Tribhuvan University

Institute of Engineering

Course Reference Material

Transportation Planning and Engineering

Elective I
BCE-IV/I

Prem N Bastola
January 2019

1
The course is dived into two parts

1. Planning
2. Engineering

Transportation planning basics is introduced as

a. Basic definitions
b. Process of planning
c. Agencies
d. Decision making
e. Models, network and simulation
f. Study area
g. Survey method
h. NMT
i. Passenger and freight transport
j. Traditional models in planning
k. Evaluation basics

Engineering part consists

a. Airport engineering- basic introduction and Geometric design

b. Railway engineering- Civil Engineering part- geometric design
c. Ropeway engineering- basics of gravity goods ropeway.

Marks distribution
SN Topic Marks
1 Planning introduction 8
2 Survey methods and study area 8
Traditional models 16
Evaluation 8
Subtotal= 40
2 Engineering
Airport 16
Railway 16
Ropeway 8
Subtotal 40
Total 80

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 Transportation Planning & Engineering

 It increases the likelihood that a

One hears of urban, economic, water
recommended action will actually
resource, environmental and other ample
takes place, but does not guarantee its
kinds of planning. In transportation,
scheduled implementation.
professional designations, such as highway
planner, airport planner, and urban planner  Time lag- the time when the action is
are common. to be taken and the time when its
effects are felt.
Transportation Planning
 One-time event- planning
Definition: Planning may be defined as the
perspectives are short and long
activity or process that examines the potential
ranged, frequent planning is just
of future actions to guide a situation or a
unthinkable.
system towards a desired direction, for
example, towards the attainment of positive  An important, although often ignored

goals, the avoidance of problems or both1. aspect of planning, is the relationship

it holds with forecasting. Forecasting
Transport planning must be seen as an integral
can be described as predicting what
part of a much wider process of decision-
the future will look like, whereas
making. Too often in the past transport
planning predicts what the future
solutions have been seen as the only way to
should look like
resolve transport problems…. transport
planning must be seen as part of land-use There are events beyond the limit of human

planning and development process, which comprehension, practically, planning is not a

requires an integral approach to analysis and search for ultimate answers but only a means

a clear vision of the type of city and society in to specific ends, with optimism that better

which we wish to live2. conditions would result.

Planning is a fundamental characteristics of At Basic level

all human beings, however for professional A plan is typically any diagram or list of steps
purpose, planning is viewed in a wider, yet with timing and resources, used to achieve an
bounded context. objective.

Important aspects of Planning: Planning is the process of answering four

 Oriented to the future –planning questions:

activity occurs during one period of Where are we now? -Trends and conditions
time but is concerned with actions to relating to population, transportation system,
be taken at various times in the future. etc.

1 2
Papacostas Banister 1994
1
Ch-1 Introduction

Where do we want to go? -major issues, → Situation definition

obstacles, & opportunities → Problem definition Elabo
rate
What will guide us there?--goals, objectives, → Search for solutions by
public input, performance → Analysis of performance suita
ble
→ Evaluation of alternatives
How will we get there?--Projects, program, Exam
→ Choice of project ple.
etc.
→ Specification and construction
Product of Planning:
Transportation Planning Strategies
The purpose of planning tools is to provide
When the planning process takes place within
systematic and neutral information to support
a large urban area and other transport options
decision-making, while the ethical content of
such as rail and cycling may be under
planning is assumed to be in the definition of
consideration alongside car-based ones, the
the problem and the weighing of information
procedure can become quite complex and the
by decision makers3.
Work load involved in data collection can
It must not only provide information that is
become immense. In such circumstances,
desired by decision makers, but also provide
before a comprehensive study can be
information that is needed to understand fully
undertaken, one of a number of broad strategy
the short and long-term consequences of
options must be chosen:
alternative choices.
→ The land use transportation approach
The products of planning should be designed
→ The demand management approach
to increase the chance of making better
→ The car-centred approach
decisions. The result of planning is some form
→ The public transport-centred approach
of communication with decision makers.
Land use transportation approach
Basic Elements/ steps of Transportation
Planning Within this method, the management of land
use planning is seen as the solution to
The transportation planning process
controlling the demand for transport. The
comprises seven basic elements, which are
growing trend where many commuters live in
interrelated and not necessarily carried out
suburbs of a major region or in small satellite
sequentially. The information acquired in one
towns while working within or near the city
phase of the process may be helpful in some
centre has resulted in many using their private
earlier or later phase, so there is a continuity
car for their journey to work. This has led to
of effort that should eventually result in a
congestion on the roads and the need for both
decision. The elements in the process are4:

3 4
Wachs 1985 Refer Thompson 1974
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 Transportation Planning & Engineering

increased road space and the introduction of different (for example: land-use
major public transport improvements. Land changes,, vs. operating decisions).
use strategies such as the location of
• Transport System have impacts, that
employment opportunities close to large
are large in magnitude, and often long-
residential areas and actively limiting urban
lived and of large-scale geographical
sprawl which tends to increase the
extent.
dependency of commuters on the private car,
• Subsystems are integrated, closely
5
are all viable land use control mechanisms .
coupled through feedback loops.
Refer Figure 1
• By “open system” we mean that this
Scope of the transport planning system explicitly includes social,

• System characteristics political and economic aspects.

• System purpose Organizational Structure of

• System performance
MPPW

• System capacity Refer figure 2

• System impact Decision Making Process

• Demand analysis Transportation planning can be described as a

process of making decisions which concerns
• Supply analysis
the future of a given transport system. The
• Transportation system evaluation
decisions relate to the determination of future
• Decision making demand; the relationships and interactions

Transportation System Engineering which exist between the different modes of

transport; the effect of the proposed system on
• A system is complex when it is
both existing land uses and those proposed for
composed of a group of related units
the future; the economic, environmental,
(subsystems), for which the degree
social and political impacts of the proposed
and nature of the relationships is
system and the institutional structures in place
imperfectly known. Its overall
to implement the proposal put forward6.
behavior is difficult to predict, even
when subsystem behavior is readily Even for a single proposal/project decision

predictable. Further, the time-scales of maker has two options: do or do nothing

various subsystems may be very  Govern by: Merits (Positive impacts)

and Demerits (negative impacts)

5 6
Refer Blunden and Black 1984 Rogers
3
Ch-1 Introduction

 In general two types of evaluation financial expenditures. Further assume

studies are commonly undertaken: that one of the two would provide a higher
Pre-implementation and Post level of mobility than the other but would
implementation also discharge higher quantity of
atmosphere pollutants. When comparing
 Pre-implementation: Facilitate the
the two alternatives, a trade-off between
choice of the best course of action
mobility on one hand and environmental
from among several alternatives
quality on the other becomes apparent.
 Post implementation: Assess the
 In the final analysis the evaluation
performance of the already
method used to aid this decision must
implemented studies
incorporate the assignment of relative
To be selected for implementation, an
weights to the impacts.
alternatives must be both feasible and
superior to all other alternatives.
Political, fiscal, legal constraints that may
 Problems of affordability or resource
support or may create barrier to the desired
availability are not uncommon
outcomes.
 There is a lag between the time of A common characteristic of all transportation
investment and returns expected decision making is that it occurs within an
 Lack of resources sometimes makes institutional framework that is often similar
the project infeasible from one urban area to another.

Institutional Barriers for intermodal TP

Impact Trade-Off Refer Figure 3

 Determining the feasibility of each Approaches to Decision Making7

alternatives is only half of the → The rational approach
evaluation process. The other half → The satisficing approach
involves the comparison of all → The Incremental approach
proposals including the Do-nothing → The organizational process approach
alternatives in order to select the best → The political bargaining approach
one among them.
Rational Approach
 An Example
Assumes a rational, completely informed set
A choice between two transportation
of decision makers whose criterion of
alternatives requiring equal and available

7
Refer Meyer & Miller
4
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

decision is maximizing the attainment of an A basic tenet of the rational model of

explicit set of goals and objectives. comprehensive planning is that there exists an
(Comprehensive knowledge assumed) identifiable public interest, many agencies
and group have interests in public issues
Steps in Rational approach
through legislation and court intervention
have access to decision making process.

Resource allocative

For a decision maker: It is most difficult to

equitably allocate financial and
organizational resources. One have to solve
many societal problems with very limited
resources. This leads to making trade-offs.

Consensus seeking
8
Large number of group involved in and trying
to influence the decision making process,
combined with the limited amount of
resources available to satisfy their respective
demands, inevitably leads to conflict.

Problem simplifying

Transportation problems are extremely

complex. Decision maker facing such a
complex problem may find it very difficult to
develop a effective policy response.

To deal with this complexity he/she often try

Characteristics of decision making
to develop separable, well defined problem
→ Pluralistic definitions that can be handled much more
→ Resource allocative easily.
→ Consensus seeking
Uncertainty avoiding
→ Problem simplifying
Most decisions are concerns with the future.
→ Uncertainty avoiding
Political and economic forces can drastically
Pluralistic
change the context of problem, in such cases
he/she should show effective leadership.

8
Rogers
5
Ch-1 Introduction

Stages of decision making process transportation models are subsequently

imperfect and selective10.
 Problem identification: Relation
between transportation and energy Types of Models
consumption, safety, air quality, → Mental, visual, physical, and
congestion etc… mathematical
 Debate and choice: A decision is a → Stated differently: iconic, analogic
choice among feasible alternatives and symbolic.
 Implementation: Scheduled programs
Mathematical models- A mathematical
or projects
model is a model, which uses mathematical
 Evaluate and feedback
relationships to describe or represent an
Model object or decision problem. Y = f(x).

Models are simplified representations of Types of Transportation Models.

reality which can be used to explore the 1. Demand models (econometric models,
consequences of particular policies or short-term traffic prediction, traffic
strategies. They are deliberately simplified in generation, etc.)
order to keep them manageable and to avoid
2. Network models (modal split, traffic
extraneous detail while hopefully
assignment, scheduling)
encompassing the important features of the
system of interest9. 3. Traffic models (advanced traffic and
control representation, interaction between
The reason for using models is that estimates
vehicles)
can be made of likely outcomes more quickly
and at lower cost and risk than would be 4. Performance models (traffic quality

possible through implementation and perception, safety performance models, fuel

monitoring. consumption, air-pollution generation, noise

generation, signal optimization, etc.)
Transportation models are a formal
description of the relationships between
transportation system components and their Features of a model
operations. Knowledge of these relationships
→ Accuracy and Precision
allows for estimating or predicting unknown
→ Economy in data computing
quantities (outputs), from quantities that are
→ Ability to produce relevant indicators
known (inputs).Because our knowledge of the
→ Ability to represent relevant processes
transportation relationships is limited,
→ Appropriate geographical spread

9 10
Bonsall Tarko
6
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

system components or entities whose

interactions are complex in nature.
Uses of Models
Specifically, simulation models are
Modeling is applied in all the areas of
mathematical/logical representations of real-
transportation engineering: planning, design,
world systems, which take the form of
and operations. Although planning is
software executed on a digital computer in an
traditionally the most model-demanding,
experimental fashion. The most important
intelligent technologies and techniques
advantage is that these models are by no
applied to transportation have increased the
means exhaustive.
demand for modeling in design and traffic
operations areas. Need for simulation models

Traffic simulation models have a large variety

→ To predict future conditions in the
of applications in the required fields. Now-a-
absence of policy intervention
days they become inevitable tools of analysis
→ To predict future condition of policies
and interpretation of real world situations
or designs
especially in Traffic Engineering. The
→ To test the performance of a given
following are some situations where these
policy
models can find their scope.
→ To produce very short term forecasts
as part of a control system eg ATC → When mathematical or analytical
treatment of a problem is found
Modeling for planning includes predicting
infeasible or inadequate due to its
future travel demands, identifying potential
complex nature.
performance problems under the future travel
→ When there is some doubt in the
demands, and proposing general solutions of
mathematical formulation or results.
the anticipated transportation problems.
→ When there is a need of an animated
Simulation view of flow of vehicles to study their
It is a technique that is helpful in analyzing behaviour.
models where the value to be assumed by one Simulation models differ from abstract
or more independent variables is uncertain. mathematical models in that they attempt
Simulation modelling is an increasingly to represent the dynamic evolution of
popular and effective tool for analysing a some aspect of the transport system
wide variety of dynamical problems those through an explicit representation of the
associated with complex processes which behavior of actors within it. At a detailed
cannot readily be described in analytical scale the performance of a junction might
terms. Usually, these processes are be simulated by representing individual
characterized by the interaction of many vehicles passing through it. The
7
Ch-1 Introduction

performance of a bus route might be insight and perspective for more informed
simulated by individual passengers at decision-making process.
each stop. At a less detailed level the
Classes of models available for transport
development of a bus network might be
analyst
predicted as the result of competition
→ Simple formula
between bus companies.
→ Time series
Approaches to simulation
→ Averaging and smoothing
The decision of actors in a simulation model → Regression
may be represented by means of discrete → Matrix
choice probability models, or heuristic or → elasticity
algorithmic approaches.
Transport Modelling in Practice
Monte carlo simulation is such example of
USA 1960- 4 stage sequential model. These
stochastic simulation. See heuristic technique.
models will be dealt in depth in subsequent
Applications chapter.

Computer simulation is important for the Transportation network

analysis of freeways and urban streets.
Transportation systems of regional and
Specialist can study the formation and
national extent are composed of networks of
dissipation of congestion, assess the impact of
interconnected facilities and services. It
control system, and compare alternatives.
follows that nearly all transportation projects
Simulations models can meet a wide range of
must be analyzed with due consideration for
requirements11.
their position within a modal or intermodal
Risk Analysis methods network, and for their impacts on network
→ Best case/worst case performance. That is, the network context of
a transportation project is usually very
→ What-if analysis
important12.
→ Simulation
The modal networks considered are highway,
Benefits of simulation
rail, waterway, and pipeline and their
Through simulation of the mathematical intermodal connections. Airports and airline
model, we can have a whole range of probable service networks are deliberately excluded, as
values for the output variable, this provides air transport is markedly different in character
the engineer or the manager with better from the surface transportation modes

11 12
For simulation software refer Papacostas. Bronzini
8
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

Transport network consists of roads, network that relates to its geographical

junctions, bus stops, rails, railway station etc. setting, and its modal and structural
Normally road network and rail network are characteristics13.
represented separately. Road network is
→ Abstraction level
considered as directed graph of nodes and
→ Orientation
links. Road junctions or nodes are represented
→ No of edges and nodes
with attributes like node number, starting
→ Modes and terminals
nodes of all links joining the current node,
→ Type of traffic
type of intersection (uncontrolled,
→ Volume
roundabout, signalized, etc.). Each node and
→ Type of correspondence
links have their own properties. Road link is
→ Pattern
normally represented with attributes like
Network analysis
starting node, ending node, road length, free
flow speed, capacity, number of lanes or road → Assignment
width, type of road like divided or undivided → Modal split
etc. Similarly public transport network like → Social network
bus transit network and rail network are → Graph theory
represented, but with attributes relevant to → Minimum spanning tree (Prims,
them. These may include frequency of Kruskals, Djkstra)
service, fare of travel, line capacity, station
capacity etc. Examples of network

Types of Network
Transportation networks, like many networks,
are generally embodied as a set of locations
and a set of links representing connections
between those locations. The arrangement
and connectivity of a network is known as its
topology. The most fundamental elements of
such a structure are the network geometry and
the level of connectivity. Transport networks
can be classified in specific categories
depending on a set of topological attributes
that describe them. It is thus possible to
establish a basic typology of a transport

13
Rodrigue et al.
9
Systems Analysis

Systems analysis techniques have been used for many years to understand and estimate the
performance of civil infrastructure systems. These studies have used models that examine both
the individual performance of specific system components as well as of the system as a whole.
Morerecently, a systems perspective on infrastructure planning and assessment has received
increasing attention from researchers and national organizations (see, for example, [Revelle et al
1997]). This coincided with the development of many transportation policies whose intent was to
attention provide transportation systems that were described as "balanced," "integrated,"
"coordinated," "intermodal," seamless," and "multimodal." No matter what descriptor was used
in combination with the term transportation," the common element of all the phrases was
"system." A systems perspective on transportation is thus an appropriate segue to an examination
of the salient characteristics of transportation and urban travel. But first, what is a system?

Interestingly, many different disciplines--ecology, biology, systems engineering, management

science, planning, sociology, to name a few--have developed definitions of a system that,
although focusing on different phenomena, have common characteristics. A definition of a
system that includes elements recognizable to all of these disciplines and that will serve as a
point of departure
A system is a group of interdependent and interrelated components that form a complex and
unified whole intended to serve some purpose through the performance of its interacting parts.

System Purpose
Every natural and engineered system serves some purpose within the overall system hierarchy. In
some cases, this purpose can be fairly self-contained and focused on a small niche in the
hierarchy.
In other cases, a particular system could be an important component in the effective functioning
of other systems, and thus have a high level of interdependence. A transportation system can be
viewed in both ways. One perspective, focusing primarily on the transportation function itself,

1
identifies the purpose of a transportation system as providing opportunities for mobility and
accessibility, defined as follows: [Meyer 1995]
Mobility: The ability and knowledge to travel from one location to another in a reasonable
amount of time and for acceptable costs.
Accessibility: The means by which an individual can accomplish some economic or social
activity through access to that activity.

Important variables in systems [Meyer]

Area boundary

2
Transportation system impact

3
Fig- system hierarchy [meyer]

Steps in system analysis [khisty]

4
5
6
Ch-1 Introduction

PROBLEMS # Conduct a group discussion and

# Explain why the transportation present your understanding wrt figure
planning process is not intended to 2 of this note
furnish a decision or give a single # Define the following terms: (a) link,
result. (b) node, (c) centroid, (d) segment and
# Describe the basic steps in the (e) network
transportation planning process. # What are the purposes of
# Select a current transportation transportation planning? Discuss the
problem in your community or state important aspects of planning.
with which you are familiar or # List Transportation planning
interested. Briefly describe the strategies and discuss land use
situation and the problem involved. transportation cycle
Indicate the options available and the # Define transportation system
major impacts of each option on the engineering and discuss system
community. approach to transport planning.
# You have been asked to evaluate a # Describe the decision making process
proposal that tolls be increased on in transport planning.
roads and bridges within your urban # What are the approaches to decision
area. Describe the general planning making? Discuss the rational actor
and analysis process that you would approach.
use in carrying out this task. # What are the features of a model?
# Explain the three “C”s concept in the Discuss the application of models in
transportation planning process. planning
# Urban transportation planning is # List any five simulation models with
concerned with two separate time specifications used in traffic
horizons. Briefly describe each and engineering and planning.
provide examples of the types of # What are the components of a
projects that can be categorized in transport network? Describe various
each horizon. types of network with sketches.
# .Draw a link-node map of the streets
and highways within the boundaries
of your immediate neighborhood or
campus. For each link, show travel
times and distances (to nearest 0.1
km).

10
 Figure 11

Figure 3 (Meyer & Miller)

1
Refer Khisty & Lal
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

Urban & Regional Planning urban’ planning conventionally means

Modern urban and regional planning has something more limited and precise: it refers

arisen in response to specific social and to planning with a spatial, or geographical,

economic problems, which in turn were component, in which the general objective is

triggered off by the Industrial Revolution at to provide for a spatial structure of activities

the end of the eighteenth century. It is (or of land uses) which in some way is better

important to notice that these problems did than the pattern that would exist without

not all come at once, in the same form; they planning.

changed in character, and in their relative It is concerned with the spatial impact of

importance, so that the questions uppermost many different kinds of problem, and with the

in the minds of city-dwellers in the 1930s spatial coordination of many different

were by no means the same as those policies. Some Examples:

experienced by their great-grandfathers in the Economic planners, for instance, are

1840s1 concerned with the broad progress of the

urban planning (or regional planning) is a economy, usually at national and sometimes

special case of general planning. at international level: they look at the

→ is a process concerned with the use of evolving structure of the economy, in terms of

land and design of the urban industries and occupations, at the

environment. combination of the factors of production
→ deals with the planning and architectural which brings forth the flow of goods and
styles of different regions and countries. services, at the income thus generated and its
→ is a study that guide and ensure the reconversion into factors of production, and at
orderly development of settlements and problems of exchange. Regional economic
communities. planners will look at the same things, but
→ is a study that integrates land use planning always from the point of view of their
and transportation planning to improve particular spatial impact: they consider the
the built, economic and social effect of the variable, geographical space and
environment of communities.
distance, on these phenomena. Similarly,
social planners will be concerned with the
# distinguishing factors: Interdependence of
needs of the individual and the group; they
cities and region, Hierarchy of functions and
will be concerned with the changing social
centres, Market range & Population
structure of the population, with occupational
threshold2.
mobility and its effect on lifestyles and
housing patterns, with household and family

1 2
Hall You are strongly advised to refer to “Central place
theory and growth pole theories.
1
Ch-2 Urban and Regional Planning

structure in relation to factors like age and Reliability – although freight traffic
occupation and educational background, with increasingly demands quality service, for
household income and its variation, with passengers delays are unacceptable.
social and psychological factors which lead to Sharing routes favors passenger traffic –
individual or family breakdown. Social passenger trains are given priority; trucks may
planners in the urban planning office share be excluded from areas at certain times of the
the same interests and concerns, but see them day.
always with the spatial component: they are Different operational speeds – passengers
concerned, for instance, with the effect of demand faster service.
occupational mobility on the inner city – as Security screening measures for passengers
against the new suburb – on changing and freight require totally different
household structure as it affects the housing procedures.
market near the centre of the city, on Hierarchy of movement- home destination
household income in relation to items like trips- home to destination and back. Raw
travel cost for the low-income family whose material –factory –depots- retailer-
available employment may be migrating to households- consumers.
the suburbs.

Planning for Movements of

People and goods-Differences
Locations of demand rarely match –
origin/destination of freight is usually quite
distinct spatially from passenger traffic.
Frequency of demand is different – for
passengers the need is for high frequency
service, for freight it tends to be somewhat
less critical.
Timing of service – demand for passenger
services has specific peaks during the day, for
freight it tends to be more evenly spread
throughout the day.
Traffic balance – on a daily basis passenger
flows tend to be in equilibrium, for freight,
market imbalances produce empty flows.

2
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

Table (page 2): Performance indicators3 components in the context of global system
goals. How is system hierarchy is defined
Estimating goods movement demand
affects how one views problems and conduct
Planning agencies have devoted more planning.
attention to passenger movements than to
Functionally, transportation system is one of
goods movement. It is because good
many systems that allows existence. The
movements was considered the responsibility
definition of system hierarchy give rise to
of the private sector and the factors
planning perspectives.
influencing freight demand were more
complex and interdependent4. – How does the transportation system inter-
relate the other system?
Compendium of factors
– What is the cause and effect of relative
Decision by shippers, carriers and receivers –
investment in transportation as compared to
by what mode and route
other infrastructure system as it relates to
Varieties in commodities types- wide range of community development?
prices and values associated with them Planning application of system hierarchy
• It is the one of many other urban systems for
Measurement units- dollar, quantity, weight,
the community /urban development. It leads
volume, truck load
to planning question:
The cost of moving freight is much difficult – Relationships among many systems for the
to estimate compared to passenger urban functioning
movement.- goods require special handling, –Transportation and higher level system: such
loading and unloading, storing, packing etc. as ecological or economic system
Transportation system themselves consists of
Methods of forecasting freight movement:
hierarchies: road functional classification:
The commonly adopted methods applicable strategic or local roads.
to passenger forecasts are applicable to freight Refer Figure 1
movement prediction. Hierarchical Levels in transport Planning
In any urban region, planning and design
Transportation system
studies are carried on at a number of levels of
hierarchy5
detail and decision making. The planning or
Every system is a part of another system. A design agency or team, and the decision
system hierarchy provides orders and
function to the operation of individual

3 5
Rodrigue et.al. Refer Meyer & Miller
4
Refer Nash
3
Ch-2 Urban and Regional Planning

making group, usually change from level to – At the destination ends of trip
level of the planning hierarchy.6
Methods of Transport survey10
7
Five levels of planning hierarchy
Conceptual/ Outline/ Master /Advisory / 1. Home Interview Survey
Detailed
• Information on travel
Multimodal and intermodal integrated8
– Number of trips made,
– Origin and destination
Travel Demand Survey &
– Purpose of trip
Studies – Travel mode
9
Basic Movements in Survey – Time of departure and
arrival
Travel survey
• Information on household
Travel surveys are conducted to establish a characteristics includes:
complete understanding of the travel patterns – Types of dwelling unit
within the study area. For single projects – Number of residents
(such as a highway project), it may be – Age, sex composition
sufficient to use traffic counts on existing – Vehicle ownership
roads or (for transit) counts of passengers – Number of driver
riding the present system. However, to – Family income
understand why people travel and where they
Sampling
wish to go, origin-destination (O-D) survey
Population of the study area Sample size
data can be useful. The O-D survey asks
questions about each trip that is made on a
specific day—such as where the trip begins
and ends, the purpose of the trip, the time of
day, and the vehicle involved (auto or
transit)—and about the person making the
trip—age, sex, income, vehicle owner, and so
on.
Survey data can be collected:
– At home
2. Commercial vehicle survey
– During the trip

6 9
Hutchinson Refer Figure 2
7 10
Smith Lecture notes by Dr. PB Shahi
8
Refer class lecture
4
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

It is conducted to obtain information on In developing country, • this method may not

journey made by all commercial vehicles be suitable.
based within the study area. Address of the
operators is obtained and forms are issued to
6. Registration Number Plate Survey
drivers with the request that they record
particulars of all trips they could make. This method consists of noting the
registration numbers of vehicles entering and
3. Taxi survey leaving an area at survey points located on
the cordon line. By matching the registration
Large urban areas usually have a sizeable
numbers of the vehicles at points of the entry
amount of travel is made by taxi. In such cases
and exit from the area, two points on the paths
separate taxi survey is necessary to conduct.
of the vehicle can be identified. This method
The survey consists of issuing questionnaire
does not give the O-D points, and may not
or log sheets to the taxi drivers to complete
gives information about trip purpose.
them.
• Area is defined and the roads intersecting the
4. Roadside interview survey
cordon line are identified. At these points
It is one of the methods of carrying out a two observers are stationed to keep the data
screen line or cordon survey. It can be done for each direction. First observer call out the
by directly interviewing drivers of the registration numbers, the second one writes
vehicles at selected survey points or by down it. Time should be recorded at regular
issuing prepaid post cards containing the intervals. If the entry and exit time is found
questionnaire to all or a sample of the drivers. the journey speed could be determined.
7. Tags on vehicle method
Survey points are selected along the junction
In this method at each point where the roads
of the cordon line or screen line with the
cross the cordon lines vehicles are stopped
roads.
and a tag is fixed usually under the
These cordon & screen survey by road side
windscreen wiper. The tags for different
interview serve to check the accuracy of the
survey stations have different colour and
home interview survey.
shapes to identify the survey station. The
5. Post card questionnaire
vehicles are stopped again at the exit point
In this method reply-paid questionnaires are when tags are collected.
handed over to each driver or a sample at the Times of entering and leaving could be
survey points, and requesting them to measured to find out the journey time.
complete the information and result by post. Sampling may be done and expansion factor
should be determined.

5
Ch-2 Urban and Regional Planning

8. Public transport survey – Population zone wise / Age, sex, family

composition/ Employment statistics /
In order to assess the number of bus passenger
Housing statistics / Income study/ Vehicle
passing through the external cordon, the
ownership
survey can either by direct interview with
Predicting Future Demand
passengers or by issuing post card
Future travel is determined by forecasting
questionnaires.
future land use in terms of the economic
activity and population that the land use in
9. Traffic flow survey:
each TAZ will produce. With the land-use
• Roadside traffic count forecasts established in terms of number of
• Intersection traffic count jobs, residents, auto ownership, income, and
• Vehicle speed survey so forth, the traffic that this land use will add
10. Inventory of transport facilities to the highway and transit facility can be

This should be undertaken to identify the determined. This is carried out in a four-step

deficiency in the present system and extent to process11.

which they need to be improved. Inventory

may be: PROBLEMS
– Inventory of streets forming transport # Define urban and regional planning. Explain
network how central place theory and growth pole
– Traffic volume, composition, peak and off- theories describe urban and regional growth.
peak # Describe the differences between planning
– Studies on the travel time by different of people and goods. What are the
modes performance indicators used?
– Inventory of public transport buses or rails # What do you mean by transportation system
– Parking inventory hierarchy? Discuss different levels of
– Accident data. planning hierarchy.
Inventory of land-use and economic #what is the purpose of performing
activities: inventories and surveys for each defined
geographic unit or traffic zone within a study
Inventory of land use: Zones and classified as:
area?
– Residential/ Industrial/ Commercial
# List five ways of obtaining origin-
/Recreational / Open space / Institution.
destination information. Which method
Inventory of economic activities:
would produce the most accurate results?

11
Detail in chapter 3
6
Importance of Non-motorized Transportation

Non-motorized Modes (Walking and Bicycling, and their variants such as Wheelchairs and
Small Wheeled Modes, also called Active Modes and Human Powered
Transport) are important components of the transportation system, are often critical to the
success of TDM programs.
· They are resource-efficient travel modes (i.e., they consume minimal road and parking space,
impose minimal costs on consumers and the environment) that support
TDM objective.
· They provide Basic Access. Non-motorized modes are often critical for trips that society
considers particularly valuable, such as access to essential services, education,
employment, and social activities by people who are transportation disadvantaged.
· They are a primary component of Universal Design (transportation systems that accommodate
people with disabilities and other special needs).
· They provide Transportation Choice and consumer savings.
· They provide Healthy Exercise and enjoyment.
· They help create more Livable Communities.
· They provide access to Public Transit and so are critical to efforts to make transit more
practical and popular.
· They support efficient land use, such as New Urbanism, Location Efficient Development and
Transit Oriented Development.

Discuss the factors that affect NMT.

What are the factors affecting NMT demand.

Figure 1 Transportation System Hierarchy (Meyer)

Figure 2 Basic Movements in Transport Survey

I
/
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

Urban Transportation magnitude and extent of activity in the urban

Planning area.
Land use analysis determines where the
Definition- the definition stated in chapter activities will be located.
one on “Transportation Planning” also applies Trip generation determines how many trips
to urban transportation planning. You are each activity will produce or attract.
suggested to refer to chapter one article Trip distribution determines the origin or
“Basic elements of transport planning” and destination of trips that are generated at a
chapter two article “urban planning”. 1
given activity.
Modal split determines which mode of
Urban transportation planning involves the
transportation will be used to make the trip.
evaluation and selection of highway or transit
Traffic assignment determines which route
facilities to serve present and future land uses.
on the transportation network will be used
For example, the construction of a new
when making the trip.
shopping center, airport, or convention center
will require additional transportation services.
Also, new residential development, office
space, and industrial parks will generate
additional traffic, requiring the creation or
expansion of roads and transit services.

Urban Transportation Forecasting Process

There are four basic elements and related
tasks in the process: (1) data collection (or
inventories), (2) modeling (analysis of
existing conditions and calibration of
forecasting techniques) (3) forecast of future
travel demand, and (4) analysis of the results.

4-stage TLUM
Before the collection of data, it is necessary to
define the study area and subdivide this area
into traffic analysis zones. Data collection-
travel surveys and other relevant data.2
Steps in Forecasting Process: Population
and economic analysis determines the

1 2
Refer Meyer and also figure 1 on this note. Refer chapter 2 article on “ travel survey”
1
Ch-3 Urban Transportation Planning

Characteristics of Urban Travel The terms origins and destinations (or

Trip purpose: departures and arrivals) do not always have

the same meaning as the terms production and
• Work trips, shopping trips,
social & recreational trips, attraction. In general, the zone of origin
business trips, school trips produces trips and the zone of arrival attracts
Temporal distribution of trip making them. There is one exception to this rule: in

• Urban activities occur at home-based trips, the zone in which the home
different times of day: peak & is located is always considered to have
off peak hours.
produced the trips.
Spatial distribution of Trip making Trip classification:
• Origin and destinations depends Based on trip purpose
upon the pattern of land use and
→ Home based
the network configuration.
→ Non-home based
• Study area if divided into the
“Traffic Analysis Zones”.

Modal distribution of trip making

• Modes are basic components of

the transportation system

• Individual choice of mode Based on departure time of trip

formulates the modal split model
→ Mandatory
→ Optional
Trip Generation Based on personal characteristics

A trip occurs when someone moves from a → Level of income

place where he has undertaken a specific → Car ownership

activity to another place where he will → Size and structure of the household

undertake a new activity. The starting point of The most common classification is the one

the trip is called the origin and the finishing into car ownership (a classification, for

point the destination. A trip can be made example, into 0,1 or more cars per

using one mode of transport or a sequence of household).

transport modes. In this context, walking is Based on transport mode

also taken as a mode of transport. → Walking
Trips that begin or end at home are called → Bicycle
home-based trips. All other trips are → Car (when necessary divided into:
nonhome-based trips. driver and passenger)
Trip Production and Attraction: → Public transport

2
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

It used to be quite common to develop Trip Generation Models4

separate production- and attraction models for → Growth factor modelling
the various modes of transport3. → Regression analysis
Factors that influence production → Trip rate analysis (land use types)
The following factors influence the → Cross classification /category
production of a zone: analysis
• Households characteristics → Alternative models for category
-Income analysis (production models)
-Household structure (number going to work, → Attraction models
number going to school, age …) → Person category approach
-Car ownership → FHWA simplified production method
• Zone characteristics → Logit model
-Land use
-Land price Trip Distribution
-Residential density, rate of urbanisation Using the production- and attraction models
• Accessibility discussed earlier, we determined the
-Extent of transport options from the zone. departures and arrivals for the various zones.
-Quality of transport options from the zone. However, we still do not know the destination
Factors that influence attraction of the trips that depart from a particular zone,
The following factors influence the attraction nor do we know where the trips that are
rate of zones: attracted by a particular zone originated. The
• Number of employees aim of a distribution model can now be
• Land-use described as follows:
-Industrial (type of industry, occupied area) Distribute:
-Educational facilities • the trips that originate in a particular zone
-Shops (floor area, sales) over all destinations
-Service sector (hospitals, banks, government • the trips with a destination in a particular
institutions, conference centres …) zone over all origins
-Recreational (sport centres, tourist- or The complete pattern of trips in the area of
amenity sites, theatres …) study can be represented in a so-called origin-
-Storage and transfer (harbours, airports …) destination table or OD-table. The aim of a
• Accessibility distribution model, therefore, is to determine
-Extent of transport options to the zone the OD-table for a particular forecast year.
-Quality of transport options to the zone.

3 4
Refer traffic assignment Refer class lecture (in-depth analysis)
3
Ch-3 Urban Transportation Planning

Notation The pattern of trips in an area is → Opportunity model

given in a number of so-called origin Intervening
destination tables or OD-tables. Competing models
Mode choice
The distribution of trips over the various
transport modes is called the modal split.
Modelling transport mode choice is one of the
classical problems in traffic engineering.
The various modalities include walking,
cycling, driving, public transport and perhaps
Description: An OD-table is a two-
some other possibilities depending on local
dimensional matrix consisting of m rows and
customs. Due to the high social relevance of
n columns. The rows represent the zones of
this theme, the emphasis usually is on the
origin and the columns the destination zones.
choice problem between car and public
In most cases a particular zone is both a zone
transport. Because of road network
of origin and a destination zone. This means
congestion and environmental degradation
that we usually have a square matrix. The sum
caused by road traffic, the relevant policy-
of Tij over all columns in row i represents the
making agencies usually aim to encourage use
total number of trips leaving zone i, which is
of public transport. It is very important,
indicated by Oi. The sum of Tij over all rows
therefore, to have models that are sensitive to
in column j represents the total number of
the attributes that influence the choice of
trips arriving in zone j and this is indicated by
transport mode.
Dj. The sum of all trips in the entire table is
Factors influencing transport mode choice
indicated by T5.
Many factors influence transport mode
choice. First and foremost there is the
Methods of trip Distribution6
availability of the various means of
→ Growth factor models
transportation. People who have no choice but
Uniform growth factor
to use one or other transport mode are called
Average factor model
captives of that transport mode.
Fratar model
The word captives is most often used in
Singly constrained
connection to public transport. When a
Doubly constrained
household has no access to a car while the
→ Synthetic Models
destination is too far away to cycle or walk,
Gravity models
Singly and doubly constrained models

5 6
Note that symbols may vary Refer class lecture (in-depth)
4
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

and when family income does not stretch to in time at which the trip is undertaken is also
car hire or taxi, the family member is said to of significance.
be a public transport captive. Modal split models7
However, it is also possible that there is no → Trip end modal split models
provision of public transport to a destination, → Trip interchange models
or the nature of a job is such that public → Probit models
transport does not apply. In such cases, people → Logic models
necessarily depend on cars and become car- Binary
captives. Those people who are not captive to Multinomial
one or other form of transport are called Binary Logit Method: Binary logit model is
choice travellers. the simplest form of mode choice, where the
It is assumed that these travellers base their travel choice between two modes is made.
choice of transport mode on rational The traveler will associate some value for the
considerations. The factors that play a role in utility of each mode. If the utility of one mode
this process can be divided into three groups: is higher than the other, then that mode is
• Traveller characteristics It appears that chosen. But in transportation, we have
there is a connection between transport mode disutility also. The disutility here is the travel
choice and socio-economic characteristics cost. This model can easily be extended to
such as profession, income, age, etc. The most multiple modes.
significant characteristic is car availability. Traffic Assignment
This characteristic is closely connected to the
The primary concern in traffic assignment
above mentioned socio-economic
models is route choice. It would appear self-
characteristics.
evident that a traveller would, in principle,
• Transport mode characteristics In this group
choose the shortest route to his point of
of characteristics the differences in travel time
destination. This is why shortest route
and costs between the transport modes are
algorithms play an important role in traffic
particularly important. However, factors such
assignment models. Since there are such large
as parking opportunities and comfort, safety,
differences between networks for private
and reliability also feature.
transport (car, bicycle, etc.) and public
• Trip characteristics The purpose of the trip
transport, they should be dealt with separately
plays a role here. People might use public
transport for the recurrent home-based work Classification of traffic assignment models
trip, and use the car to go shopping. The point
The demand for transport, given as trips in the
OD-table, varies with time. Similarly,

7
Refer class lecture
5
Ch-3 Urban Transportation Planning

network characteristics may vary over time, → Multiple route assignment

be it as a function of transport demand or not. → Capacity restrained model
Traffic assignment models can in the first → Capacity restrained multipath
instance be classified according to this aspect
of time: Supply Analysis9
Static traffic assignment models assume that Transportation network, facilities and
transport demand and supply are time- services (part of the system) and their
independent. The traffic flows in the network characteristics are referred as transportation
that are calculated using these static models, supply.
therefore, do not change over time and are, in
fact, the flows that would emerge if the
Introduction
transport demand remained constant over a
Transportation is a market composed of
sufficiently long time-span. We may express
suppliers of transport services and users of
this by saying that traffic is assigned to the
these services. An economic system including
entire route between an origin and a
numerous activities located in different areas
destination. Other commonly used terms for
generates movements that must be supported
static models are steady state or 2-
by the transport system. Without movements
dimensional (2D) models. A steady-state flow
infrastructures would be useless and without
is a flow that does not change over time. The
infrastructures movements could not occur, or
term 2D indicates an assignment in the 2-
would not occur in a cost efficient manner.
dimensional area of the network, and that the
This interdependency can be considered
dimension of time has been left out.
according to two concepts, which are
Dynamic traffic assignment models do take
transport supply and demand:
account of variation in transport demand and
with possible changes in the characteristics of
Transport supply. The capacity of
the network. As a result, flows on the links in
transportation infrastructures and modes,
the network are calculated that vary over time.
generally over a geographically defined
Another name for dynamic models is 3D or 3-
transport system and for a specific period of
dimensional models.
time. Supply is expressed in terms of
Traffic Assignment Models8
infrastructures (capacity), services
→ All or nothing assignment
(frequency) and networks (coverage).
→ Equilibrium models
Capacity is often assessed in static and
User equilibrium
dynamic terms. The number of passengers,
System optimal

8 9
Refer class lecture ( detail analysis) Meyer & Miller
6
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

volume (for liquids or containerized traffic), Road. Supply depends on road conditions,
or mass (for freight) that can be transported traffic (congestion) and its level of control
per unit of time and space is commonly used (such as speed limits) and is generally
to quantify transport supply. measured in terms of numbers of vehicles per
lane per hour. The main supply variables are
Static capacity refers to the available land as road width, number of lanes, capacity of the
bigger terminals or larger roads have vehicle (average number of people per vehicle
conceptually more capacity. in several North American cities: 1.2), speed,
inventory and frequency of service (for mass
Dynamic capacity relates to infrastructure,
transit).
labor and technology, which can be improved
upon. For instance, a more efficient terminal Rail. The main supply variables are the
operation strategy can increase its physical number of tracks, capacity of stations and
throughput and consequently its capacity railyards, capacity of the vehicle, and speed of
without resorting to additional land. The the vehicle.
dynamic capacity of a road system can also be Air. The main supply variables are capacity
improved with a better synchronization of of airports, capacity of aircrafts, frequency of
traffic lights. The intensity and density of services and speed of the vehicle. The
utilization is improved. capacity of an airline corridor is enormous.

Maritime. The main supply variables are port

Statistical way to Measure Transport
capacity, capacity of ships, frequency of
Supply
services and speed of the ship. The capacity
The passenger-km (or passenger-mile) is a
of a maritime route is enormous.
common measure expressing the realized
passenger transport demand as it compares a Telecommunications. They represent a
transported quantity of passengers with a special category where the main supply
distance over which it gets carried. The ton- variables are the capacity of transmission
km (or ton-mile) is a common measure infrastructures (cables, antennas, satellites,
expressing the realized freight transport etc.). Depending on the transmitted
demand. Although both the passenger-km and information, supply will be expressed in bps
ton-km are most commonly used to measure (bytes per second), in numbers of calls per
realized demand, the measure can equally unit of time or the number of minutes of
apply for transport supply available transmission (antenna) time. The
development of the information highway has
Major Supply Variables for expended tremendously supply for the
Transportation Modes transmission of information.

7
Ch-3 Urban Transportation Planning

Role of Supply Analysis in Transport #What are the basic four elements that make
Planning up the urban transportation forecasting
•Municipality level network analysis for process?
strategic investment # Describe the 4-stage TLUM.
–Adding road, lane, to the existing network,
# Classify trips based on various parameters.
adding new ITS technologies, adopting
Which class is representative?
regional land use or taxation policies etc.
•Operational and tactical planning # Define the following terms: (a) home-based
–analysis of individual routes, links, or work (HBW) trips, (b) home-based
terminals, It is important particularly for the other (HBO) trips, (c) non-home-based
operating agencies. (NHB) trips, (d) production, (e) attractions,
•Scheduling of transportation services (f) origin, and (g) destination.
New Approaches to Planning
# Discuss various factors affecting trip
Two facets of planning can be traced as the production and attraction.
world moves into the future. Use of new and
# what is the purpose of trip distribution .
adoptable technology and the concept of
Elaborate on origin and destination trip
sustainable development for urban, and
matrix, notations and meaning.
regional harmonization and growth. You are
suggested to go through the references on # What data are required in order to use (a) the
footnote10. gravity model, and (b) the Fratar model?

# What are the factors affecting mode choice?

PROBLEMS Enumerate different classes of mode choice
# Define urban transportation planning. models and specify the use of logit models.
Discuss the steps involved in urban
# Discuss all or nothing assignment and
transportation planning.
equilibrium models of route assignment.
# Conduct a group study on urban
# What do you understand by supply analysis?
transportation planning process according to
Discuss the types of supply variables.
FHWA and point out its applicability in
Nepal. (refer figure last page on this note) # Enlist some major issues in planning and
new approaches to respond these issues.
I
ve
3 ti
1 c

#NB: Tutorial provided in separate sheet.

0 le
2 E
/ s-
a te
ol o
st e n

10
New planning approaches by Boarnet and Planning
ba ur
pn ect

and policy by Litman

L

8
 step 4

step 3

step 7

step 6 step 5 step 2 step 1

figure 1 - steps for urban transportation planning

 Transportation Planning & Engineering

Transportation system 6 Alternatives should be identified and refined in

Evaluation an open, well documented process that obtains
appropriate input and reviews from all
Transportation projects affect communities
participants.
and are usually funded by public agencies.
Evaluation of large projects that considerably Types of Evaluation studies
impact whole communities requires public Pre-implementation –it helps to choose the
involvement. This specific requirement of best course of action from among several
transportation projects determines the method alternative proposals.
of their evaluation as the benefits and costs post implementation studies- help to discover
are estimated from the societal point of view. whether or not the implemented alternative
performs well and to determine whether or not
The primary objective of the evaluation effort it continues to perform over time.
is to select the best alternative solution, and Some key terms: decision making, impact
typically no-build (do nothing) is one of the trade-off, feasibility2.
alternatives. Inclusion of the no-build The selected alternative must be feasible in
scenario allows feasibility checking by terms of- technological feasibility, economic
comparing proposed solutions with the no- efficiency, effectiveness and resource
build scenario. The best alternative is selected availability.
from feasible solutions. Methods of evaluation
Principles for Developing a Set of Alternatives1 Two classes of evaluation methods are
considered that are based on a single measure
1. Alternative should be defined in terms of their
of effectiveness: The first reduces all
design concept and scope.
outcomes to a monetary value, and the second
2. Alternative should respond directly to a clear
reduces all outcomes to a numerical relative
statement of purpose of and need of transportation
value. Finally, evaluation is viewed as a fact-
improvements
finding process in which all outcomes are
3. Alternatives should be developed through a
reported separately in a matrix format so that
process of considering all reasonable options
the decision maker has complete information
4. Set of alternatives should be structured to
about the project outcome. This information
provide a range of options to decision makers that
can be used in public forums for citizen input
illustrates the trade-offs among costs,
and the decision process can be extended to
transportation benefits, and other impacts
5. Each alternative should be defined to make it as include public participation.
competitive as possible and refined in light of the Selecting and Measuring Evaluation
information develop on its performance Criteria

1 2
Refer Meyer & Miller Refer chapter 1‐ DMP
1
Ch-4 Transportation System Evaluation

What are the relevant criteria, and how should •Do any groups pay shares of the costs that are
these be measured? A transportation project is disproportionate to the benefits they receive?

intended to accomplish one or more goals and

Effectiveness:
objectives, which are made operational as
•Is the alternative like to produce the desired
criteria. The numerical or relative results for
results?
each criteria are called measures of
•To what extent community goals are attained?
effectiveness. For example, in a railroad grade
crossing problem, if the goal is to reduce
Adequacy:
accidents, the criteria can be measured as the –Does the alternative correspond to the scale of
number of accidents expected to occur for the problem and to the level of expectation of
each of the alternatives considered. If another problem solution?
goal is to reduce waiting time, the criteria –Are there other alternatives that might be
could be the number of minutes per vehicle considered?

delayed at the grade crossing. Non-

quantifiable criteria also can be used and Efficiency:
–Does the alternative provide sufficient benefits
expressed in a relative scale, such as high,
to justify the cost?
medium, and low.
–In comparison with other alternatives, are the
Criteria selection is a basic element of the additional benefits provided worth the extra cost?
evaluation process because the measure used
becomes the basis on which each project is Implementation feasibility:
compared. Thus, it is important that the –will the funds available to implement the

criteria be related as closely as possible to the alternative on schedule?

stated objective. –Are there any administrative or legal barriers to

Bases for Evaluation alternative implementation?

Appropriateness: –Are there groups who are likely to oppose the

•What information required on impacts and trade- alternative?
offs is required for the decisions that need to be
made? Sensitivity analysis:

•Do the objectives attained by the alternative? –How are the predicted impacts modified when
analysis assumptions are changed?
•Do the objectives attained by the alternative
reflect previously specified community goals and –What is the likelihood of these changes

objectives. occurring?

Equity: Criteria for evaluating alternatives:

•What is the distribution of benefits and costs See table below (table 2)
among the members of community?

2
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

–Does the alternative have an irresolvable

community or agency opposition?

–Is the technology proven in revenue service?

Screening criteria:
–How consistent is the alternative with regional
goals /policies?

–How affordable is the alternative?

–What are the primary environmental Impacts?

–How well does the alternative address the

corridor’s mobility problem?
Economic evaluation methods:
Present worth
Refer course
Net present worth
on Economics PROBLEMS
Benefit cost ratios
# What is the main objective of conducting a
Internal rate of return
transportation project evaluation?
#List the basic criteria used for evaluating
Evaluation based on Multiple Criteria3
transportation alternatives. What units are
Ranking and scoring techniques
Used for measurement? (ans-refer table 2)
# what are the principles for developing set of
Evaluation Criteria for Major Investment
alternatives ?
Studies
•Prescreening
# why are pre and post implementation studies
important ?
•Screening # what are the basis for project evaluation ?
# Discuss ranking and scoring techniques
•Detail
with examples.
Prescreening criteria: # Conduct a group study on table 1 (last page
–Is the alternative consistent with regional goals on this note) and summarize the key points.
and objectives?

–Is alternative affordable?

–Does the alternative have an irresolvable

environmental impacts?

3
Refer class lecture
3
Table 1-Comprehensive evaluation criteria- an example developed for cincinnati1

1
Tarko
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

Introduction quarries. These ‘hauling ways’ initially had a

Rail transport is the transport of passengers surface of stone slabs or timber baulks, which
and goods by means of wheeled vehicles soon proved unsatisfactory as the loads
specially designed to run along railways or carried inevitably grew heavier.
railroads. Rail transport is part of the logistics As the Industrial Revolution progressed, the
chain, which facilitates the international idea was developed further by adding cast
trading and economic growth in most iron or wrought iron plates to reduce wear on
countries1. the wooden baulks. This evolved further to
A typical railway/railroad track consists of iron edge rails enabling the use of flanged
two parallel rails, normally made of steel, wheels for the first time.
secured to cross-beams, termed sleepers By the time steam locomotives came on the
(U.K.) or 'ties' (U.S.). The sleepers maintain a scene, in the early nineteenth century,
constant distance between the two rails; a wrought iron rails and later steel rails were
measurement known as the 'gauge' of the developed which were strong enough to
track. To maintain the alignment of the track, support these heavy axle loads without
it is either laid on a bed of ballast or else assistance from longitudinal timbers.
secured to a solid concrete foundation, and the
whole is referred to as Permanent way. First railway operation in some countries:
Permanent way is the generic term for the UK: 1825 France: 1828 Germany: 1835
track – rails, sleepers and ballast – on which India: 1853 Japan: 1872 China: 1875
railway trains run. British practice has
diverged quite sharply from that in North Advantages
America and continental Europe. Although Trains move on the steel tracks laid on the
the configuration of the track today would be ground. Trains can move at much higher
recognized by engineers of the 19th century, speeds than pneumatic tyre vehicles on
it has developed significantly over the years modern highways. Steel track can take 3-4
as technological improvements became times heavier axel load than road. The energy
available, and as the demands of train required to haul a unit load through a unit
operation increased. distance by railways is about 16 % in
comparison to road transport.
Early Developments2
The first railways were laid down in the Classification of Railways3
seventeenth and eighteenth century for horse Broad gauge routes:
drawn trains of wagons in collieries and

1 3
AREMA 1998 Lecture notes by Dr. P.B. Shahi
2
Bonnett
1
Ch-6 Railway Engineering

Based on the speed criteria railways have and fastened to the sleepers. These sleepers
been classified into five groups: are embedded in the layer of ballast of
Group A: speed of 160 kmph or more specified thickness,
· New Delhi-Howrah spread over the formation.
· New Delhi – Bombay · Rails
· New Delhi- Madras · Sleepers
· Howrah – Bombay · Ballast
Group B: Sectioned speed is 130 kmph · Formation
3. Group C: All sub-urban routes of Calcutta, · Fittings & fastenings
Bombay and Delhi
4. Group D: All other routes where sectioned Functions of the track component
speed is 100 kmph Rails: rails are steel girders over which the
5. Group E: Other routes sections, branch train moves and transmit the wheel loads of
lines where the sanctioned speed is less than train to the sleepers below.
100 kmph. Sleeper: The sleepers hold the rails in proper
Meter gauge routes: position and provide a correct gauge with the
· Q Routes: routes having maximum help of fittings and fastenings and transfer the
permissible speed of more than 75 kmph train load to the ballast below.
· R Routes: Routes having maximum Ballast: holds the sleepers in proper positions
permissible speed of 75 kmph. and provides a uniform level surface. They
· S Routes: The routes having maximum also provide drainage to the track and transfer
permissible speed less than 75 kmph train load to the larger area of the formation
below.
Rail Gauges: Fittings and fastenings: they provide a grip
It is the minimum distance between running between rails and sleepers. The rails are
inner faces of two rails. fastened with the sleepers by fittings and
fastenings.
Component parts of Railway Formation: formation is the base of the

Track railway rack. It gives a level surface where the

ballast rests. It takes total loads of the track.
Railway track is the permanent way or final
track for the movement of trains. The track is
Requirements of an ideal railway track
the rail road
a) Correct gauge
on which trains run. It consists of two parallel
b) Correct alignment
rails having a specified distance between
c) Transition curves should be provided
them (gauge)
d) Rails should have perfect cross level
2
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

e) Gradient should be uniform and as gentle · acting as an elastic medium between rails
as possible and ballast
f) Perfect drainage · provide insulation for electrified track
g) Minimum friction between rails and · to provide proper grade, longitudinal and
wheels. lateral stability.
h) Joints, points & crossings should be Classification of sleepers
designed · Wooden sleepers
i) Track should possess and theft and sabotage · Cast iron sleepers
qualities · Steel sleepers
j) Superelevation should be perfectly · Concrete sleepers
designed Ballast
Rail: It is the layer of broken stone or gravel or any
Functions: other material placed under and around the
· Provide level & continuous surface for the sleepers to distribute the load from sleepers to
train movement the formation and for providing drainage as
· Provide smooth pathway well as lateral and longitudinal stability to
· Serve as lateral guide for running wheels track.
· Rails bear the stresses developed due to Functions
vertical load · Suitable foundation for sleepers
· Transfer and distribute load from sleeper to
Types: larger area of formation
· Double headed · Increases elasticity and resilience of the
· Bull headed rail track for getting good riding comfort
· Flat footed trail · Lateral and longitudinal stability
· Provide effective drainage
Sleepers
· Protects top surface of the formation
Sleepers are transverse support for a railway
Types
track to give stiffness to it. Transverse
· Broken stone: it is best to be used as ballast.
sleepers were introduced on the railway track
The size of the ballast is generally is 40 to 50
for the first time in 1853. Functions of
mm. At points and crossing 25 mm size may
sleepers:
be used.
· holding rails to correct gauge and alignment
· Gravel ballast: it is cheaper
· giving firm and even support to the rails
· Cinder or coal ash:
· transfer and distribute the axle load from
· Sand ballast: coarse sand is cheap if
rails
available locally.

3
Ch-6 Railway Engineering

· Moorum ballast: it is the decomposed Geometric Design of Railway

laterite rocks. Track
· Brick ballast
Track Fittings & Fastening Geometric design should be such as to

Rail Joints provide maximum efficiency in the traffic

It is weakest part of rail. In order to provide operation with maximum safety at reasonable

provision for expansion and contraction of cost.

rails due to variation in temperature, certain

Gradient
gap is provided at each joint. The joint causes
severe blows to the passenger due to moving Any departure of track from the level is

of wheels over this gap. known as grade or gradient. Purpose of

Joint Types providing gradient:

according to the position of joints: · To provide uniform rate of rise or fall,

 square joints
· To reduce cost of earth work.
 staggered joints
According to the position of sleepers · To reach different stations at different level.
 Suspended joint
Types of gradient:
 Supported joint
Fastening of Rails  ·Ruling gradient: The steepest
 The devices used to connect rails and gradient allowed on the track section.
sleepers together to form the track are It determines the max load that the
known as fastenings. Fish locomotive can haul that section. The
 plates, bolts, Chairs, keys and bearing steep gradient needs more powerful
plates are the devices for fastening the locomotives, smaller train loads,
rails. lower speed, resulting in costly
 Fish Plates: are used to hold two rails hauling.
together in horizontal as well as in
In plains: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
vertical planes. At each joint
 a pair of fish plate is used. Holes are In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

drilled through the plates and the web

Momentum Gradient: The gradient on a
of rails. Rails are jointed
section which are steeper than the ruling
 by tightening fish bolts with the help gradient acquire sufficient momentum to
of nuts. negotiate them are known as momentum
gradient.

4
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

Pusher gradient: As stated above a ruling Degree of curve: A curve is defined by its
gradient limits the maximum weight of a train degree or radius. The degree of a curve is the
which can be hauled over the section by a angle subtended at the center by a chord of
locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so severe 100 feet or 30.48m. R is the radius of curve;
on a section that it needs the help of extra
Thus, a 1degree curve has a radius of 1750m.
engine to pull the same load than this gradient
is known as pusher of helper gradient. In Elements of Circular Curve—refer
Darjeeling Railways 1 in 37 pusher gradient transportation I
is used on Western Ghat BG Track.
Superelevation on Curves (Cant)
Gradient at stations: at stations gradient are
Cant: It is defined as the difference in height
provided sufficient low due to following
between the inner and outer rails on the curve.
reason:
It is provided by gradually raising the outer
 To prevent movement of standing rail above the inner rail level. The inner rail is
vehicle due to effect of gravity considered as the reference rail and normally
combined with strong wind or gentle is maintained at its original level. The inner
push rail is known as the gradient rail.
 To prevent additional resistance due
Function of superelevation:
to grade on the starting vehicles.
· Neutralizes the effect of lateral fore
On Indian railways, maximum gradient
permitted is 1 in 400 in station yards. · It provides better load distribution on the
two rails.
Grade compensation on curves
· It reduces wear and tear of rails and rolling
If a curve is provided on a track with ruling
stock.
gradient, the resistance of the track will be
increased this curve. In order to avoid · It provides smooth running of trains and
resistance beyond the allowable limits, the comforts to the passengers
gradients are reduced on curves. The
Equilibrium speed: It is the speed at which
reduction in gradient is known as grade
the effect of centrifugal force is exactly
compensation for curves.
balanced by the superelevation provided. It
· BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve can also be said that when the speed of a
vehicle running on a curved track is such that
· MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
the resultant weight of the vehicle and the
· NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve effect of radical acceleration is perpendicular
to the plane of rails and the vehicle is not
5
Ch-6 Railway Engineering

subjected to an unbalanced radical body is subjected to a constant radial

acceleration, is in equilibrium then its acceleration.
particular speed is called equilibrium speed.

Maximum permissible speed: This is the

highest speed which may be allowed or
permitted on a curved track taking into Where, F is the centrifugal force; W is the

consideration of the radius of curvature, weight of the body; v is the speed of the body

actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess and m/sec; R is the radius of the curve in m.

the length of the transition curve. When, the

Let θ be the angle which the inclined plane
maximum permissible speed on the curve is
makes with the horizontal as in the figure.
less than the maximum sanctioned speed of
the section of a line, permanent speed e is the superelevation; G is the gauge; P is

restriction become necessary on such curves. centrifugal force; W is the weight of the
vehicle.
Cant deficiency: When a train travels on a
curved track at a speed higher than the
equilibrium speed, then the cant deficiency
occurs. It is the difference between the
theoretical cant required for such higher
speeds and the actual cant provided.
Where, e is superelevation in mm; G is the
Cant Excess: When a train travels on a curved gauge in mm + width of the rail head in mm;
rack at a speed lower than the equilibrium V speed of the train in kmph; R radius of the
speed, then the cant excess occurs. It is the curve in m.
difference between the actual cant provided
For BG track: G = 1676 mm+ 74 mm=1750
and the theoretical cant required for such
mm
lower speeds. Maximum value for cant excess
is For MG track: G = 1058 mm

BG track: 75 mm For NG track: G= 772 mm

MG Track: 65 mm Maximum value of superlevation: the

maximum value of superlelevation has been
Centrifugal Force: When a body moves on a
decided on the basis of experiments carried
circular curve, it has a tendency to move in a
out by many researchers. The maximum value
straight direction tangential to the curve. This
of superelevation generally on many railways
tendency of the body is due to the fact that the

6
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

of the world has beenadopted about 1/10th to

1/12th of the gauge. As per Indian railways: V is the speed in km R is
radius of the curve in m
BG Track: 165mm (normal condition), 185
(special permission) c) Rational formula considering
superelevation:
MG track: 90 mm (normal condition), 100
(special permission a. BG track:

NG track: 65 mm (normal condition), 75

Ca is actual
(special permission)
cant provided in mm; Cd is the cant
Maximum degree of Curve: It depends on deficiency permitted in mm; R is radius in m;
various factors such as gauge, wheel base of V is maximum speed in kmph.
vehicle, maximum superelevation and other
b. MG track:
such factors. As per Indian railways:

Safe speed on curves

On the curves the safe speed can be calculated

c. NG track:
empirically by the following formula:

a) For BG and MG on transition curve:

Cant deficiency

Cant deficiency is the difference between the

For non-transition curve (80% of the speed on
equilibrium cant necessary for the maximum
the transition curve):
permissible speed on a curve and the actual
cant provided there. As per Indian Railways,
Cant deficiency is recommended as follow:
b) For Narrow gauge: with transition curve
BG Track: 75 mm

MG track: 50 mm

NG track: 40 mm
Non-transition curve:
Maximum permissible speed on Curves
Subjected to a
The maximum permissible speed which can
maximum of 40 kmph
be permitted on a curve is the minimum value
b) For high speeds:
7
Ch-6 Railway Engineering

of speed calculated from the following d) Speed corresponding to the length of

consideration: transition curve:

 Maximum sanctioned speed of the

section: this is the maximum
permissible speed authorized by the
commissioner of rail safety.
 Safe speed on curves:

i. For BG and MG on transition curve: (with

transition curve) L is the desirable/minimum length of
transition curve; Ca is actual cant in mm; Vm
is the maximum permissible speed.

Transition Curves
ii. On high speed track:
Objectives of providing transition curves:
· To attain gradual rise of the outer rail;
· To decrease the radius of the curve gradually
For non-transition curve (80% of the speed on from infinite at the straight end of the rack to
the transition curve): that of the circular
curve at the junction with the circular curve of
the selected radius.
· To provide smooth running of vehicles and
c) Maximum speed of section taking into provide comfort to the passengers
account the super elevation and cant · To reduce chance of derailment.
deficiency cant deficiency: (use of rational Types of transition curve:
formula) a) Spiral curves
b) Lemniscates curve
BG Track: c) Cubic parabola
Ca is actual cant provided in mm; Cd is the
cant deficiency permitted in mm; R is radius Length of transition curve: The distance
in m; V is maximum speed in kmph. along the center line of the track between the
starting point on the straight portion of the
track and the meeting point on the junction
MG track:
with the circular curve is called the transition
curve length.
NG track:

8
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

· For Indian railways it can be calculated with Station, Yard and Crossing
the help of following equation and the greatest Station is a place on a railway line, where
of all should be adopted. trains are stopped for passengers to entrain or
 Based on the arbitrary gradient (1 in detrain and an authority to proceed is given to
720): L = 7.2 x e the train. At some of the stations the
 Based on the change of cant movement of trains is also controlled. A
deficiency: L = 0.073D x Vmax station should be located as near a village or
 Based on the change of town as possible with easy approach roads to
superelevation: L = 0.073 x e x Vmax facilitate the movement of passengers and
L is the length of transition curve in m; e is goods as well. There should be provision of
the actual cant in cm; D is the cant deficiency future extensions.
in cm; V is the maximum speed in kmph.
A yard is a system of railway tracks laid
 Length of the transition curve should
within definite limits of various purposes such
be taken as the maximum value given
as sorting of vehicles, making up trains etc.
by the following formula:
Yards are also used to control the movements
 As per Railway code:
by prescribed rules, regulations and signals.
; where R is the There are four
radius of the curve; L and R in Types of Yards:
m. Passenger yards: the main function of the
 At the rate of change of passenger yards is to provide all facilities for
superelevation of 1 in 360; i.e, their safe movements of passengers.
1 cm for every 3.6 m length of Following facilities should be there in
track. passenger yard:
Booking office
Based on the rate of change of radial
Parking space
acceleration as 0.305 m/sec2:
Enquiry office
Signal for train receptions & departures
Platform and sidings

Goods yards: requirements of goods yard:

o Based on the maximum permissible speed: Approach road
Loop lines
Loading & unloading platforms
Space for goods sorting
Cart weighing machine

9
Ch-6 Railway Engineering

Cranes for very heavy goods due to the inside flanges on the wheel which
Booking office can move on a definite track. These special
Marshalling yards: Is the space where goods arrangements are called points and crossings.
wagons received from different centers are The points or switches provide the facility of
sorted out and placed in order to be detached diverting the vehicle and crossings provide
at different stations. Thus marshalling yards gaps in the rails to be crossed by the flange
are distributing centers. In short, marshalling wheels. A complete set of points and
yard is the center where goods wagons are crossings is called a turn out. Right hand turn-
sorted out and isolated wagons are combined out and left hand turn out
to form a train load. Design consideration for Switch: A pair of tongue and stock rails with
marshalling yards: necessary connections and fittings form a
Shunting operations should not be disturbed switch. It is the device used to divert the
by the regular trains. rolling stock from one track to another track.
Marshalling yard should be kept parallel to It consists of a tongue rail and a stock rail. The
the running lines tongue rail is supported on sliding plates and
Movement of trains in only one direction is each pair of tongue rail is connected by a
desirable stretcher bar near the toe of the switch. This
Repair facilities for provided arrangement keeps the movement of both
Lay out of Marshalling Yards: tongue rails equal. A set of switch is known
The ideal layout of marshalling yard consists as point.
of following: Points: A pair of tongue rails with their stock
 Reception siding rails is known as point. In other word a set of
 Sorting switches is known as point.
 Departure siding Crossing: A crossing is a device introduced
at the junction where two rails cross to permit
Locomotive yards: Following facilities must the wheel flange of a railway vehicle to pass
be provided in this group: from one track to another track.

 Sufficient number of tracks : Engine

shed; inspection; repair shed; turn Component Parts of a switch or Point:

table a) A set of stock rail

 Loco yards should be situated near the b) A pair of tongue rail

passenger and goods yards c) A pair of heel block

d) A number of slide chairs to support the
Points and Crossings
tongue rail
To divert the train from one track to another
e) Two or more stretcher bars to connect
track some special arrangements are needed
tongue rails
10
 Transportation Planning & Engineering

f) A gauge tie plate to fix and ensure correct Problem # 7 what is a railway yard? Discuss the
gauge at points types of yards.

g) Guard or check rail Problem # 8 what do you mean by switch and

crossing? Discuss component parts of railway
Component part of Crossings: crossing.
 Two Rails: (Point and Splice rail ):
Problem # 9 Draw schematic diagram of left hand
Point rail ends at the nose while the
turn out and right hand turnout.
splice rail joins a little behind the
nose. Problem # 10 conduct a group study on Railway
status / Projects in Nepal.
 Two wing Rails: These are right and
left hand wings rails. They converse to
form a throat and diverge again on
Further Reading:
either side of the nose.
 A pair of Check rails: To provide a If you really have developed interest in Railway
Engineering, you are suggested to refer to
path for the wheel flange and guide
“Railway Track Engineering” by Mundrey
them, a pair of check rails is provided.
(Excellent Book)
Types of Crossings:
a) Acute angle crossings or V crossing or frog
b) Obtuse angle crossings
c) Square Crossings or right angle crossing

PROBLEMS

Problem # 1 What are the advantages of railway

system?

Problem # 2 Present a schematic diagram showing

the component parts of railway track.

Problem # 3 Classify the types of railway in use

Problem # 4 Discuss the functions of each

component parts of railway track.

Problem # 5 Define various types of gradient used

in railway track design

Problem # 6 Define cant, equilibrium cant, cant

excess and cant deficiency
11
 Figures1
Figure: Rail Gauge

Figure: Rail and wheel

Figure: Component parts of railway Track

1
Lecture notes by Dr. Shahi / Railway engineering by Bonnett / Railway by AREMA
1
Figure: precast sleepers

Figure: Flat Rail and Fastening

2
Figure: crossover layout

3
Figure:- Types of rails

Figure: Rail Joints

4
Figure: Left and Right Turnouts

5
6
 length and element 2 is a letter based on the
AIRPORT ENGINEERING-Planning,
aeroplane wingspan and outer main gear
designing, construction, maintenance and
wheel span.
operation of aircrafts.

Aerodrome. A defined area on land or water Based on function:

(including any buildings, installations and → Civil aviation airports

equipment) intended to be used either wholly
Domestic airports
or in part for the arrival, departure and surface
International airports
movement of aircraft.
Combination of international and
AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION
domestic
There are different classifications by the
→ Military airports
related organizations such as ICAO, FAA
→ General aviation airports
etc.
FAA Classification2
Based on take-off and landing
Commercial and general aviation- utility
→ Conventional take-off and landing
airports
airport (runway length > 1500 m.
→ Reduced take-off and landing airport AIRCRAFT COMPONENT PARTS
(runway length 1000 to 1500m) → Engine
→ Short take-off and landing airport → Wings
(runway length 500 to 1000m) → Fuselage
→ Vertical take-off and landing airport → Three control(x,y,z)
(operational area 25 to 50 sq. m.) → Tricycle under carriage
ICAO Classification1 Aircraft Characteristics
An aerodrome reference code — code number → Engine type
and letter — which is selected for aerodrome → Size of aircraft
planning purposes shall be determined in → Minimum turning radius
accordance with the characteristics of the → Minimum circling radius
aeroplane for which an aerodrome facility is → Speed of aircraft
intended. → Capacity of the aircraft
The code is composed of two elements which → Aircraft weight & wheel configuration
are related to the aeroplane performance → Jet Blast
characteristics and dimensions. Element 1 is a → Fuel spillage
number based on the aeroplane reference field → Noise

1 2
See table 1 See for yourself
Engine types various configurations of their landing gear.
Most aircraft are designed with one of three
The term piston engine applies to all
basic landing gear configurations; the single-
propeller-driven aircraft powered by high-
wheel configuration, defined as a main gear of
octane gasoline-fed reciprocating engines.
having a total of two wheels, one on each
Most small general aviation aircraft are
strut, the dual-wheel configuration, defined as
powered by piston engines. The term
turboprop refers to propeller-driven aircraft a main gear of having a total of four wheels,

powered by turbine engines. two on each strut, and the dual-tandem

configuration, defined as two sets of wheels
The term turbofan or jet has reference to those
on each strut.
aircraft which are not dependent on propellers
for thrust, but which obtain the thrust directly Factor affecting aircraft performance

from a turbine engine. On the airport surface, the speed and direction

Single, double, 4, 6………. Engines of winds directly affect aircraft runway

utilization. For takeoff and landings, for
Weight
example, aircraft perform best when
While the concept of aircraft weight may be operating with the wind blowing directly
thought to be a simple one, the measurement toward them, that is, with a direct headwind.
of the weight of a given aircraft is actually Headwinds allow an aircraft to achieve lift at
relatively complex. An aircraft will in fact be slower groundspeeds, and thus allow takeoffs
measured with a certain number of weight and landings with slower groundspeeds and
measurements, depending on its level of shorter runway lengths. While wind blowing
loading with fuel, payload, and crew, and from behind an aircraft, that is, a tailwind is
assigned maximum allowable weight values preferable for aircraft flying at altitude, as
for takeoff, landing, and at rest. they achieve greater groundspeeds at a given

These various measurements of aircraft airspeed, it is not preferable for takeoff or

weight are important to airport planning and landing, for precisely the same reason. As

design, in particular the facilities such as such, airports tend to plan and design runways

ramps, taxiways, and runways that are so that aircraft may operate most often with

designed to support the aircraft. direct headwinds, and orient their primary
runways in the direction of the prevailing
Size of aircraft3
winds.
Landing gear configuration

Aircraft currently operating in the world’s

civil use airports have been designed with

3
See figure 1
 The elements of a large airport are shown in
Fig. 4. It is divided into two major
components, the airside and the landside. The
aircraft gates at the terminal buildings form
the division between the two components.
Within the system, the characteristics of the
vehicles, both ground and air, have a large
Aircraft characteristics significantly affect
influence on planning. The passenger and
other airport layout factors, including:
shipper of goods are interested primarily in
The number, orientation, and configuration of the overall doorto-door travel time and not
runways just the duration of the air journey. For this

The types and strengths of pavements reason access to airports is an essential

consideration in planning.
The dimensions of parking aprons, taxiways,
holding bays, and so forth Selection of airport site5

The design of passenger and cargo terminal The emphasis in airport planning is normally

areas. on the expansion and improvement of existing

airports. However if an existing airport cannot
Aircraft Classification4
be expanded to meet the future demand or the
→ ICAO classification need for a new airport is identified in an
→ FAA airport system plan, a process to select a new
→ Position of Cockpit airport site may be required. The scope of the
→ IATA classification site selection process will vary with size,
→ Aircraft classification based on the complexity, and role of the new airport, but
aircraft use there are basically three steps—identification,

• General aviation aircraft (GA) screening, and selection.

• Corporate aircraft (CA) Identification—criteria is developed that will

be used to evaluate different sites and
• Commuter aircraft (COM)
determine if a site can function as an airport
• Transport aircraft (TA) and meets the needs of the community and
• Short-range users. One criterion will be to identify the land
area and basic facility requirements for the
• Medium-range
new airport. Part of this analysis will be a
• Long-range
definition of airport roles if more than two
AIRPORT PLANNING airports serve the region. Other criteria might

4 5
Refer tables 2,3, 4 Refer page…….
be that sites are within a certain radius or species or cultural artifacts, historical
distance from the existing airport or features, changes in local land use, relocation
community, or that sites should be relatively of families and businesses, changes in
flat. Several potential sites that meet the socioeconomic characteristics
criteria are identified. Compatibility with area-wide planning—
Screening—once sites are identified, a impact on land use, effect on comprehensive
screening process can be applied to each site. land-use plans and transportation plans at the
An evaluation of all potential sites that meet local and regional levels

the initial criteria should be conducted, Selection—the fi nal step is selecting and
screening out those with the most obvious recommending a preferred site. While a
shortcomings. Screening factors might weighting of the evaluation criteria and
include topography, natural and man-made weighted ratings or ranking of the alternative
obstructions, airspace, access, environmental sites is often used in selecting a site, caution
impacts, and development costs. If any sites must be used in applying this technique since
are eliminated from further consideration, it introduces an element of sensitivity into the
thorough documentation of the reasons for analysis. The process should focus on
that decision is recommended. The remaining providing decision makers with information
on the various sites in a manner that is
potential sites should then undergo a detailed
understandable and unbiased.
comparison using comprehensive evaluation
criteria. While the criteria will vary, the PREDICTION OF AIR TRAVEL
following is typically considered: Over the years, certain techniques have
Operational capability—airspace evolved which enable airport planners and
considerations, obstructions, Weather designers to forecast future demand. The
Capacity potential—available land, principal items for which estimates are
suitability for construction, Weather usually needed include

Ground access—distance from the demand • The volume and peaking characteristics of
for aviation services, regional highway passengers, aircraft, vehicles, and cargo
infrastructure, and available public • The number and types of aircraft needed to
transportation modes serve the above traffic
Development costs—terrain, land costs, land • The number of based general aviation
values, soil conditions, availability of utilities aircraft and the number of movements
Environmental consequences—aircraft noise, generated
air quality, groundwater runoff, impact on fl • The performance and operating
ora and fauna, existence of endangered characteristics of ground access systems
Levels of Forecasting Forecasting Methods

Demand estimates are prepared for a variety There are several forecasting methods or
of reasons. Broad large-scale aggregated techniques available to airport planners
forecasts are made by aircraft and equipment ranging from subjective judgment to
sophisticated mathematical modeling. The
Manufacturers, aviation trade organizations,
selection of the particular methodology is a
governmental agencies, and others to
function of the use of the forecast, the
determine estimates of the market
availability of a database, the complexity and
requirements for aviation equipment, trends
sophistication of the techniques, the resources
in travel, personnel needs, air traffic control
available, the time frame in which the forecast
requirements, and other factors. Similarly,
is required and is to be used, and the degree of
forecasts are made on a smaller scale to
precision desirable. There are four major
examine these needs in particular regions of
methods:
an area and at specific airports.
→ Time series method-see figure below
Factors to be considered
→ Market share method-two step process
→ availability of capacity; airports and
→ Econometric modeling-air traffic and
airspace
economics
→ General economic situation; locally,
→ Simulation modeling-softwares
nationally, and internationally
→ Socioeconomic and demographic
variables of the airport region
→ Economic factors directly related to
airlines operating at the airport
→ Competition between airlines serving
the airport as well as competition
between the air and other modes of
transport
→ Environmental and political
constraints on the air transport system
AIRPORT LAYOUT DESIGN
and airline industry
→ Technological advancement in The layout of an airport is dependent upon a
aeronautics, telecommunication, air number of factors, of which the most
navigation, and other related fields important are: 1. Number and orientation of

→ Overall safety, security, and runways 2. Number of taxiways 3. Size and

convenience of air travel shape of aprons 4. Area and shape of available

land 5. Topography and site soil conditions 6.
Obstacles to air navigation 7. Required operational requirements of aircraft for
proximity of land uses within the airport landing and takeoff. The airfield, or runway–
boundary 8. Surrounding land uses 9. Timing taxiway system, must contain enough
and scale of phased development of the runways to meet air traffic demand and be
airport 10. Meteorology 11. Size and scale of properly aligned with the optimum flow of
airport facilities being planned. aircraft, and the runways must have adequate
separation to ensure safe air traffic
The principal facilities to be considered in an
movements. Runways must be oriented to
airport plan include:
take advantage of prevailing winds and
→ Runways
should be directed away from fixed air
→ Taxiways
navigation hazards. An airport layout should
→ Passenger terminals and aprons
include suitable parking areas for aircraft and
→ Cargo terminals and aprons
various airport ground service vehicles as
→ Rescue and firefighting services
well as space for freight processing and
→ Air traffic control tower
baggage handling and storage and for aircraft
→ Aircraft maintenance
maintenance and service. Therefore, airport
→ Long-term and short-term parking
configuration should facilitate safe and
→ Access roads
expeditious movements of aircraft and ground
→ Rail and public transport access
service vehicles. The following sections
→ Airport maintenance, snow clearance,
contain the process and information the
→ Navaids
airport designer needs to carry out the
→ Lighting
geometric design of the airfield
→ Flight kitchens
→ Fuel farm
Airfield Configuration
→ General aviation terminal and apron
→ Sewage treatment and pumping A wide variety of runway configurations

stations exist; however, most runway systems are

→ Electrical substations arranged according to some combination of

→ Security fences and control gates four basic configurations: (a) single run-

→ Hotels ways, (b) parallel runways, (c) open-V

→ Industrial uses runways, and (d) intersecting runways.

Principle of airport Layout (features of In determining the proper configuration for

good layout) the airfield, the airport designer has to

consider the following aspects: resultant
The layout of an airport must be suitable for
capacity of the runway group layout, spa tial
the shape and acreage of available land, but
relation between the airfield vis-`a-vis the
most importantly it must satisfy fully the
terminal area, and geometric features to Instrument runway. One of the following
enhance operation and increase resultant types of runways intended for the operation of
capacity. aircraft using instrument approach
procedures:
Airside Configuration and Geometric
standards a) Non-precision approach runway. An
instrument runway served by visual aids and
→ Airfield configuration
a non-visual aid providing at least directional
→ Runway orientation
guidance adequate for a straight-in approach.
→ Runway length
→ Taxiway system b) Precision approach runway, category I. An
→ Longitudinal-grade design for instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS
runways and taxiways and visual aids intended for operations with a
→ Geometric design of the run way and decision height not lower than 60 m (200 ft)
taxiway system and either a visibility not less than 800 m or a
Runways runway visual range not less than 550 m.

A runway is a rectangular area on the airport c) Precision approach runway, category II.

surface prepared for the takeoff and landing An instrument runway served by ILS and/or

of aircraft. An airport may have one runway MLS and visual aids intended for operations

or several runways which are sited, oriented, with a decision height lower than 60 m (200

and configured in a manner to provide for the ft) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a

safe and efficient use of the airport under a runway visual range not less than 300 m.

variety of conditions. Several of the factors d) Precision approach runway, category III.
which affect the location, orientation, and An instrument runway served by ILS and/or
number of runways at an airport include local MLS to and along the surface of the runway
weather conditions, particularly wind and:
distribution and visibility, the topography of
A — intended for operations with a decision
the airport and surrounding area, the type and
height lower than 30 m (100 ft), or no decision
amount of air traffic to be serviced at the
height and a runway visual range not less than
airport, aircraft performance requirements,
175 m.
and aircraft noise.
B — intended for operations with a decision
Runway Classification
height lower than 15 m (50 ft), or no decision
Non-instrument runway. A runway intended height and a runway visual range less than
for the operation of aircraft using visual 175 m but not less than 50 m.
approach procedures.
C — intended for operations with no decision
height and no runway visual range limitations.
Runway Configuration6 results in a slightly conservative usability
factor.
Runway Orientation

Siting and orientation of runways From Aerodrome design part 1

Many factors should be taken into account in The number and orientation of runways at an

the determination of the siting and orientation aerodrome should be such that the usability

of runways. Without attempting to provide an factor of the aerodrome is not less than 95 per

exhaustive list of these factors nor an analysis cent for the aeroplane that the aerodrome is

of their effects, it appears useful to indicate intended to serve.

those which most frequently require study. In the application of the 95 per cent usability
These factors may be classified under four factor it should be assumed that landing or
headings: take-off of aeroplanes is, in normal

Type of operation. Attention should be paid circumstances, precluded when the cross-

in particular to whether the aerodrome is to be wind component exceeds:

used in all meteorological conditions or only

in visual meteorological conditions, and
whether it is intended for use by day and
night, or only by day.

Climatological conditions. A study of the

wind distribution should be made to
determine the usability factor. In this regard, *the availability of a secondary runway;
the following comments should be taken into
*the width of runways;
account:
*the runway surface conditions — water,
*Wind statistics used for the calculation of the
snow and ice on the runway materially reduce
usability factor are normally available in
the allowable crosswind component; and
ranges of speed and direction, and the
accuracy of the results obtained depends, to a *the strength of the wind associated with the

large extent, on the assumed distribution of limiting crosswind component.

observations within these ranges. In the Topography of the aerodrome site, its
absence of any sure information as to the true approaches, and surroundings, particularly:
distribution, it is usual to assume a uniform
*compliance with the obstacle limitation
distribution since, in relation to the most
surfaces;
favourable runway orientations, this generally

6
See airfield configuration
*current and future land use. The orientation adequate runway length is provided for
and layout should be selected so as to protect landing. The length of a clearway, however,
as far as possible the particularly sensitive cannot exceed half the length of take-off run
areas such as residential, school and hospital available.
zones from the discomfort caused by aircraft
THE WIND ROSE
noise.
The appropriate orientation of the runway or
*current and future runway lengths to be runways at an airport can be determined
provided; through graphical vector analysis using a
*construction costs; and wind rose. A standard wind rose consists of a
series of concentric circles cut by radial lines
*possibility of installing suitable non-visual
using polar coordinate graph paper. The radial
and visual aids for approach-to-land.
lines are drawn to the scale of the wind
Air traffic in the vicinity of the aerodrome,
magnitude such that the area between each
particularly:
pair of successive lines is centered on the
*proximity of other aerodromes or ATS wind direction. A typical wind rose polar
routes; traffic density; and coordinate system is shown (see figure

*air traffic control and missed approach below). The shaded area indicates that the

procedures. wind comes from the southeast (SE) with a

magnitude between 20 and 25 mi/h. A
Number of runways in each direction
template is also drawn to the same radial scale
The number of runways to be provided in representing the crosswind component limits.
each direction depends on the number of A template drawn with crosswind component
aircraft movements to be catered to. limits of 15 mi/h is shown on the right side of
Clearways and stopways Fig.5. On this template three equally spaced
parallel lines have been plotted. The middle
The decision to provide a stopway and/or a
line represents the runway centerline, and the
clearway as an alternative to an increased
distance between the middle line and each
length of runway will depend on the physical
outside line is, to scale, the allowable
characteristics of the area beyond the runway
crosswind component (in this case, 15 mi/h).
end, and on the operating performance
The template is placed over the wind rose in
requirements of the prospective aeroplanes.
such a manner that the centerline on the
The runway, stopway and clearway lengths to
template passes through the center of the wind
be provided are determined by the aeroplane
rose.
take-off performance, but a check should also
be made of the landing distance required by By overlaying the template on the wind rose
the aeroplanes using the runway to ensure that and rotating the centerline of the template
through the origin of the wind rose one may *performance characteristics and operating
determine the percentage of time a runway in masses of the aeroplanes to be served;
the direction of the centerline of the template *weather, particularly surface wind and
can be used such that the crosswind temperature;
component does not exceed 15 mi/h.
*runway characteristics such as slope and
Optimum runway directions can be
surface condition; and
determined from this wind rose by the use of
the template, typically made on a transparent *aerodrome location factors, for example,
strip of material. With the center of the wind aerodrome elevation which affects the
rose as a pivot point, the template is rotated barometric pressure and topographical
until the sum of the percentages included constraints.
between the outer lines is a maximum. If a Calculation Of Declared Distances7
wind vector from a segment lies outside either
The declared distances to be calculated for
outer line on the template for the given
each runway direction comprise: the take-off
direction of the runway, that wind vector must
run available (TORA), take-off distance
have a crosswind component which exceeds
available (TODA), accelerate-stop distance
the allowable crosswind component plotted
available (ASDA), and landing distance
on the template. When one of the outer lines
available (LDA).
on the template divides a segment of wind
direction, the fractional part is estimated Where a runway is not provided with a

visually to the nearest 0.1 percent. This stopway or clearway and the threshold is

procedure is consistent with the accuracy of located at the extremity of the runway, the

the wind data and assumes that the wind four declared distances should normally be

percentage within the sector is uniformly equal to the length of the runway, as shown in

distributed within that sector. In practice, it is Figure A-1 (A).

usually easier to add the percentages Where a runway is provided with a clearway
contained in the sectors outside of the two (CWY), then the TODA will include the
outer parallel lines and subtract these from100 length of clearway, as shown in Figure A-1
percent to find the percentage of wind (B).
coverage.
Where a runway is provided with a stopway
Runway Length Considerations (SWY), then the ASDA will include the

Factors Affecting The Length Of Runways length of stopway, as shown in Figure A-1
(C).
Factors which have a bearing on the runway
length to be provided are:

7
See figure 7
Where a runway has a displaced threshold, required corrections should be obtained by
then the LDA will be reduced by the distance means of a specific study. The operational
the threshold is displaced, as shown in Figure characteristics of certain aeroplanes may
A-1 (D). A displaced threshold affects only indicate that these correction constants for
the LDA for approaches made to that elevation and temperature are not appropriate,
threshold; all declared distances for and that they may need to be modified by
operations in the reciprocal direction are results of aeronautical study based upon
unaffected. conditions existing at the particular site and
the operating requirements of such
Runway Length Corrections For
aeroplanes.
Elevation, Temperature And Slope
Longitudinal slopes8
When the appropriate flight manual is not
available the runway length must be The slope computed by dividing the
determined by applying general correction difference between the maximum and
factors. As a first step, a basic length should minimum elevation
be selected for the runway adequate to meet along the runway centre line by the runway
the operational requirements of the aeroplanes length should not exceed:
for which the runway is intended.
— 1 per cent where the code number is 3 or
This basic length is a runway length selected 4; and— 2 per cent where the code number is
for aerodrome planning purposes which is 1 or 2.
required for take-off or landing under
*Along no portion of a runway should the
standard atmospheric conditions for zero
longitudinal slope exceed:
elevation, zero wind and zero runway slope.
— 1.25 per cent where the code number is 4,
*The basic length selected for the runway
except that for the first and last quarter of the
should be increased at the rate of 7 per cent
length of the runway the longitudinal slope
per 300 m elevation.
should not exceed 0.8 per cent;
*The length of runway determined above
— 1.5 per cent where the code number is 3,
should be further increased at the rate of 1
except that for the first and last quarter of the
percent for every 1°C by which the aerodrome
length of a precision approach runway
reference temperature exceeds the
category II or III the longitudinal slope should
temperature in the standard atmosphere for
not exceed 0.8 per cent; and— 2 per cent
the aerodrome elevation. If, however, the
where the code number is 1 or 2.
total correction for elevation and
temperature exceeds 35 per cent, the

8
See figure 8
9
The width of a runway should be not less the outer main wheels of the aeroplane and the
than the appropriate dimension specified in edge of the taxiway should not be less than
the following tabulation: those specified.

TAXIWAY10, HOLDING BAY Rapid Exit Taxiways (Rets)

AND APRON
General
Taxiways should be provided to permit the
A rapid exit taxiway is a taxiway connected to
safe and expeditious surface movement of
a runway at an acute angle and designed to
aircraft.
allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher
Sufficient entrance and exit taxiways for a speeds than those achieved on other exit
runway should be provided to expedite the taxiways, thereby minimizing runway
movement of aeroplanes to and from the occupancy time.
runway and provision of rapid exit taxiways
A decision to design and construct a rapid exit
considered when traffic volumes are high.
taxiway is based upon analyses of existing
Recommendation.— The design of a taxiway and contemplated traffic. The main purpose of
should be such that, when the cockpit of the these taxiways is to minimize aircraft runway
aeroplane for which the taxiway is intended occupancy and thus increase aerodrome
remains over the taxiway centre line capacity. When the design peak hour traffic
markings, the clearance distance between the density is approximately less than 25
outer main wheel of the aeroplane and the operations (landings and take-offs), the right
edge of the taxiway should be not less than angle exit taxiway may suffice. The
that given (see code) construction of this right angle exit taxiway is
11
Figure- Taxiway on apron less expensive, and when properly located
along the runway, achieves an efficient flow
Taxiway curves
of traffic.
Changes in direction of taxiways should be as
Figure – Rapid exit taxiway
few and small as possible. The radii of the
curves should be compatible with the Holding Bays And Other Bypasses

manoeuvring capability and normal taxiing NEED FOR HOLDING BAYS AND
speeds of the aeroplanes for which the OTHER BYPASSES
taxiway is intended. The design of the curve Departure Sequence, states that “departures
should be such that, when the cockpit of the
shall normally be cleared in the order in which
aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre they are ready for take-off, except that
line markings, the clearance distance between

9 11
See figure 9 See figure
10
Refer attached sheet
deviations may be made from this order of b) aircraft to carry out pre-flight altimeter
priority to facilitate the maximum number of checks and alignment and programming of
departures with the least average delay”. At airborne inertial navigation systems when this
low levels of aerodrome activity (less than is not possible on the apron;
approximately 50 000 annual operations),
Types Of Bypasses
there is normally little need to make
In general, taxiway features that allow an
deviations in the departure sequence.
aircraft to bypass a preceding aircraft can be
However, for higher activity levels,
divided into three types:
aerodromes with single taxiways and no
holding bays or other bypasses provide a) Holding bays. A defined area where aircraft
aerodrome control units with no opportunity can be held or bypassed. Figure 2-1 shows
to change the sequence of departures once the some examples of holding bay configurations
aircraft have left the apron. In particular, at and Figure 2-2 gives a detailed example of a
aerodromes with large apron areas, it is often holding bay, located at the taxi-holding
difficult to arrange for aircraft to leave the position.
apron in such a way that they will arrive at the b) Dual taxiways. A second taxiway or a
end of the runway in the sequence required by taxiway bypass to the normal parallel
air traffic services units. taxiway. Figure 2-3 shows some examples.
The provision of an adequate number of c) Dual runway entrances. A duplication of
holding bay spaces or other bypasses, based the taxiway entrance to the runway. Some
upon an analysis of the current and near-term examples are shown in Figure 2-4.
hourly aircraft departure demand, will allow a
If a holding bay is used, aircraft can, on the
large degree of flexibility in generating the
basis of their priority, take off in the order as
departure sequence. This provides air traffic
cleared by ATC. The availability of a holding
services units with greater flexibility in
bay allows aircraft to leave and independently
adjusting the take-off sequence to overcome
re-enter the departure stream. A detailed
undue delays, thus increasing the capacity of
example of the pavement area for a holding
an aerodrome. In addition, holding bays or
bay located at the taxi-holding position is
other bypasses allow:
shown in Figure 2-2.
a) departure of certain aircraft to be delayed
APRONS
owing to unforeseen circumstances without
An apron is a defined area intended to
delaying the following aircraft (for instance, a
accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading
last minute addition to the payload or a
and unloading passengers, mail or cargo,
replacement of defective equipment);
fuelling and parking or maintenance. The
apron is generally paved but may occasionally
be unpaved; for example, in some instances, a them as is practical to minimize the time for
turf parking apron may be adequate for small passenger loading/unloading as well as from
aircraft. a security point of view.

Types Of Aprons Service and hangar aprons

Passenger terminal apron A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent

The passenger terminal apron is an area to an aircraft hangar on which aircraft

designed for aircraft manoeuvring and maintenance can be performed, while a

parking that is adjacent or readily accessible hangar apron is an area on which aircraft

to passenger terminal facilities. This area is move into and out of a storage hangar.

where passengers board the aircraft from the General aviation aprons
passenger terminal. In addition to facilitating
General aviation aircraft, used for business or
passenger movement, the passenger terminal
personal flying, require several categories of
apron is used for aircraft fuelling and
aprons to support different general aviation
maintenance as well as loading and unloading
activities.
cargo, mail and baggage. Individual aircraft
Size of Aprons
parking positions on the passenger terminal
apron are referred to as aircraft stands. The amount of area required for a particular
apron layout depends upon the following
Cargo terminal apron
factors:
Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may
→ the size and manoeuvrability
be provided a separate cargo terminal apron
characteristics of the aircraft using the
adjacent to a cargo terminal building. The
apron;
separation of cargo and passenger aircraft is
→ the volume of traffic using the apron;
desirable because of the different types of
→ clearance requirements;
facilities each requires both on the apron and
→ type of ingress and egress to the
at the terminal.
aircraft stand;
Remote parking apron
→ basic terminal layout or other airport
In addition to the terminal apron, airports may use (see 3.3);
require a separate parking apron where → aircraft ground activity requirements;
aircraft can park for extended periods. These and
aprons can be used during crew layovers or → taxiways and service roads.
for light periodic servicing and maintenance
of temporarily grounded aircraft. While TERMINAL FACILITIES
parking aprons are removed from the terminal
The airport terminal area, comprised of
aprons, they should be located as close to
passenger and cargo terminal buildings,
aircraft parking, loading, unloading, and • Coordination and planning of ground access
service areas such as passenger service infrastructure
facilities, automobile parking, and public • Access from the airport boundary to parking
transit stations, is a vital component to the areas and passenger unloading curbs at the
airport system. The primary goal of an airport terminal building
is to provide passengers and cargo access to
• Vehicle parking facilities
air transportation, and thus the terminal area
achieves the goal of the airport by providing • Off-airport parking
the vital link between the airside of the airport • Employee parking
and the landside. The terminal area provides
• Car rental parking
the facilities, procedures, and processes to
efficiently move crew, passengers, and cargo • Terminal curbs

onto, and off of, commercial and general Functions of passenger terminal
aviation aircraft.
Change of mode: few air trips are made direct
Components of the airport terminal from origin to destination. By their nature, air

• The apron and gate system trips are mixed mode trips, with surface
access trips linked at either end to the line haul
• Aircraft gate management
air trips. These movement patterns are
• The passenger handling system accommodated by passenger circulation
• Passengers and their required processing areas.
facilities Processing: the terminal is a convenient point
• Ticketing to carry out certain processes associated with
air trip. These may include ticketing and
• Security screening
checking in the passengers. This function of
• At-gate processing the terminal requires passenger processing
• Ancillary passenger terminal facilities space.

• Baggage handling Change of movement type: although aircraft

move passengers in discrete groups in what is
• Security screening of checked baggage
termed "batch movements", the same
Baggage claim
passengers access the airport on an almost
• Airport ground access continuous basis, arriving and departing in

• Access from the CBD and suburban areas to small groups mainly by bus, auto, taxi and etc.

the airport boundary Components of the airport terminal

• Access modes
The airport terminal area is in the unique activities that take place within this
position of accommodating the needs of both component.
aircraft and the passengers that board them. → The processing component where the
As such, the component systems of the airport passenger is processed in preparation
terminal area may be thought of as falling into for starting, ending, or continuation of
two primary categories: the apron and gate an air transportation trip. The primary
system, which is planned and managed activities that take place within this
according to the characteristics of aircraft, and component are ticketing, baggage
the passenger and baggage handling systems, check-in, baggage claim, seat
which are planned and managed to assignment, federal inspection
accommodate the needs of passengers and services, and security.
their baggage in their transition to or from the → The flight interface where the
aircraft. passenger transfers from the
processing component to the aircraft.
The Passenger Terminal System
The activities that occur here include
The passenger terminal system is the major
assembly, conveyance to and from the
connection between the ground access system
aircraft, and aircraft loading and
and the aircraft. The purpose of this system is
unloading. A number of facilities are
to provide the interface between the passenger
provided to perform the functions of
airport access mode, to process the passenger
the passenger terminal system.
for origination, termination, or continuation
of an air transportation trip, and convey the Overall Space Requirements

passenger and baggage to and from the Guidelines have been presented above for the
aircraft. approximate space requirements for the
various components in passenger terminal
Components of the System
facilities. Once the facilities have been
The passenger terminal system is composed
estimated one might compare the space
of three major components. These
requirements to the approximations given in
components and the activities that occur
Table (see table). The values in this table
within them are as follows:
present overall space requirements which
→ The access interface where the should provide a reasonable level of service
passenger transfers from the access and a tolerable occupancy level for the
mode of travel to the passenger various facilities indicated.
processing component. Circulation,
INTRODUCTION TO AIRFIELD
parking, and curbside loading and
PAVEMENTS
unloading of passengers are the
Pavement or pavement structure is a structure Problem # 3 what are the characteristics of
consisting of one or more layers of processed aircraft? Discuss on types of engine, weight,
materials. A pavement consisting of a mixture size, and landing gear configuration.
of bituminous material and aggregate placed Problem # 4 Discuss the wind factor as it
on high quality granular materials is referred affects the aircraft performance
to as flexible pavement. When the pavement
Problem # 5 Discuss the factors to be
consists of a slab of portland cement concrete
considered for airport site selection
(PCC), it is referred to as rigid pavement.
Both structures of pavement are typically Problem # 6 Define wind rose diagram and
found at airports, although often there are discuss its importance in orientation of
preferences to a given type of pavement runway
depending on such factors as the type and Problem # 7 what are the factors affecting
frequency of aircraft usage, climatic runway sitting and orientation
conditions, and costs of construction and
Problem # 8 what factors affect runway
maintenance.
length? Discuss on methods of runway length
Methods of Design computations.
FAA Methods Problem # 9 Define the types of declared
Equivalent aircraft method distances. Why are these distances important?

Cumulative damage failure method Problem # 10 Define the principle of airport

layout. What are the features of good airport
Flexible pavements
layout?
CBR method
Problem # 11 list the facilities to be provided
Elastic layer theory in an airport.
Rigid pavements Problem # 12 Discuss the types of apron
Westergaards theory Problem # 13 what is the basis for air traffic
Finite element method forecast? Discuss various models of
forecasting with suitable example.
PROBLEMS
Problem # 14 what is the purpose of airport
Problem#1 Define the following terms-
terminal facilities? Discuss major terminal
aerodrome, runway, apron, taxiway, holding
facilities with specific use.
bay, instrument runway, non-instrument
runway, airport, aircraft. Problem # 15 Discuss on design standards for-
runway, exit taxiway and rapid exit taxiway.
Problem # 2 Discuss on aerodrome
classification by ICAO and FAA
Table 1 – ICAO Classification code

Figure 1
Figure 2 Turning radius

Figure 3
Table 3 –aircraft classification –ICAO

Table 4
Figure: 4 Components of airport system

Figure- slope changes

Figure 5- wind rose diagrams
Figure 7 Declared distance

Figure- Taxiway apron

Table- taxiway curve Radius

Figure- Taxiway curve

Figure- Taxiway Width

Figure – Rapid exit taxiway
Figure- Terminal design concept (FAA)

Table- space requirement

 1/19/2013

vRopeway- a rope based transport system

vOldest means
Ropeways in Nepal vTransport of goods and human since 250 BC in
china
vModern ropeway- commenced in Europe
Elective course CH-7
vGermany, australia, switzerland
Transportation planning and
vLater in italy and france
Engineering
vPassenger ropeway in 1616 in venice

Prem N Bastola/2013

In Nepal
vFirst operational ropeway system- Wybe vIn 1924 to carry stones from the quarry from
Adam, Dutchman in 1664 Halchowk to lainchaur -4km for construction
vRapid development after introduction of wire of Rana palaces
ropes. v1927-dhorsing [bhimphedi] to matatirtha
vSteel ropes – during industrial revolution by [kathmandu] 22 km
german in 1834 vExtended to teku [+6.5km] in 1947
vHetauda to kathmandu- 45km in 1964- to
transport cement from the factory in hetuda

Kathmandu hetauda Built by America, in operation

upto 1994

vDue to issues of management, operation- it is

not currently in operation
vPractical action Nepal office initiated a study
on ropeways in 1994
vBarpak- Rangrun goods ropeway -2.5km in
1998 in Gorkha district- operated by micro
hydro plant
vA fatal accident –death of a traveler on the
trolley- from then – not in operation

1
 1/19/2013

Wire bridge (tuin) are indigenous technology for river

crossing – kallery village dhading

Gravity ropeways
vSimplest form of ropeway transport vTransport of local products from villages to
markets
vVarious types of gravity ropeways being used
for transport of timber in mountainous vIn operation in many parts of himanchal and
countries like Switzerland uttaranchal states of India for transporting goods.
vTransport of timber from forest and stones
from quarry vMarpha of mustang district in 2001 by practical
action nepal office [pano] in conjunction with
vStill used for crossing river in Columbia and ICIMOD [international centre for integrated
Latin America. mountain development]

vFirst of its kind in nepal

vUsed for transporting apple from orchards

vPANO- promoting as a complementary means

of transport in rural nepal

2
 1/19/2013

Crucial infrastructure to address harass life

• Nepal the land of mountain , Himalayas , • Problems in food supply, health facilities , schools
, important markets and other essential services.
• Topography extremely rugged and
• Till people are largely depend on traditional river
crisscrossed by numerous untamed river . crossing.
About 6000 river and rivulets . • Loss of life and economy in every year .
• Majority of population in hilly area of the • Road transport in rugged , young and fragile
country are not accessible by motorized topography lean environmental degradation and
vehicle. dusty .
• During monsoon whole area of hinterland are • Nepal has robust potential to be tourism
destination .
cut off from the road network.

In summary…….. Emphasis to rural community

vGravity ropeway can be promising alternatives vRural economy largely based on agricultural
vMountains and hilly terrain products
vRelatively lower in cost compared to other modes
vSimple technology
vRural mass facing severe problems to access –
vLow operating costs administration, school, health posts and
vNo external fuel or power markets
vNo pollution vSubstantial agricultural products perish each
vLess construction works year
vSimple foundations
vTravel time- very low such as 2 min
vNo harm to the existing ecology

Ropeway Mechanics
vWorks on very simple pulley system vLoaded trolley rolls down by its own weight
vConsists of two trolleys along one track from upper station
vTrolleys role over two separate steel wire ropes[ vOther trolley with light weight at bottom
track ropes] station hauls up along the next track
vTwo towers at the top and bottom vSimple wooden/ rubber brake shoe fitted to
vTrolleys connected to a single looped wire the sheave at lower station
[hauling rope] –smaller diameter vThumb rule = the weight ration is 3:1
vHauling rope passes around a cast iron sheave at vLoading ratio depends upon slope of the site,
top and bottom stations installation precision etc

3
 1/19/2013

Features of gravity ropeway

v Cost effectiveness
vConstruction and installation is lessser then other
modes
vApprox 14 lakh per km, earthen road 30 lakh, and
paved road 1 crore
v Time saving
vTravel time few minutes

v Short route
vDifference in road and rail routes, gradient,
vStraight alignment

vEnergy efficient vSimple technology

vOperates solely from gravity force vSimple to use and operate
vNo external fuel vMaintained by local community
vSavings in import of fossil fuel
vNo experts except in survey and design
vEnvironment friendly vCan be carried out by local engineers
vno air pollution
vNo noise pollution
vNo impact on ecology vNominal operation and maintenance cost
vEIA not required for installation vRunning and maintenance costs are low

4
 1/19/2013

Limitations
vSpan vUp hauling capacity
vUsed mainly from hilly villages
vLimited to 1500m from experience vLimited capacity to haul from market to the village
vSpan greater than 1500 m tension due to self vD0wnward moving load 3 times than upward moving
weight plus energy loss due to friction will be high load
vSlope vLoading ratio
vSpeed function of loading ratio and slope
vGentle slope not applicable vCare should be taken to fix loading ratio
vAt least 15 degree for smooth operation vTrolley should approach the respective station with
minimum speed
vPreferable slope 20 to 30 degrees
vExcess speed can hamper the safety

Planning Scenario
vProper institutional arrangement vCentral government responsible to formulate
vClear roles and responsibility of policies
– Central government vEstablish at national infrastructure for
– Private sectors development
– NGOs
– Beneficiary community

Policy level
v DoLIDAR/MoLD
DoLIDAR/MoLD vPolicies and strategy formulation
vTechnical guideline preparation and optimization
v INGO
vGeneration of knowledge

INGO DDC vBest practices

vadvocacy
v DDC
vIncorporate in fiscal plan
Universities/ vRecommend for budget
Peoples
independent community vResource allocation
representative
research institute

5
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Planning level
vPeoples representative vPlanning level mostly involves the local
vRaise concern governemnt
vadvocate vNGO and INGO facilators
vUniversities vLocal line agencies coordinators
vIndependent study and research vCommunity main beneficiaries
vCommunity
vNetworking and lobbying for resource allocation
vPlanning follows bottom up approach

Levels of planning Acronyms

District council
üCBO- community based organization
üDADO- district agriculture development office
üDDC –
DDC/DTO
üDFO-
üDLSO- district livestock service office
DADO/DFO/DLSO VDC
üDTMP- district transport master plan
üOITAF- international organization for
CBO transportation by rope

v District Council vVDC

vDTMP
vPeriodic plan vReflection into VDC annual plan
vAnnual plan vScreening of demand
v DDC
vForward to DDC
vCheck technical viability
vRecommendation for resource allocation vCBO
v DADO vDemand and need assessment
vLine agencies
vDemand verification vDecision making in resource allocation
vrecommendation