are widely different in their nature and effect, it is of prime
importance to know the conditions under which each may be expected to exist, and the laws
governing them. The primary parameter correlating the viscous behaviour of all Newtonian
fluid is the dimensionless group Reynold Number, Re, which express the ratio of inertia
forces to viscous forces, given as
ρul
Re = (1)
µ
or
ul
Re = (2)
ν
where ρ is the density (kg/m3 ), l is characteristic length (m), u is velocity (m/s), µ is dy-
namic viscosity (kg/m · s or N · s/m2 or P a · s) and ν is the kinematic viscosity (m2 /s).
It is evident from Eq. 1 that a high value of ρ, l and u, or a small value of µ, gives a high Re.
Conversely, a low value of Re is brought about by high viscosity, or low density, low velocity
or small size. A high value of Re indicates that inertia forces dominate the flow while viscous
forces play only a small part. On the other hand, a low value of Re indicates that viscous
forces dominate the flow while inertia forces play a small part.

The flow can be characterizes using Reynold number as:

Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000

Example 1: Water at 200 C whose density is 1000 kg/m3 flows through a pipe of diameter
4 mm at 3 m/s. Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Take dynamic viscosity
(µ) as 1×10−3 kg/m · s

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3 Momentum Equations
When a fluid flows over/on a solid body, it exert force on it. For example: force exerted on a
solid surface by a jet of fluid impinging on it, aerodynamic forces (lift and drag) on aircraft
wing, the force on a pipe-bend by fluid flowing within it, etc. These forces are hydrodynamic
forces (due to a moving fluid) and are associated with a change in momentum.

The magnitude of the hydrodynamic forces on the body due to a moving fluid is deter-
mined by Newton’s second law of motion ”the net force acting on a body in any direction is
equal to the rate of increase of momentum of the body in that direction”;

F = ma (3)

The law usually need to be expressed in a form particularly suited to steady flow of a fluid.

3.1 Linear momentum equations for steady flows

Consider a steady flow which is non-uniform flowing in a control volume (stream tube) as
shown in the figure 5.

Figure 5: A streamtube in three and two-dimensions

where A is cross sectional area, u is velocity and ρ is density and subscript 1 and 2
represent conditions at entry and exit respectively. In a short interval δt, a volume of the
fluid moves from the inlet a distance uδt.
The mass of fluid entering the control volume in time δt is

Mass entering control volume = volume × density = ρ1 A1 u1 δt (4)

Hence the momentum entering the control volume is given by

Momentum entering control volume = mass × velocity = ρ1 A1 u1 u1 δt (5)

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Similarly, the momentum leaving the stream tube is given by

Momentum leaving control volume = ρ2 A2 u2 u2 δt (6)

The force exerted by the fluid is calculated using Newton’s 2nd law;

Force = Rate of change of momentum

ρ2 A2 u2 u2 δt − ρ1 A1 u1 u1 δt
F = (7)
δt
For a steady flow, continuity requires that

Q = A 1 u 1 = A2 u 2 (8)

and for a constant density, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ, then Eq. 7 reduces to

F = Qρ(u2 − u1 ) (9)

Alternative derivation of expression given in Eq. 9: From conservation of mass in a

stream tube we know that

mass into face 1 = mass out of face 2

we can write
dm
Rate of change of mass = ṁ = = ρ1 A 1 u 1 (10)
dt
The rate at which momentum enters face 1 is

ρ1 A1 u1 u1 = ṁu1 (11)

The rate at which momentum leaves face 2 is

ρ2 A2 u2 u2 = ṁu2 (12)

Hence the rate at which momentum changes across the stream tube is

ρ2 A2 u2 u2 − ρ1 A1 u1 u1 = ṁu2 − ṁu1 (13)

i.e.,
Force = rate of change of momentum
F = ṁ(u2 − u1 ) = Qρ(u2 − u1 ) (14)
Note: F is the total force that result from the force acting on the surface of the body, FR ,
pressure force, Fp , and body forces, FB , i.e.,

F = FR + Fp + FB (15)

We are interested in the force acting on the surface of the body, FR .

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3.2 Angular momentum equations for steady flows
Consider a steady flow which is non-uniform flowing in a control volume (stream tube) as
shown in the figure 6. The inlet velocity vector, u1 , makes an angle θ1 , with the x-axis, while
at the outlet velocity u2 , make and angle θ2 to the x-axis. Therefore, the forces are resolved
in the directions of the co-ordinate axes.

Force in x direction, Fx is given as

Fx = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction

= Rate of change of mass × change in velocity in x-direction
= ṁ(u2 cosθ2 − u1 cosθ1 )
(16)
= ṁ(u2x − u1x )
= Qρ(u2 cosθ2 − u1 cosθ1 )
= ρQ(u2x − u1x )

Force in y direction, Fy is given as

Fy = Rate of change of momentum in y-direction

= ṁ(u2 sinθ2 − u1 sinθ1 )
= ṁ(u2y − u1y ) (17)
= Qρ(u2 sinθ2 − u1 sinθ1 )
= ρQ(u2y − u1y )

Figure 6: Two dimensional flow in a streamtube

Similar to linear momentum equations, Fx and Fy are the total force given by Eq 15 for
x and y direction respectively. The resultant force, Fresultant is given as
q
Fresultant = Fx2 + Fy2 (18)

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 The angle, Φ at which this force act is given as
 
−1 Fy
Φ = T an (19)
Fx

Note: The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume is
opposite to F. So the reaction force, R, is given as

R = −FR (20)

3.3 Application of Momentum Equations

Typical application of momentum equations are

1. Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend.

2. Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe.

3. Impact of a jet on a plane surface.

4. Force due to flow round a curve vane.

3.3.1 Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend

Consider a pipe lying in the horizontal plane with a constant cross section, which is bend
through an angle of θ as shown in figure 7. Since the fluid in the pipe is changing direction, a
force will act on the bend. Therefore, determination of this is necessary in order to determine
the force in which the support must withstand.
Analysis

1. Calculation of total force

Force in x-direction is

FT x = Qρ(u2x − u1x ) = Qρ(u2 cos θ − u1 ) (21)

Force in y-direction is

FT y = Qρ(u2y − u1y ) = Qρ(u2 sin θ − 0) = Qρu2 sin θ (22)

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 Figure 7: Flow round a pipe bend of constant cross-section

2. Calculation of pressure force

F p = Pressure force at 1 − Pressure force at 2

Pressure force in x-direction is

Fpx = p1 A1 cos 0 − p2 A2 cos θ = p1 A1 − p2 A2 cos θ (23)

Pressure force in y-direction is

Fpy = 0 − p2 A2 sin θ = −p2 A2 sin θ (24)

3. Calculation of body forces. Body forces due to gravity are negligible, ie FB =0.

4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq.
25

FT = FR + Fp + FB (25)

⇒ FR = FT − Fp

FRx = FT x − Fpx = Qρ(u2 cos θ − u1 ) − p1 A1 + p2 A2 cos θ (26)

FRy = FT y − Fpy = Qρu2 sin θ + p2 A2 sin θ (27)

The resultant force on the fluid is given by
q
2 2
FR = FRx + FRy (28)

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 The angle, Φ at which this force act is given as
 
−1 FRy
Φ = T an (29)
FRx
The force on the bend R is the same magnitude but opposite in direction.
Note: The flow is confined within a pipe, hence the static pressure vary from point to
point and forces due to the differences of static pressure must be taken into account.

Example 2: A 600 reducing pipe bend in horizontal plane tapers from 800 mm diameter
at inlet to 400 mm diameter at outlet as shown in figure below. The pressure at inlet and
outlet is 160 kPa and 146.5 kPa respectively and the rate of flow of water through the bend
is 0.675 m3 /s. Neglecting friction, calculate the net resultant force exerted by the water on
the bend.

3.3.2 Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe

Because the fluid is contracted at the nozzle, forces are induced in the nozzle. Consider the
nozzle shown in the figure below.

Analysis
1. Calculation of total force (x-direction only)
FT x = Qρ(u2 − u1 ) (30)
Since Q = A1 u1 = A2 u2 (continuity equation), then Eq. 30 reduces to
 
2 1 1
FT x = Q ρ − (31)
A2 A1

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 2. Calculation of pressure force (x-direction only)

Fpx = p1 A1 − p2 A2 (32)

Assignment: show that

Q2 ρ
 
1 1
p1 = 2
− 2 (33)
2 A2 A 1

3. Calculation of body forces. Body forces due to gravity are negligible, ie FB =0. (The
only body is the weight due to gravity in the y-direction. We are interested in the
x-direction.)

4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq.
34
FT X = FRx + FP x + FBx (34)

⇒ FRx = FT x − Fpx

Q2 ρA1
   
2 1 1 1 1
FRx = Q ρ − − 2
− 2 (35)
A 2 A1 2 A2 A1

Example 3: The nozzle that eject water in the fire fighting equipment is shown below. The
the rate of flow of water through the nozzle is 0.25 m3 /s. Neglecting friction, calculate the
net resultant force that the fireman must withstand. Assume that the fireman is holding the
nozzle horizontally.

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 Figure 8: A perpendicular jet hitting a plane

3.3.3 Impact of a jet on a plane surface

(a) A jet hitting a flat stationary plate i.e at angle of 900 as shown in figure 8.

Analysis

1. Calculation of total force

FT x = Qρ(u2x − u1x ) = −Qρu1x (36)

At outlet the jets are parallel to the plate with no component in the x-direction, i.e,
u2x = 0. The system is symmetrical, hence the forces in y-direction is zero, Fy = 0.

2. Pressure force is zero (the pressure at both the inlet and outlets are atmospheric).

3. Body forces is zero (act perpendicular).

4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq.
15
⇒ FRx = FT x − Fpx − FBx
FRx = FT x = −Qρu1x (37)

Force on the plane, R, is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction, ie R = −FRx .

Example 4: A water jet of velocity V impinges normal to a flat plate which moves to
the right at a velocity Vc as shown in the figure below. Find the force required to keep the
plate moving at a constant velocity if the jet density is 1000 Kg/m3 , jet area is 3 cm2 , V and
Vc are 20 and 15 m/s respectively. Neglect the gravitation force.

(b) A jet hitting an inclined stationary plate

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 Figure 9: A jet hitting an inclined plane

The reaction force normal to the plate is to be calculated, hence we chose the axis system
so that the x-direction is normal to the plane as shown in figure 9. The first step is to
calculate velocities u1 , u2 , and u3 using Bernoulli’s equation
p1 u2 p2 u2 p3 u2
+ 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 = + 3 + z3 (38)
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g
All pressures are atmospheric p1 = p2 = p3 = 0, and the height differences are negligible, i.e.
z1 = z2 = z3 , hence u1 =u2 = u3 . The continuity requires that

Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A 1 u 1 = A2 u 1 + A3 u 1
A1 = A2 + A 3 (39)
Analysis
1. Calculation of total force
FT = ρ ((Q2 u2x + Q3 u3x ) − Q1 u1x ) = −Q1 ρu1x = −Q1 ρu1 cos θ (40)
At outlet the jets are parallel to the plate with no component in the x-direction, i.e,
u2x = u3x = 0. The system is symmetrical, hence the forces in y-direction is zero,
Fy =0.
2. Pressure force is zero (the pressure at both the inlet and outlets are atmospheric).
3. Body forces is zero (act perpendicular).
4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq.
15
⇒ FRx = FT x − FP x − FBx
FRx = FT x = −Q1 ρu1 cos θ (41)

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Example 5: A water jet, moving at a flow rate of 0.35 m3 /s hit an inclined plate (300 to
the horizontal) as shown in the figure below. If the diameter of the jet is 150 mm, calculate
the force exerted on the plate.

3.3.4 Force due to flow round a curve vane

The forces due to fluid flowing over a curved vane is similar to that of fluid flowing on a
pipe-bend, but the pressures are atmospheric p1 = p2 = 0 and both the cross-section and
velocities remain constant. Consider a fluid flowing over a curve vane as shown in figure 10.

Figure 10: Jet deflected by a curved vane

Analysis
1. Calculation of total force
Force in x-direction is

FT x = Qρ(u2x − u1x ) = Qρ(u2 cos θ − u1 ) (42)

But Au1 = Au2 , hence Eq. 42 can be written as

Q2 ρ
FT x = (cos θ − 1) (43)
A
Force in y-direction is

FT y = Qρ(u2y − u1y ) = Qρ(u2 sin θ − 0) = Qρu2 sin θ (44)

2. Pressure force is zero (the pressure at both the inlet and outlets are atmospheric).

3. Body forces is zero (act perpendicular).

4. Determination of force acting on the surface of the body, FR . It is calculated using Eq.
15
⇒ FR = FT − FP
FRx = FT x and FRy = FT y (45)

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 The resultant force on the fluid is given by
q
2 2
FR = FRx + FRy (46)

The angle, α at which this force act is given as

 
−1 FRy
α = T an (47)
FRx

The force on the vane is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction, i.e., R = −FR

Example 6: A jet of water flows smoothly on to a stationary curved vane which turns it
through 600 . The initial jet is 50 mm in diameter, and the velocity, which is uniform is 36
m/s. As a result of friction, the velocity of water leaving the surface is 30 m/s. Neglecting
gravity effects, calculate the net resultant force on the vane.

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4 Laminar Flow Between Solid Boundaries
4.1 Introduction
Laminar flows occurs at velocities low enough for forces due to viscosity to predominant over
inertia forces and thus, if any individual particle attempts to stray from its prescribed path,
viscosity firmly restrained it. Viscous stresses arises whenever there is relative movement
between adjacent particles of fluid. For a Newtonian fluid, it is given by
∂u
τ =µ (48)
∂y

where τ is the shear stress, µ is dynamic viscosity, and ∂u

∂y
is the rate at which the velocity
u increases with coordinate y perpendicular to velocity. The following cases of laminar flow
between solid boundaries are to be considered:

1. Steady laminar flow in circular pipes (The Hagen-Poiseuille law).

2. Steady laminar flow between parallel plates.

3. Simple cylindrical dash-pot.

4. Slipper bearing.

4.2 Steady laminar flow in circular pipes (The Hagen-Poiseuille

law)
The first documented results about the laminar flow in pipes was the work of German engi-
neer G. H. L Hagen (1797-1884) which was published in 1839 (flow of water through small
brass tubes). Around the same time, similar work was done by a French physician J. L. M.
Poiseuille (1799-1869) which was published in 1840 (study blood through veins).

Figure below shows, on the left, a side view of a straight pipe of constant internal radius
R. On the right is shown the circular cross-section. We assume that the part of the pipe
considered is far enough from the inlet for conditions to have become settled (fully developed).

When the flow is fully developed the velocity profile is constant along the pipe axis. In lam-
inar flow, the paths of individual particles of fluid do not cross, and so the pattern of flow
may be imagined as a number of thin, concentric cylinders which slide over one another like

18
the tubes of a pocket telescope.

Let us take a cylinder (small element of fluid) of radius r, moving from left to right with
velocity u inside a slightly larger cylinder of radius r + δr, moving in the same direction with
velocity u + δu. In our analysis we assume that the part of the pipe considered is far enough
from the inlet for conditions to have settled.

The difference of velocity between the two cylinders brings viscosity into play, and thus there
is a stress along the interface between the two layers of fluid so as to oppose the relative
motion.
Force balance on the cylinder of radius r and length δx = p∗ πr2 − (p∗ + δp∗ )πr2 + τ 2πrδx = 0
Hence in the limit δx → 0, for steady flow, the shear stress τ at radius r is given by
r dp∗
τ= (49)
2 dx
For fluid at constant density, p∗ = p + ρgz is the piezometric pressure.

We also know that for a Newtonian fluid,

∂u
τ =µ (50)
∂r
Therefore combining Eqs. 49 and 50 and knowing that velocity only varies with radius and
not with x, i.e partial changes to total differential, yields
du r dp∗
µ = (51)
dr 2 dx
which can be rearrange as
r dp∗
du = dr (52)
2µ dx
Integrating both sides gives
r2 dp∗
u= +A (53)
4µ dx
At the pipe walls, i.e at r = R, u = 0 (no slip conditions). If we apply this boundary
condition to Eq. 53, we get
R2 dp∗
0= +A (54)
4µ dx
R2 dp∗
⇒ A=− (55)
4µ dx
Substituting for A in Eq. 53, gives the velocity at any given point as
1 dp∗
 
u=− (R2 − r2 ) (56)
4µ dx
Equation 56 is known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. It shows that the velocity is
maximum at the centre, i.e at r=0. The velocity distribution (velocity profile) over the cross

19
section can be represented graphically by plotting u against r as shown below. The shape of
the graph is parabolic; in other words, the velocity profile has the shape of a paraboloid of
revolution.
Discharge Through The Pipe
Consider an elemental cylinder (small element of fluid) of radius r and thickness δr as shown
on the right hand side of the figure above. The discharge in the elemental cylinder, δQ is
given by
δQ = Au = 2πrδru (57)
Substituting for the u using Eq. 56, gives
2π dp∗
 
δQ = − (rR2 − r3 )δr (58)
4µ dx
Integrating both sides for the whole radius gives
Z r
2π dp∗
Z  
δQ = − (rR2 − r3 )δr, (59)
0 4µ dx
which on solving result in
dp∗ r 2 R2 r 4
 
π
Q=− ( − ) (60)
2µ dx 2 4
Hence, the discharge at any radius r is given by Eq. 60. The discharge through the entire
section, i.e r = R is given by
πR4 dp∗
 
Q=− (61)
8µ dx
The mean velocity ū of the fluid may be given as
Discharge for entire section
ū = (62)
Cross − section area
4 dp∗
− πR


R2 dp∗
 
8µ dx
ū = =− (63)
πR2 8µ dx
Maximum velocity umax (at r = 0 ) is

R2 dp∗
 
umax =− (64)
4µ dx

Therefore in a pipe ū = (1/2)umax .

20
Example 7: Oil of relative density 0.83 and dynamic viscosity 0.08 kg/m·s passes through
a circular pipe of 12 mm diameter with a mean velocity of 2.3 m/s. Determine (a) The
Reynolds number, (b) maximum velocity, (c) volumetric flow rate, and (d) pressure gradient
along the pipe.

4.3 Steady laminar flow between parallel plates

Consider the flow between two parallel infinitely long (to avoid end effects) plates as shown
below:

As the flow is laminar, there is no movement of fluid in any direction perpendicular to the
flow, and hence pressure varies only in the direction of flow. The flow is caused by the
difference in piezometric pressure between the two end.
Consider an elemental fluid particle as shown below

If the thickness of the element is δz, then Net force due to pressure in direction of flow =
(p∗ − (p∗ + δp∗ ))δyδz
Force due to shear stress in direction of flow = ((τ + δτ ) − τ )δxδz
Momentum equation requires that

(p∗ − (p∗ + δp∗ ))δyδz + ((τ + δτ ) − τ )δxδz = ma (65)

But for steady, fully developed flow there is no acceleration and so the RHS of Eq. 65 is zero,
i.e
(p∗ − (p∗ + δp∗ ))δyδz + ((τ + δτ ) − τ )δxδz = 0, (66)
which reduces to
− δp∗ δy + τ δx = 0 (67)

21
Dividing through by δxδy and proceeding to the limit δy ⇒ 0 and δx ⇒ 0, we get
∂p∗ ∂τ
= (68)
∂x ∂y
Substituting for shear stress for a Newtonian fluid using Eq. 48, then Eq. 68 can be written
as
∂p∗
 
∂ ∂u
= µ (69)
∂x ∂y ∂y
p∗ varies only in the x direction and u varies only in y direction, therefore, the partial
derivative can be replaced with total derivatives. Then, integration of Eq. 69 wrt y, yields
dp∗ du
y = µ + A, (70)
dx dy
which can be rearrange as
dp∗
µdu = ydy + Ady (71)
dx
An integration of this equation on both sides, gives
dp∗ y 2
µu = + Ay + B (72)
dx 2
Boundary conditions are,
at y = 0, u = 0 ,
at y = c, u = 0
Applying the first B.C. condition to Eq. 72 gives B = 0. And applying 2nd B.C. gives
dp∗ c
A=− (73)
dx 2
Inserting the values of A and B in Eq. 72 gives the velocity at any point y as
1 dp∗
 
u= (y 2 − cy) (74)
2µ dx
The velocity distribution (velocity profile) over the cross section can be represented graphi-
cally by plotting u against y as shown below:

Assignment 2: Find the discharge at any point y and show that the total discharge for
a fixed bread b for flow between two stationary plates with a distance separating them as c
is
−bc3 dp∗
 
Q= (75)
12µ dx

22
4.4 Simple cylindrical dash-pot
A dash-pot is a device for damping vibrations of machines, or rapid reciprocating motions,
using a fluid with high viscosity. The figure below shows a simple dash-pot:

A piston P, connected to the mechanism whose movement is to be restrained, moves in a

concentric cylinder C, the diameter of which is only slightly greater than that of the piston.
The cylinder contains a viscous oil. If the piston is caused to move downward, oil is displaced
from underneath through the small annular clearance, c between the piston and the wall of
the cylinder.
For an upward movement of the piston, the pressure underneath reduces, and the resulting
difference of piezometric pressure between the top and bottom of the piston causes the flow
of oil from top to bottom.
To analyse the forces in a dash-pot, we use the analysis of flow between a fixed plate and
a moving plate, i.e one of the surface is the piston, the other one is the inner wall of the
cylinder.
Let us consider a downward movement of the piston with velocity V. Note that this velocity
is negative to the direction of flow.
Therefore, boundary conditions are,
at y = 0, u = 0 ,
at y = c, u = −V
Applying the first B.C. condition to Eq. 72 gives B = 0. And applying 2nd B.C. gives
dp∗ c2
− µV = + Ac (76)
dx 2
µV dp∗ c
⇒A=− − (77)
c dx 2
Inserting the values of A and B in Eq. 72 gives the velocity at any point y as
 ∗ 2  ∗  
dp y y dp c µV
u= − + , (78)
dx 2µ µ dx 2 c
which can be rearrange as
dp∗
 
1 yV
u= (y 2 − yc) − (79)
2µ dx c

23
The equation shows that flow may occur even without a difference in piezometric pressure
dp∗


provided that one boundary is moving. In such a case dx = 0 and Q = (1/2)πDV c (This
situation is known as Coutte flow after M. F. A Coutte (1858-1945)).
To calculate the discharge between the cylinder and the piston, we consider an elemental
fluid as shown in the figure below

Q = Au = πDudy (80)
Substituting for u using Eq. 79 and integrating for the whole length c, we get
Z Z c   ∗ 
1 dp 2 yV
dQ = πD (y − yc) − dy, (81)
0 2µ dx c

which can be solved to get

  ∗ 3 
dp c cV
Q = πD − − (82)
dx 12µ 2

This must be equal to the rate at which oil is being displaced by the piston, Qp

πD2
Qp = Vp (83)
4
∗

If the end effects are neglected, − dp
dx
may be considered constant and may be written as
∆P/L, where ∆P is the difference of piezometric pressure from the bottom to top of the
piston.
Therefore equating Eqs. 82 and 83 (note that V = Vp ), gives
 3
πD2
  
∆P c cV
πD − − = V (84)
L 12µ 2 4

∆P c3
 
D
⇒V +c = (85)
2 6µL
The pressure underneath the piston exceeds that above it by ∆p; thus there is an upward
force of ∆p(πD2 /4) on it. There is also an upward force on the piston as a result of the oil
flowing past it in the clearance space. The shear stress in a viscous fluid is given by µ(∂u/∂y).
Here y is the coordinate perpendicular to the flow and so may be supplanted by r. By taking
the value of µ(∂u/∂r) at the moving boundary, the shear stress on the piston surface may
be calculated, and thus the upward shear force exerted by the oil on the piston. This shear
force is usually negligible compared with the other forces.

24
For steady, that is, non-accelerating, movement, the sum of the forces on the piston must be
zero.
πD2
 
∆p −F −W =0 (86)
4
Where W is the weight of piston, F is the downward force exerted on it by mechanism to
which it is connected.

Example 8: A simple dashpot consists of a piston of diameter 50 mm and length 130 mm

positioned concentrically in a cylinder of 50.4 mm diameter. If the dashpot contains oil of
specific gravity 0.87 and kinematic viscosity 10−4 m2 /s, determine the velocity of the dashpot
if the difference in pressures ∆p∗ is 1.4 MPa.

4.5 Fundamentals of the Theory of Hydrodynamic Lubrication

The flow of lubricant in various types of bearing can be assumed to be laminar. Although
high velocities may be involved, the thickness of the film of lubricant is so small that the
Reynolds number is usually below its critical value for that system. The primary function of
the lubricant is to separate the bearing surfaces, and as long as the lubrication is effective,
there is no direct contact between the surfaces. If the film of lubrication is to keep the bearing
surfaces apart, it must be capable of sustaining a load. One way of achieving this is to supply
the fluid lubricant to the space between the surfaces at sufficiently high pressure from some
external sources. This provides hydrostatic lubrication. Hydrodynamic lubrication
on the other hand, is achieved when high pressures is produced in the lubricant as a result
of the shape and relative motion of the bearing surfaces. The simplest form of bearing is the
slipper bearing which is presented below.

Slipper Bearing
Consider a slipper bearing as shown below:

The angle is very small. To give steady conditions, the slipper is considered fixed and the
bearing plate moves. The bearing plate moves with a velocity u. This motion is equivalent

25
to the motion between two parallel surfaces with a pressure gradient. The only difference is
that they are inclined to each other. Therefore it is governed by Eq. 72.
Therefore, boundary conditions are,
at y = 0, u = U ,
at y = c, u = 0
Applying the first B.C. condition to Eq. 72 gives B = µU . And applying 2nd B.C. gives

dp h2
0= + Ah + µU (87)
dx 2
dp h µU
⇒A=− − (88)
dx 2 h
Inserting the values of A and B in Eq. 72 gives the velocity at any point y as
  2
dp y  y
u= (y 2 − hy) + U 1 − (89)
dx 2µ h

which can be rearrange as

y  h2
 
 dp y y
u=U 1− − 1− (90)
h 2µ dx h h

For every section continuity requires that

Z h
Q= udy (91)
0

h
y  h2 dp y 
Z     
y
Q= U 1− − 1− dy, (92)
0 h 2µ dx h h
which can be solved to get
h3
 
Uh dp
Q= − , (93)
2 12µ dx
and  
dp U Q
= 12µ 2
− 3 (94)
dx 2h h
Hence  
6µU 12µQ
dp = 2
− dx (95)
h h3
Integrating both sides, yields
Z x Z x
dx dx
p = 6µU − 12µQ +A (96)
0 h2 0 h3
At x = 0, p = p0 ⇒ A = p0 , then
Z x Z x
dx dx
p(x) = 6µU − 12µQ + p0 (97)
0 h2 (x) 0 h3 (x)

26
At x = L, p = p0 , therefore
Z L Z L 
U dx dx
Q= 2 3
(98)
2 0 h (x) 0 h (x)

But h(x) is given as h(x) = tan α(a − x), and for small α, i.e as α → 0 tan α → α. Therefore,

h(x) = α(a − x) (99)

Z L Z L 
U dx dx
Q= (100)
2 0 (α(a − x))2 0 (α(a − x))
3

which can be solved to get

U αa(a − L)
(101)
2a − L
The pressure distribution in the bearing in x direction, can be obtained by substituting the
value of h(x) in Eq. 97, which on solving gives

6µU (x(L − x))

p(x) = p0 + (102)
α2 (2a
− L)(a − x)2

Since, under the slipper, x is always less than L and L is less than 2a, the term 2a − L is
always positive; p is thus greater than p0 and the bearing can sustain a load.
If the distance a approaches infinity, i.e, if the surface become parallel, then p = p0 for all
values of x.
The load which a bearing can support is determined by the total net thrust, which the fluid
exerts on the unit width of either bearing surface. The net thrust per unit width, T, is
obtained from the integral
Z L Z L
6µU x(L − x)
T = (p − p0 )dx = 2 dx, (103)
0 α (2a − L) 0 (a − x)2

which can be solved to get,

   
6µU a 2L
T = 2 ln − (104)
α a−L 2a − L

Exercise

1. Two parallel plates are 4 mm apart and a steady viscous flow of oil is taking place
between them. If the pressure drop is 12 kN/m2 per meter length of plates and the
dynamic viscosity for oil is 5 × 10−2 N s/m2 , find the local velocity at 1 mm from the
lower plate, flow per meter width (total discharge), and the maximum shear stress.

2. A dash-pot consist of a cylinder 7 cm diameter in which it slides a piston 8 cm long

having a radial clearance of 1 mm. The cylinder is filled with an oil of viscosity 0.1 N
s/m2 . Calculate the velocity of the piston when acted upon by a load having a mass
of 18 kg.

27
3. The radial clearance between a plunger and the walls of a cylinder is 0.075 mm, the
length of the plunger is 250 mm and its diameter is 100 mm. There is a difference in
pressure of water on the two ends of the plunger of 207 kN/m2 and the viscosity of the
water is 1.31 × 10−3 kg/m-s. Treating the flow as if it is occurring between parallel
flat plates, estimate the rate of leakage.

4. A dash-pot consist of a piston 143.5 mm diameter working concentrically in a cylinder

of 143.6 mm bore. The cylinder contains oil of viscosity 0.08 kg/m-s. Calculate the
force which must be applied to the piston to give it a velocity 0f 0.003 m/s, when 250
mm of piston is in the cylinder.

5. Oil of viscosity 0.048 kg/m-s flow through an 18 mm diameter pipe with a mean velocity
of 0.3 m/s. Calculate the pressure drop which occurs over a length of 45 m of pipe.
Calculate also the velocity at a distance of 3 mm from the walls of the pipe.

6. A plane bearing plate is traversed by a very wide, 150 mm long, inclined slipper moving
at 1.5 m/s. The clearance between slipper and the bearing plate is 0.075 mm at the
toe and 0.025 mm at the heel. If the load to be sustained by the bearing is 500 kN per
meter width, determine the viscosity of the lubricant required.

28
5 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
The flow in pipes is usually turbulent. Therefore, the energy is dissipated through various
losses, the main one being frictional losses. The minor losses in pipes occur at abrupt
enlargement (exit), at abrupt contraction, in bends and in pipe fittings.

5.1 Frictional Losses

The dissipation of energy by fluid friction result in a fall of piezometric head in the direction
of flow. Frictional losses, hf , are given by Darcy’s formula:
∆p∗ 4f l ū2
hf = = . (105)
ρg d 2g
It can also be expressed as
f l ū2
hf = . (106)
m 2g
where f is the friction factor, ū is the mean velocity, d is the pipe diameter, g is gravitational
force, and m is the hydraulic mean depth/hydraulic radius given by the ratio of cross-sectional
area of flow, A to the perimeter in contact with fluid, P. For a circular section m = A/P =
(πd2 /4)/πd = d/4. This equation is named after French engineer Henri Darcy (1803). The
friction factor depends on the relative roughness of the pipe surface and the Reynold number
of flow.
To relate the value of f to the mean shear stress τ¯w at the wall of the pipe, we consider a
short length, dx of pipe. The head loss to friction is
f dx ū2
dhf = (107)
m 2g
2gm dhf
f= (108)
ū2 dx
For a steady, fully developed flow (see Eq. 49), the wall shear stress is
A dp∗ dp∗
τ̄w = =m (109)
P dx dx
∗
The drop in piezometric pressure, p is
− dp∗ = ρgdhf (110)
Therefore,
dhf 1 dp∗ τ̄w
=− =− (111)
dx ρg dx ρgm
Substituting in Eq. 108 gives
 
2gm τ̄w |τ̄w |
f =− = (112)
ū2 ρgm (1/2)ρū2
The minus sign is Eq. 112 arises because we define it as a forward stress on the fluid, whereas
it is actually in the opposite direction. It is usual to consider only the magnitude of τ̄w .

29
5.1.1 Variation of Frictional Factor
Frictional factor is a function of Reynold number and the relative roughness, k/d. Experi-
mental data on friction in pipes may be represented diagrammatically in what is frequently
referred to as Stanton or Moody diagrams (Named after the works of E. Stanton (1865-
1931), J. Nikuradse (1894-1979) and L. F. Moody (1880-1953)).

A number of emperical formulae have been put forward to describe the value of f. Blasius,
showed that for turbulent flows in a smooth pipe:
f = 0.079(Re)−1/4 for 3000 < Re < 105 (113)
Moody himself produced the following approximate formulae for f :
" 1/3 #
k 106

f = 0.001375 1 + 20000 + (114)
d Re

It gives values within ±5% for Reynold numbers between 4000 and 107 and values of k/d up
to 0.01.

Exercise
1. Determine the head lost to friction when water flows through 300 m long of 150 mm
diameter galvanized steel pipe at 50 litres/s. For galvanized steel k = 0.15 mm and
kinematic viscosity of flow, ν = 1.14 × 10−6 m2 /s.
2. Calculate the steady rate at which oil will flow through a cast-iron pipe 100 mm diam-
eter and 120 m long under a head difference of 5 m. For cast-iron pipe k = 0.25 mm
and kinematic viscosity flow, ν = 1 × 10−5 m2 /s.

30
 3. Determine the size of galvanized steel pipe needed to carry water a distance of 180 m
and 85 litres/s with a head loss of 9 m.
4. Water flows through a smooth galvanized pipe at a mean velocity of 2 m/s. If the
pipe diameter is 300 mm, calculate the pressure gradient per unit length necessary. If
instead of water, oil of density 800 kg/m3 and viscosity 0.027 kg/ms was used, what
would be the pressure gradient per unit length?

5.2 Minor Losses

5.2.1 Loss at Abrupt Enlargement (Sudden expansion)
Consider the following diagram

Fluid entering from the smaller pipe is unable to follow the abrupt deviation of the boundary,
consequently turbulent eddies form in the corners and result in the dissipation of energy as
heat.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between point 1 and 2, we get
p1 u2 p2 u2
+ 1 = + 2 + he (115)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
where he is the energy loss at the expansion.
Net force acting toward right for the control volume BCDEFG is:

p1 A1 + p0 (A2 − A1 ) − p2 A2 (116)

p0 is the mean pressure of eddying fluid over the annular face GD. Experimentally, it has
been found that p0 ' p1 . Therefore Eq. 116 can be written as

A2 (p1 − p2 ) (117)

The conservation of momentum requires that this force equal to the rate of increase in
momentum in the same direction, i.e

A2 (p1 − p2 ) = ρQ(u2 − u1 )

31
 ρQ
p1 − p2 = (u2 − u1 ) = ρu2 (u2 − u1 ) (118)
A2
From Eq. 115
p1 − p2 u21 − u22
he = + (119)
ρg 2g
and using Eq. 118 for p1 − p2 , we have
u2 (u2 − u1 ) u21 − u22
he = + (120)
g 2g
which can be solved to get
1
he = (u1 − u2 )2 (121)
2g
From continuity A1 u1 = A2 u2 , therefore,
2 2
u21 u22 A2
 
A1
he = 1− = −1 (122)
2g A2 2g A1
 2
The term 1 − A 1
A2
is a constant, k and Eq. 122 can be written as

u21
he = k (123)
2g
 2
u2
If A2  A1 , then 1 − A 1
A2
' 12 , i.e k = 1. Hence, he = 2g1 . This happens at the submerged
outlet of a pipe discharging into a large reservoir e.g to atmosphere or a tank. In such
circumstances, the head loss is usually termed the exit loss for the pipe.

5.2.2 Loss Due to Sudden Contraction

Consider the following diagram

Although an abrupt contraction is geometrically the reverse of an abrupt enlargement, it is

not possible to apply the momentum equation to a control volume between section 1 and
2. This is because, just upstream of the junction, the curvature of the streamlines and the
acceleration of the fluid cause the pressure at the face to vary in an unknown way. Therefore,
the loss at a sudden contraction is given as

32
 Loss due to sudden contraction = loss up to vena contracta + loss due to
sudden expansion beyond vena contracta
Loss up to vena contracta is negligible. Loss due to sudden expansion beyond vena contracta,
hc is obtained using Eq. 122;
2 2
u22 A2 u22 1
 
hc = −1 = −1 , (124)
2g Ac 2g Cc
 2
1
where Cc is the coefficient of contraction given as Cc = Ac /A2 . Cc − 1 is a constant, k
u2
and therefore, the loss can be expressed as hc = k 2g2 .

Other types of minor losses include: Loss of head at the exit of a pipe, loss of head due
to an obstruction in a pipe, loss of head due to bend in the pipe and loss of head in various
pipe fittings.

Excercise
1. Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarged to a diameter
of 400 mm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 250 l/s.

2. A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 250 mm.

The pressure intensities in the larger and smaller pipe is given as 13.734 N/cm2 and
11.772 N/cm2 respectively. Find the loss of head due to contraction if Cc = 0.62. Also,
determine the rate of flow of water.

5.3 Power Transmission Through Pipes

Pipes are employed while transmitting hydraulic power in conjunction with hydraulic ma-
chines. The power transmitted depends upon, the weight of liquid flowing through the pipe
and the total head available at the end of the pipe. Consider the pipe below for transmitting
power.

From conservation of energy;

33
The head available at the outlet of pipe, if minor losses are neglected = Total head at inlet
- Loss of head due to friction, i.e.,

4f l ū2
H2 = H1 − hf = H1 − , (125)
d 2g
where H1 and H2 are total energy head in point 1 and 2 respectively.
But ū = 4Q/πd2 , therefore
4f l 16Q2
H2 = H1 −
d π 2 d4 2g
Q2 f l
⇒ H2 = H1 − 0.33 (126)
d5
The power at the exit, P is given as

P = ρgH2 Q

Q3 f l
 
⇒ P = ρg H1 Q − 0.33 5 (127)
d
It is important to establish the conditions under which a pipeline will transmit maximum
power for a given size, and also to determine for a given condition, the smallest pipe size to
transmit maximum power.
To maximize power at the exit, then

Q2 f l
 
dP
= 0 = ρg H1 − 0.99 5 (128)
dQ d

i.e
0 = ρg(H1 − 3hf )
H1
⇒ hf = (129)
3
Therefore, to get maximum power at the exit, we must ensure that the head lost due to
friction is a third of the total head available at entry.
By definition,
power output
Efficiency, η = × 100 (130)
power input
Hence for the maximum power,

H2 H1 − H1 /3
η= × 100 = × 100 = 66.7% (131)
H1 H1
If a nozzle is fitted at the exit, discharging to the atmosphere at a velocity ūn , then H2 =
ū2n /2g, and
ū2 Q2 f l ū2 fl
H1 = n + 0.33 5 = n + 0.20 ū2 (132)
2g d 2g d

34
Continuity requires that ūd2 = ūn d2n ,
 4
2 dn
⇒ ū = ū2n
d

Therefore,  4
ū2n f l dn
H1 = + 0.20 ū2n (133)
2g d d
" #
H1
⇒ ū2n =
4
0.05 + 0.20 fdl ddn
The power transmitted available at the exit, can be written as a function of the nozzle
geometry for a given head H1 as
" #3/2
ū2n πd2n
  
ρπ 2 H1
P = ρgH2 Q = ρg un = dn (134)
2g 4 8 dn 4
0.05 + 0.20 fdl


d

Thus for a given available head H1 and pipe, the power can be maximized wrt nozzle diameter
dn by setting ∂P/∂dn = 0 in Eq. 134. It can be shown that the power will be maximum
when,
 5 1/4
d
dn = (135)
8f l
Example: A pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 3500 m is used for the transmission of
power by water. The total head at the inlet of the pipe is 500 m. Find the maximum power
available at the outlet of the pie if the value of f is 0.006.

5.4 Pipes in Series

Pipes are said to be in series when pipes of different materials and diameters are connected
end to end as shown below;

For pipes in series;

35
 Total loss in energy = Loss due to friction in each pipe +
minor losses in each pipe

and for steady flow, continuity requires that

Q1 = Q2 = ... = Qn (136)

Example: The difference in water surface levels in two tanks which are connected by three
pipes in series of lengths 300 m, 170 m and 210 m and of diameters 300 mm, 200 mm and
400 mm respectively is 12 m. Determine the rate of flow of water if co-efficient of friction are
0.005, 0.0052 and 0.0048 respectively. Neglect the minor losses.

5.5 Pipes in Parallel

The connection is as shown below;

For parallel connection, the head causing flow is the same in each pipe. Bernoulli’s equation
is applied to each pipe independently and continuity requires that,

QT = Q1 + Q2 ...Qn (137)

Example: A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe. The
length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m and 1 m respectively. While the
length and diameter of second parallel pipe are 2000 m and 0.8 m. Find the rate of flow in
each parallel pipe, if the total flow in the main pipe is 3 m3 /s. The co-efficient of friction for
each parallel pipe is same and equal to 0.005.

5.6 Pipe Networks

A pipe network is an interconnected system of pipes forming several loops or circuits. The
pipe network is shown in the figure below. The most common pipe networks are water
distribution systems for municipalities and laboratory supply system. In such system, it is
required to determine the distribution of flow through the various pipes of the network. The
following are the necessary conditions for any network of pipes.

1. The flow into each junction must be equal to the flow out of the junction. This is due
to the continuity equation.

36
 2. The algebraic sum of head losses round each loop must be zero. This means that in
each loop, the loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to the loss
of head due to flow in anticlockwise direction.

3. The head loss in each pipe is expressed as hf = rQn . The value of r depends upon the
length of pipe, diameter of pipe and co-efficient of friction of pipe. The value of n for
turbulent flow is 2.

We know that
4f lu2 4f l( Q
A
)2 4f lQ2 2
hf = = = 5 π 2 = rQ (138)
d2g d2g 2gd ( 4 )
Where,
4f l
r=
2gd5 ( π4 )2
This head loss will be positive when the pipe is part of loop and the flow in the pipe is
clockwise.

Exercise
Three reservoirs A, B and C at water levels of 25 m, 12 m and 8 m are connected by a pipe
network. 1200 m length pipe of diameter 0.5 m and f = 0.013 draws water from A. 1000 m
length pipe of diameter 0.4 m and f = 0.015 draws water from B and joins the pipe end from
A. The reservoir C is connected to this junction by 900 m length of pipe 0.6 m diameter
with f = 0.011. Determine the flow from/to each reservoir.

37
6 Unsteady Flow
In this section we consider unsteady-state phenomena applied to some important engineering
applications, such as unsteady flow in closed conduit, water hammer, surge tanks and shafts.

6.1 Unsteady Flow in Closed Pipeline System

If the flow in a long pipe is shut, then the fluid upstream will adjust itself to this stoppage
only if there is a hydraulic communication between the point of closure and the upstream.
This communication takes place through a pressure wave that travels at sonic speed through
the fluid. Depending on the magnitude of pressure in the wave, it could have destructive
effects on the pipeline. Once the flow conditions have been changed,the fluid undergoes an
unsteady flow, even though for a short time before it attains new equilibrium.
Rigid column theory is used to analyse unsteady flow as discussed in the next section.

Rigid Column Theory

The Rigid Column Theory is a significant factor in the design, construction and operation
of pipelines. Owing to the potential damage including that caused by the water hammer
effect, it is particularly important to arrangements that use pipelines transporting hazardous
or flammable fluids. The Rigid Column Theory assumes that the walls of the pipe are
non-elastic, and that the fluid flowing in it is incompressible; therefore, system flow-control
operations affect only the inertial and frictional aspects of transient flow.

The theory is valid on the following assumptions:

1. The fluid is incompressible. The fluid become incompressible if the rate at which
velocity changes is much lower than the rate at which the pressure wave travels.

2. The velocity at which the pressure wave travels can be considered to be infinitely large.

Consider a pipeline that drains fluid from an open reservoir and discharges to the atmosphere
as shown below:

38
When the valve at the end of a pipe line of length L as shown in figure above is instantaneously
opened, there is a time lapse before the flow reaches steady state. When the valve first opens,
the whole of head H is used for accelerating the flow. As the velocity increases, however, the
head used for acceleration decreases owing to the fluid friction loss hf , and discharge energy
hd . Consequently, the effective head available to accelerate the liquid in the pipe becomes
ρg(H − hf − hd ). So the equation of motion (momentum equation) of the liquid in the pipe
is as follows, putting A as the sectional area of the pipe,
dv̄
ρg(H − hf − hd )A = ρAL (139)
dt
But
4f l v̄ 2 v̄ 2 v̄ 2
hf = = k , and hd =
d 2g 2g 2g
Therefore, substituting the values of hf and hd in Eq. 139, results in
v̄ 2 L dv̄
H − (k + 1) = (140)
2g g dt
Assume that velocity v̄ becomes v̄0 (terminal velocity) in the steady state (dv̄/dt = 0). Then
(k + 1)v̄02 = 2gH (141)
2gH
⇒k= −1
v̄0
Substituting the value of k into Eq. 140,
v̄ 2
 
L dv̄
H 1− 2 = (142)
v̄0 g dt
v̄02
 
L
dt = dv̄
Hg v̄02 − v̄ 2
or  
Lv̄0 v̄0 + v̄
t= ln (143)
2Hg v̄0 − v̄
t = ∞ if v̄ = v̄0 , i.e to attain v̄ = v̄0 , we require infinite time. To avoid this anomaly, we
evaluate the time taken to bring v̄ = 0.99v̄0 , which works out to
Lv̄0
t = 2.646 (144)
gH

6.2 Surge Tanks and Shafts

Consider a hydro electric power plant as shown below. When the generator load requirements
vary, the speed of the turbine is adjusted and the control valves are adjusted accordingly to
give the appropriate flow rate. If the generator is not under any load, then the speed of
the turbine must go to zero and hence the control valves completely shut the flow. Now the
pressure wave propagates upstream and gives rise to the pressure in the penstock. This may
cause a very severe damage to the system. A surge tank is introduced to divert flow from
the penstock as shown in the figure. The surge tank should be as close to the turbine as
possible.

39
6.3 Water Hammer
Whenever a valve is rapidly closed in a pipe, a pressure wave is created upstream of the
valve and travels up the pipe at the speed of sound. This pressure wave is called a water
hammer and is sometime so great that it can cause pipe failure. Therefore, in design proper
understanding of this water hammer phenomena is necessary.

40
7 Open Channel Flow
7.1 Introduction
Flow in rivers, irrigation canals, drainage ditches and aqueducts are some examples for open
channel flow. These flows occur with a free surface and the pressure over the surface is atmo-
spheric. While in closed conduits the flow is sustained by pressure difference, the driving
force in open channel flow is due to gravity, and is proportional to the bed slope. The depth
of flow is not restrained and this makes the analysis more complex. As most of the flow are
large in scale and as viscosity of water is lower, Reynolds number are high. Hence the flow
is generally turbulent. Froude number is the important parameter in the general study
of open channel flow which is free surface flow. The balance of gravity forces and surface
friction forces controls the flow. Changes in channel cross-section and changes in the slope
cause changes and readjustments in the flow depth which may or not propagate upstream.

Definitions
Hydraulic radius, Rh - It is the ratio of flow area, A, to the wetted perimeter, P.
Hydraulic depth- It is the ratio of flow area to top width. This represents the average
depth of the section.
An open channel flow is termed laminar if Re < 500, turbulent if Re > 1250 and transitional
if 500 < Re < 1250
Froude number, Fr - defined as
u
Fr = √ (145)
gy
Where, y is the depth of flow, g is the gravitational acceleration and u is the celerity of a
small surface wave.
Note: Velocity of a fluid is the variation of its particles’ position with time, while celerity is
the speed at which a signal (a wave) is transmitted through a medium.

Flows with Fr < 1 are referred to as subcritical, Fr > 1 are referred to supercritical, and Fr
= 1 are referred to as critical.

7.2 Classification of Open Channel Flows

Open channel flows are generally classified according to the rate of change of free surface
depth:
1. Uniform Flow - the depth and velocity remain constant along the length of flow.
For such flow the slope and area should be uniform. The slope of the free surface is
governed by the way in which the slope and the area change. The value of Froude
number characterizes the nature of the flow in such situations.
2. Gradually varying flow - the depth changes gradually, due to area or slope changes.
3. Rapidly varying flow - the slope change rapidly or suddenly, due to sudden changes
of area or slope.

41
7.2.1 Uniform Flow
It is also known as flow at normal depth. This is the simplest and common type of flow that
occurs when conditions are steady and slope is not steep. It is also non accelerating flow.
Let us consider a control volume bounded by 1 and 2 as shown in figure below:

For steady uniform incompressible flow the height of the water level and area are constant,
hence the velocity is constant.
Continuity Equation: ρ1 A1 u1 = ρ2 A2 u2 and for incompressible flow (ρ1 = ρ2 ) and con-
stant area (A1 = A2 ), then u1 = u2 , i.e constant velocity.
Momentum conservation: The velocity is constant (no acceleration), hence the momen-
tum flux through the control surface is zero. As the pressure distribution is hydrostatic the
net pressure force on the control volume is zero. Only body force due to gravity and friction
forces/ on the wetted surfaces, act on the control volume.

− Ff + mg sin θ = 0 (146)
Ff = mg sin θ = mgSb (147)

42
where mg sin θ is the component of gravity force parallel to the flow, Ff is the friction force
on the wetted surface, and Sb is bed slope, which is defined as the ratio of change in elevation
over a length with the length, i.e Sb = sin θ.
Energy equation: Applying Bernoulli’s equation between point 1 and 2, we have
p1 u2 p2 u2
+ 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 + hl (148)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
where hl is the head loss due to friction between point 1 and 2.
Since pressure is essentially hydrostatic at any cross-section
p1 p2
= y1 = y2 (149)
ρg ρg
Therefore Eq. 148 can be rewritten as
u21 u2
y1 + + z1 = y2 + 2 + z2 + hl (150)
2g 2g
For steady flow, u1 = u2 , y1 = y2 and for a length L, then

hl = z1 − z2 = LSb (151)

The head loss due to friction in steady flow between two sections equals the change in eleva-
tion of the bed.

Chezy’s Equation for Discharge

For the steady uniform flow control volume shown in figure above with length L,
Gravitational force = ρALg sin θ
Frictional force = τw P L, where τw is wall shear stress. Hence, substituting this values into
Eq. 147, gives
τw P L = ρALg sin θ (152)
or
τw = ρgRh Sb (153)
where Rh = A/P .

For large values of Reynolds number the friction factor is independent of Reynolds number
and wall shear stress is proportional to the dynamic pressure u2 /2g and is independent of
viscosity. Hence τw = Kρu2 /2g0 where K is a constant of proportionality. Substituting in
Eq. 153, gives
u2
Kρ = ρgRh Sb (154)
2g0
which result into
2gg0
u2 = R h Sb (155)
K
Equation 155 can be written as p
u = C R h Sb (156)

43
where C = 2gg
K
0
is a constant normally referred to as Chezy’s coefficient, which is determined
experimentally. Eq. 156 is known as Chezy’s Equation. The discharge can be calculated
as p
Q = Au = AC Rh Sb (157)
The dependence of u on hydraulic radius, Rh , was modified by Manning through experimental
correlation to give what is commonly known as the Manning’s equation given as
2/3 1/2
R S
u= h b (158)
n
n is known as Manning resistance coefficient and is dependent on surface materials. Its values
are obtained experimentally depending on the surfaces of the wetted perimeter. Typical
values of n are given in the table below;

Wetted perimeter n
Natural rivers 0.035
Flood plains, pastures 0.035
Excavated gravelly earth channel 0.022
Grass lined channels 0.010
Concrete lined channels 0.012
Brick worked lined channels 0.015
Rubble masonsry channels 0.025
Brass 0.011
Steel 0.002

The Optimum Cross-section of a Channel

The cost excavation of a channel can be reduced if the cross-section is minimized and yet
convey a given discharge at a given slope. Conversely, for a given cross-section the discharge
should be maximum for the section to be economical.
Since Q = Au, then from Manning’s formula;
1 2/3 1/2
Q = A Rh Sb (159)
n
or  2/3
1 A 1/2 A5/3
Q=A Sb ∝ 2/3 (160)
n P P
For a given Q, n, and Sb , A is minimum when P is minimum.
For a given A, n, and Sb , Q is maximum when P is minimum. Thus to either maximize Q
or minimize A, then we need to minimize P. P is minimum when
dP
=0 (161)
dy

(a) Rectangular section

44
 A = by and P = b + 2y
Thus for a given value of A
A
P = + 2y (162)
y
Hence
dP A
=− 2 +2=0 (163)
dy y
Therefore,
A = 2y 2 = by ⇒ b = 2y (164)
This is equivalent to inscribing a semi-circle tangential to the beds and sides.
Since
A by 2y.y y
Rh = = = = (165)
P b + 2y 2y + 2y 2
Then the most economical rectangular section is when Rh = y/2, i.e half the depth of flow.
(b) Trapezoidal section

P = b + 2(y 2 + x2 )1/2 and A = by + yx. But x = y tan θ

Therefore
P = b + 2(y 2 + y 2 tan2 θ)1/2
A = by + y 2 tan θ ⇒ b = (A − y 2 tan θ)/y (166)
For a given value of A,
A
P = − y tan θ + 2y(1 + tan2 θ)1/2 (167)
y

45
and therefore
dP A
= − 2 − tan θ + 2(1 + tan2 θ)1/2 = 0 (168)
dy y
Substituting for A from Eq. 166 yields;

b + 2y tan θ = 2y(1 + tan2 θ)1/2 (169)

But b + 2y tan θ is top width and y(1 + tan2 θ)1/2 is sloping side.
Therefore,

Top width = 2 X sloping side

Or from Eq. 169

b
+ y tan θ = y(1 + tan2 θ)1/2 (170)
2
If we draw CD ⊥ AB
y
cos θ = AB = CD
AC
but AC = AB ⇒ y = CD = Radius of a semi-circle center C.
The hydraulic radius Rh is

A by + y 2 tan θ (b + y tan θ)y (b + y tan θ)y y

Rh = = 2 1/2
= = = (171)
P b + 2y(1 + tan θ) b + (b + 2y tan θ) 2(b + y tan θ) 2

In order to determine the optimum side slope (optimum value of angle θ) for a given section
of area A and depth y.
For analysis, we let tan θ = a , so that Eq. 167 becomes
A
P = − ya + 2y(1 + a2 )1/2 (172)
y
For optimum values,
dP 1
= −y + 2y × 2a(1 + a2 )−1/2 = 0 (173)
da 2
2a
⇒1=
(1 + a2 )1/2
p
Hence, a = 1/3, i.e θ = 300

Example
Determine the most economical section of a rectangular channel carrying water at the rate
of 0.5 m3 /s, the bed slope of the channel being 1 in 2000. Take Chezy’s cosnstant, C = 50.

46
8 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity Laws
In previous chapters analytical methods used in fluid flow studies were discussed. In the study
of flow of real fluids analytical methods alone are found insufficient. Experimental methods
and results have contributed heavily for the development of fluid mechanics. The solution
of realistic problems usually involves both analytical and experimental studies. Experiments
are used to validate analytical results as well as generalize and extend their applications.
Experimental work is rather costly and time consuming, especially when more than three
parameters are involved. Hence, it is necessary to plan the experiments so that most in-
formation is obtained from fewest experiments. Dimensional analysis is found to be a very
useful tool in a chieving this objective.

Dimensional analysis is a useful tool in reducing the number of experiment, which could be
performed to understand a particular situation (important in planning experiments). The
number of parameters can be reduced generally to three by grouping relevant variables to
form dimensionless parameters. In addition these groups facilitate the presentation of the
results of the expriments effectively and alos generalize the results so that these can be ap-
plied to similar situations.

Example: The drag force F on a stationary sphere in flow is found to depend on diameter
D, velocity u, fluid density ρ and viscosity µ. Assuming that to study the influence of a pa-
rameter 10 experimental points are necessary, estimate the total experimental points needed
to obtain complete information. Indicate how the number of experiments can be reduced.

Solution: To obtain a curve of F against u, for fixed values of ρ, µ and D, 10 experiments

are needed.

To study the effect of ρ these 10 experiments should be repeated 10 times with 10 values of
ρ the total now being 102 .

The 102 experiments have to repeated 10 times each for different values of µ.

Total experiments for u, ρ and µ = 103 .

To study the effect of variation of diameter all the experiments have to be repeated 10 times
each.

Hence total experiments required = 104 .

These parameters can be combined to obtain two dimensionless parametrs,

F ρuD
2 2
= f( ) (174)
ρu D µ
Now only 10 experiments are needed to obtain a comprehensive information about the effect
of these five parametrs.

47
Experiments can be conducted for obtaining this information by varying the parameters
(uDρ/µ) and determining the values for F/ρu2 D2 .

8.1 Methods of Determination of Dimensionless Group

1. Intuitive method - this method relies on basic understanding of the phenomenon and
then identifying competing quantities like types of forces or lengths etc... and obtaining
ratios of similar quantities.

2. Rayleigh method - A functional power relation is assumed between the parameters

and then the values of indices are solved for to obtain the grouping.

3. Buckingham Pi Theorem - The application of this theorem provides a fairly easy

method to identify dimensionless parameters (numbers). This method is illustrated in
the next section.

8.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem

If a relation among n parameters exist in the form

f (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) = 0,

then the n parameters can be group into n-m independent dimensionless ratios or pi (π)
parameters expressed in the form

g(π1 , π2 , ..., πn−m ) = 0,

or
π1 = g(π2 , π3 , ..., πn−m ),
where m is the number of dimensions required to specify the dimensions of all the parameters;
q1 , q2 , ..., qn .

8.2.1 Determination of π Groups

The following are steps used in determination of π groups:

1. List all the parameters that influence the phenomenon concerned. There are normally
three types of parameters in fluid flow; fluid properties, flow geometry, and flow pa-
rameters such as velocity and pressure.

2. Select a set of primary dimensions. The most commonly used sets are MLT (mass,
length, and time) system, FLT (force, length and time) system, and MLTθ.

3. List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of the chosen set of primary dimensions.
Table below lists the dimensions of various parameters involved.

48
 Table 1: Units and Dimensions of Variables
Variable Unit (SI) Dimension (MLTθ)
Mass kg M
Length m L
Time s T
Force N ML/T2
0
Temperature C or K θ
Area m2 L2
Volume m3 L3
Volume flow rate m3 /s L3 /T
Mass flow rate kg/s M/T
Velocity m/s L/T
Angular velocity Rad/s 1/T
Force N ML/T2
Pressure, stress, N/m2 M/LT2
Power W, J/s ML2 /T3
Density kg/m3 M/L3
2
Dynamic viscosity kg/ms, Ns/m M/LT
Kinematic viscosity m2 /s L2 /T

4. Select from the list of parameters a set of repeating parameters equal to the
number of primary dimensions.

5. Set up a dimensional equation with the repeating set and one of the remaining param-
eters, in turn to obtain n-m such equations, to determine n-m number of π terms. The
equation is in the form
π = qm+1 q1a .q2b .q3c , ..., qm
d
,

6. Check whether π terms obtained are dimensionless.

Exercise

1. Pressure drop, ∆p per unit length in flow in a circular pipe is depended on: flow velocity,
u, diameter of the pipe, D, density of fluid, ρ, and dynamic viscosity, µ. Determine the
π groups (the dimensionless parametrs for the flow).

2. The pressure drop ∆p in flow of incompressible fluid through rough pipes is found
to depend on the length l, average velocity u, fluid density ρ, dynamic viscosity µ,
diameter D and average roughness height e. Determine the dimensionless groups to
correlate the flow parametrs.

3. Drag force on a sphere is affected by flow velocity, u, diameter, D, density of fluid, ρ,

and dynamic viscosity, µ. Determine the π groups.

4. The force impacted by water on a turbine is affected by diameter, D, velocity, u, density,

ρ, viscosity, µ and rotational speed, N. Determine the π groups.

49
8.3 Similitude and Model Testing
In the engineering point of view model can be defined as the representation of physical system
that may be used to predict the behavior of the system in the desired aspect. The system
whose behavior is to be predicted by the model is called the prototype. Models resemble the
prototype but are generally smaller in size, cheaper to build and test, and may be operated
with different fluids, at different pressures, velocities etc. The model should be similar to the
prototype in the following manner:
1. Geometric similarity - all the similar linear dimensions of the model and prototype
should have the same ratio.
2. Dynamic similarity - the ratio of forces on fluid elements at corresponding points in the
model and prototype should be the same.
3. Kinematic similarity - the streamline patterns for the model and prototype should be
the same. This is achieve when dynamic and geometric similarity exist.

8.3.1 Conditions for Similarity Between Models And Prototypes

Dimensional analysis provides a good basis for laying down the conditions for similarity. The
PI theorem shows that the performance of any system (prototype) can be described by a
functional relationship of the form given by
π1p = f (π2p , π3p , ..., πnp )
The PI terms include all the parameters influencing the system and are generally ratios of
forces, lengths, energy etc. If a model is to be similar to the prototype and also function
similarly as the prototype, then the PI terms for the model should also have the same value
as that of the prototype or the same functional relationship as the prototype, i.e
π1m = f (π2m , π3m , ..., πnm )
For such a condition to be satisfied, the model should be constructed and operated such that
simultaneously

π1m = π1p , π2m = π3p , ..., πnm = πnp (175)

Equation 175 provides the model design conditions. It is also called similarity require-
ments or modelling laws.

8.3.2 Types of Model Studies

Model testing can be broadly classified on the basis of the general nature of flow into four
types. These are
1. Flow through closed conduits - Flow through pipes, valves, fittings and measuring
devices are dealt under this category. The conduits are generally circular, but there
may be changes along the flow direction. As the wall shear is an important force
(viscous), Reynolds number is the most important parameter. Compressibility
effect is negligible at low mach numbers. (M<0.3).

50
2. Flow around immersed bodies - Aircraft, Submarine, cars and trucks and recently
buildings are examples for this type of study. Models are usually tested in wind tun-
nels. As viscous forces over the surface and inertia forces on fluid elements are
involved in this case also, Reynolds number of the model and prototype should be
equal. When the flow speed increases beyond Mach number 0.3 compressibility effect
on similarity should be considered.

3. Flow with free surface - Flow in canals, rivers as well as flow around ships come under
this category. In these cases gravity and inertia forces are found to be governing
the situation and hence Froude number becomes the main similarity parameter.

4. Flow through turbomachinery - Pumps as well as turbines are included in the

general term turbomachines. Similarity of this type is beyond the scope of this
course

Dimensionless groups
ρuD
1. Reynold number, Re = µ
u
2. Froude number, F r = (gl)0.5
u
3. Mach number, M = c
P
4. Euler number, Eu = ρu2

ρu2 l
5. Weber number, W e = σ

Exercise

1. A model of 1/8 geometric scale of a valve is to be designed. The diameter of the

prototype is 64 cm and it should control flow rates up to 1m3 /s. Determine the flow
required for model testing. The valve is to be used with brine in a cooling system at
-100 C. The kinematic viscosity of brine at the saturated condition is 6.956 × 10−6 m2 /s.
For model testing water at 300 C is used. Kinematic viscosity is 0.8315 ×10−6 m2 /s

2. A 1/6 scale model of a submarine is tested in a wind tunnel using air of density 28.5
kg/m3 and viscosity 18.39 10−6 kg/ms at a speed of 36.6 m/s. Calculate the corre-
sponding speed and drag of the prototype when submerged in sea water with density
1025 kg/m3 and viscosity 1.637 × 10−3 kg/ms

3. 1/30 geometric scale model is to be used to simulate the flow characteristic in a canal
to be used in an irrigation scheme. The canal is 25 m and has a flow rate of 200 m3 /s.
Determine the flow rate required to test the model. Also determine the time scale for
the model. Viscous and surface tension effects may be neglected.

51