CHAPTER 6:

SYNCHRONIZATION

DR. TRẦN HẢI ANH

Based on the lectures of Assoc. Prof. Hà Quốc Trung
Contents
¨ Clock synchronization
¨ Logical clock
¨ Mutual exclusion
¨ Election algorithm
Synchronization

¨ How process synchronize

¤ Multiple process to not simultaneously access to the
same resources: printers, files
¤ Multiple process are agreed on the ordering of event.
n Ex: message m1 of P is sent after m2 of Q
¨ Synchronization based on actual time
¨ Synchronization by relative ordering
1. Clock Synchronization
¨ Notion of synchronization
¨ Physical Clocks
¨ Global Positioning System
¨ Clock Synchronization Algorithms
¨ Use of Synchronized Clocks
Why do we need it?
Example 1: Programming in DS

¨ When each machine has its own clock, an event that

occurred after another event may nevertheless be
assigned an earlier time.
Example 2: Global Positioning
System (1)

Computing a position in a two-dimensional space

Global Positioning System (2)

¨ Real world facts that complicate GPS

1. It takes a while before data on a

satellite’s position reaches the receiver.
2. The receiver’s clock is generally not in
synch with that of a satellite.
Physycal Clocks
¨ Timer
¨ Counter & Holding
register
¨ Clock tick
¨ Problem in distributed
systems:
¤ How do we synchronize RTC IC
them with real-world? (Real Time Clock)
¤ How do we synchronize
the clocks with each
other?
Physical Clocks (1)

Computation of the mean solar day

 Physical Clocks (2)

¨ TAI seconds are of constant length, unlike solar seconds. Leap

seconds are introduced when necessary to keep in phase with the
sun.
¨ => UTC (Universal Cordinated Time)
Clock Synchronization Algorithms
¨ Network Time Protocol
¨ Berkeley Algorithm
¨ Clock Synchronization in Wireless Networks
Network Time Protocol

Getting the current time from a time server

The Berkeley Algorithm (1)

¨ The time daemon

asks all the other
machines for their
clock values.
The Berkeley Algorithm (2)

¨ The machines
answer.
The Berkeley Algorithm (3)

¨ The time daemon tells

everyone how to
adjust their clock.
 Clock Synchronization in Wireless
Networks (1)

¨ The usual critical path

in determining
network delays.
Clock Synchronization in Wireless
Networks (2)

¨ The critical
path in the case
of RBS.
2. Logical clock

¨ Lamport logical clocks

¨ Vector clocks
2.1. Lamport’s Logical Clocks (1)

¨ The "happens-before" relation → can be

observed directly in two situations:
1. If a and b are events in the same process, and a occurs
before b, then a → b is true.
2. If a is the event of a message being sent by one
process, and b is the event of the message being
received by another process, then a → b
¨ Transitive relation: a → b and b → c, then a → c
¨ Concurrent
Lamport’s Logical Clocks (2)
¨ Three processes, each with its own clock.
The clocks run at different rates.
Lamport’s Logical Clocks (3)

¨ Updating counter Ci for process Pi

1. Before executing an event Pi executes
Ci ← Ci + 1.
2. When process Pi sends a message m to Pj, it sets m’s
timestamp ts (m) equal to Ci after having executed the
previous step.
3. Upon the receipt of a message m, process Pj adjusts its
own local counter as
Cj ← max{Cj , ts (m)}, after which it then executes the
first step and delivers the message to the application.
Lamport’s Logical Clocks (4)
¨ Figure 6-10. The positioning of Lamport’s logical
clocks in distributed systems.
 Lamport’s Logical Clocks (5)
(b) Lamport’s algorithm corrects the clocks.
 Example: Totally Ordered Multicasting

Updating a replicated database and leaving it in an

inconsistent state.
2.2. Vector Clocks (1)
¨ Concurrent message transmission using logical
clocks.
Vector Clocks (2)

¨ Vector clocks are constructed by letting each process

Pi maintain a vector VCi with the following two
properties:
1. VCi [ i ] is the number of events that have occurred so
far at Pi. In other words, VCi [ i ] is the local logical
clock at process Pi .
2. If VCi [ j ] = k then Pi knows that k events have
occurred at Pj. It is thus Pi’s knowledge of the local
time at Pj .
 Vector Clocks (3)
¨ Steps carried out to accomplish property 2 of previous
slide:
1. Before executing an event Pi executes
VCi [ i ] ← VCi [i ] + 1.
2. When process Pi sends a message m to Pj, it sets m’s
(vector) timestamp ts (m) equal to VCi after having
executed the previous step.
3. Upon the receipt of a message m, process Pj adjusts its
own vector by setting
VCj [k ] ← max{VCj [k ], ts (m)[k ]} for each k, after
which it executes the first step and delivers the
message to the application.
Enforcing Causal Communication
¨ Enforcing causal communication.

2 conditions:
3. Mutual exclusion

¨ A Centralized Algorithm
¨ A Decentralized Algorithm
¨ A Distributed Algorithm
¨ A Token Ring Algorithm
¨ A Comparison of the Three Algorithms
Mutual Exclusion
3.1. A Centralized Algorithm (1)

¨ Process 1 asks the coordinator for permission to access

a hared resource. Permission is granted.
Mutual Exclusion
A Centralized Algorithm (2)

¨ Process 2 then asks permission to access the same

resource. The coordinator does not reply.
Mutual Exclusion
A Centralized Algorithm (3)
¨ When process 1 releases the resource, it tells the
coordinator, which then replies to 2.
3.2. A Distributed Algorithm (1)
¨ Three different cases:
1. If the receiver is not accessing the resource and does
not want to access it, it sends back an OK message to
the sender.
2. If the receiver already has access to the resource, it
simply does not reply. Instead, it queues the request.
3. If the receiver wants to access the resource as well but
has not yet done so, it compares the timestamp of the
incoming message with the one contained in the
message that it has sent everyone. The lowest one
wins.
A Distributed Algorithm (2)
¨ Two processes want to access a shared resource at
the same moment.
A Distributed Algorithm (3)
¨ Process 0 has the lowest timestamp, so it wins.
A Distributed Algorithm (4)
¨ When process 0 is done, it sends an OK also, so 2
can now go ahead.
 3.3. A Token Ring Algorithm

¨ (a) An unordered group of processes on a network.

(b) A logical ring constructed in software.
Token Ring algorithm
¨ Initialization
¤ Process 0 gets token for resource R
¨ Token circulates around ring
¤ From Pi to P(i+1)mod N
¨ When process acquires token
¤ Checks to see if it needs to enter critical section
¤ If no, send token to neighbor P
0

P1
¤ If yes, access resource
P
5

n Hold token until done

P4 token(R)
P2

P3
3.4. Decentralized Algorithm
¨ Based on the requester
Distributed Hash Table
(DHT) system structure rname
previously introduced
¤ Peer-to-peer
¤ Object names are c0 c1 cn-1
hashed to find the
successor node that will
store them …
rname0 rname1 rnamen-1
¨ Here, we assume that n
replicas of each object
are stored
Placing the Replicas
¨ The resource is known by a unique name: rname
¤ Replicas: rname-0, rname-I, …, rname-(n-1)
¤ rname-i is stored at succ(rname-i), where names
and site names are hashed as before
¤ If a process knows the name of the resource it
wishes to access, it also can generate the hash
keys that are used to locate all the replicas
The Decentralized Algorithm
¨ Every replica has a coordinator that controls access
to it (the coordinator is the node that stores it)
¨ For a process to use the resource it must receive
permission from m > n/2 coordinators
¨ This guarantees exclusive access as long as a
coordinator only grants access to one process at a
time
The Decentralized Algorithm
¨ The coordinator notifies the requester when it has
been denied access as well as when it is granted
¤ Requester must “count the votes”, and decide
whether or not overall permission has been
granted or denied
¨ If a process (requester) gets fewer than m votes it
will wait for a random time and then ask again
4. Election Algorithms
¨ Traditional Election algorithms
¤ The Bully Algorithm
¤ A Ring Algorithm

¨ Election in Wireless Environments

¨ Election in Large-Scale Systems
Election Algorithms

¨ The Bully Algorithm

1. P sends an ELECTION message to all
processes with higher numbers.
2. If no one responds, P wins the election and
becomes coordinator.
3. If one of the higher-ups answers, it takes over.
P’s job is done.
 The Bully Algorithm (1)

¨ The bully election algorithm. (a) Process 4 holds an

¨ election. (b) Processes 5 and 6 respond, telling 4 to stop.
¨ (c) Now 5 and 6 each hold an election.
The Bully Algorithm (2)
¨ The bully election algorithm. (d) Process 6 tells 5
to stop. (e) Process 6 wins and tells everyone.
A Ring Algorithm
¨ Election algorithm using a ring.
 Elections in Wireless Environments (1)

¨ Election algorithm in a wireless network, with node a as the

source. (a) Initial network. (b)–(e) The build-tree phase
Elections in Wireless Environments (2)

¨ Figure 6-22. Election algorithm in a wireless

network, with node a as the source. (a) Initial
network. (b)–(e) The build-tree phase
Elections in Wireless Environments (3)

¨ (e) The build-tree phase.

(f) Reporting of best node to source.
Elections in Large-Scale Systems (1)
¨ Requirements for superpeer selection:
1. Normal nodes should have low-latency access to
superpeers.
2. Superpeers should be evenly distributed across the
overlay network.
3. There should be a predefined portion of superpeers
relative to the total number of nodes in the overlay
network.
4. Each superpeer should not need to serve more than a
fixed number of normal nodes.
 Elections in Large-Scale Systems (2)

¨ Moving tokens in a two-dimensional space using repulsion

forces.