S#14 - BLOOD

Functions of Blood:

1.Transport of gases, nutrients and waste products

2.Transport of processed molecules
and osmosis
3. Transport of regulatory molecules such as hormones and enzymes
4.Regulation of pH (normal limits of 7.35- 7.45) and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
hormones & enzymes
6. Protection against foreign substances
7. Clot formation

Blood - a type of connective tissue; consists of liquid matrix (plasma) containing cells &
cell fragments (formed elements)
*makes up about 8% of total body weight
*total blood volume is about 4-5 L in average adult female & 5-6 L in average adult male
*plasma accounts for 55% & formed elements for 45% of total blood volume

PLASMA- a pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells; contains dissolved proteins that
include:
1.Albumin- helps in water balance determined by the movement of water into &
out of blood by osmosis.
2.Globulin-includes antibodies & complement as part of immune system;
transports molecules & carries to blood; some are clotting factors necessary for blood clot
formation.

Fibrinogen - a clotting factor; activation converts it to fibrin, a threadlike protein that

forms blood clots

Serum - a plasma without the clotting factors

Hematopoiesis - process that produces formed elements

✓in infant,occurs in liver, thymus gland, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone
marrow; continuous throughout life.
✓Hemocytoblast/Stem Cell - a single population of cells where all the formed
elements are derived
 ✓Growth Factor-determine the types of formed elements derived from stem cells
& how many are produced

Red Blood Cell (RBC)/Erythrocyte

✓loses nuclei & most organelles during development
✓lives for about 120 days in males & 110 days in females
✓1/3 of its volume is the pigmented protein hemoglobin, which is responsible for red
color

Hemoglobin - each consists of four globin chains & four heme groups (1 globin: 1
heme); each heme contains one iron atom necessary to reversibly bind to an oxygen
molecule.
⁃ Bright red hemoglobin if bound to O2; darker red if no O2
⁃ 98.5% of O2 is bound to hemoglobin, the rest dissolved in plasma
⁃ Carbon Monoxide - a gas produced by incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons;
can bind more readily than oxygen & does not tend to unbind in iron resulting to
dysfunction of hemoglobin; may lead to nausea, headache, unconsciousness, & death
⁃ Carbon Dioxide - produced in tissues & transported in blood tQ lungs to be
removed; involves bicarbonate ions, hemoglobin, and plasma; excreted by the body
through:
1. Carbonic Anhydrase - an enzyme found in RBC that catalyzes a reaction that
converts CO2 & H2O into H+ & HCOз*; approximately 70% of CO2 is
transported in the form of HCO3. 2. 23% of
CO2 binds reversibly to globin part of hemoglobin 3. 7% of CO2 is
transported dissolved in plasma

Proerythroblasts-stem cells which give rise to RBC line; production is stimulated by

low blood oxygen levels & depends on presence of several vitamins:
⁃ B vitamins (folate & B12) - for synthesis of DNA
⁃ Iron - for production of hemoglobin

Erythropoietin (EPO) - produced by the kidney in response to low blood oxygen levels;
stimulates the red bone marrow to produce more RBCs.

Bilirubin - a yellow pigment molecule from conversion of heme molecules in

hemoglobin breakdown;
normally removed from blood by liver & released into small intestines as bile.

White Blood Cell (WBC) / Leukocyte - makes up the buffy coat together with plasma;
can leave the blood & travel by ameboid movement through tissues; has two main
functions:
1. To protect the body against invading microorganisms & pathogens
2. To remove dead cells & debris from tissues by phagocytosis

Two Cell Types according to Appearance in Stained Preparations:

⁃ Granulocytes-containing large cytoplasmic granules (neutrophil, basophil, &
eosinophil)
⁃ Agranulocytes - with very small granules (leukocyte & monocyte).

Pus-accumulation of dead neutrophils, cell debris, and fluid at sites of infections

Platelet/Thrombocyte - produced in red marrow from large cells, the megakaryocytes

Three Processes in Preventing Blood Loss:

1. Vascular Spasm - temporary constriction of blood vessels; stimulated by chemicals

released by cells of damaged blood vessel wall & by platelets (ex: thromboxanes &
endothelin)

2.Platelet Plug Formation - seals up small break in blood vessels

💛Platelet Adhesion: phenomenon where the platelets stick to collagen exposed by

blood vessel damage

💛von Willebrand Factor: a protein produced & secreted by blood vessel endothelial
cells; forms a bridge between collagen & platelets by binding to platelet surface
receptors& collagen

💛Platelet Release Reaction:a cascade of chemical release that activates many

platelets

💛Fibrinogen Receptor: bind to fibrinogen as platelets become activated

💛Platelet Aggregation: results in platelet plug as the fibrinogen forms bridges

between fibrinogen receptors of numerous platelets

3.Blood Clotting/Coagulation - formation of clot that depends on a number of proteins

found within plasma, called clotting factors

💛Clot: a network of threadlike fibrin that traps blood cells, platelets, & fluid

💛Vitamin K: required in the synthesis of most clotting factors in liver; can get
from diet & from bacteria within the large intestines in humans
 💛Control is necessary in clotting to prevent unwanted clots, thrombus (an attached
clot)& embolus (a clot on loose & floating through circulation)

⏺Anticoagulants - prevent clotting factors from forming clots under

normal conditions

💛Clot Retraction: process where formed clots begin to condense into more
compact structure; serum is squeezed out of clot; work to stop the blood flow,
reduce probability of infection, & helps enhance healing

💛Fibrinolysis: process of dissolving clot

Transfusion - transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another.

⁃ Donor: person who gives the blood
⁃ Recipient: person who receives the blood with same blood type from donor.

Infusion - the introduction of fluid other than blood, such as saline & glucose, into the
blood.

Transfusion Reaction-characterized by clumping or ruptured blood cells & clotting

within blood vessels; caused by interactions between two molecules:

⏺Antigens (Ag) - found in surfaces of RBC

⏺Antibodies (Ab) - proteins in plasma; very specific & can only bind to certain
antigen

Agglutination - clumping of cells; antibodies bind to antigens forming molecular bridges

Hemolysis-a reaction that causes rupture of RBC in incompatible Ag-Ab binding

Blood Groupings:
1. ABO Blood Group - a system used to categorize human blood

⏺Two types of antigen appear, Type A & Type B antigens, which are genetically
determined

⏺Anti-A & Anti-B antibodies are not found in plasma until 2 months after birth.
2. Rh Blood Group-divided to Rh-positive (have Rh antigens on surface of RBC) &
Rh-negative (no Rh antigens)

⏺Expressed together with ABO blood group (ex: Blood Type A & Rh-positive is
termed to be A-positive)

⏺AB-negative is the rarest combination of blood type

⏺Antibodies only develop if a Rh-negative person is exposed to Rh-positive RBC

by transfusion or across placenta to mother from fetus
⁃ First time interaction makes the Rh-negative person sensitized to Rh antigens &
produced anti-Rh antibodies. After that, any repeat in exposing Rh-negative person to
Rh-positive blood may cause transfusion reaction.
⁃ Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)/ Erythroblastosis Fetalis - a
disorder of-Rh incompatibility that occurs when the mother is Rh-negative & fetus is Rh-
positive; no problem in first pregnancy but can be fatal to fetus in later pregnancies.
⁃ Rho(D) immune globulin (RhoGAM) - antibodies against Rh antigens that is
used as prevention of HDN; injection can be given during the pregnancy, before delivery,
or immediately after each delivery, miscarriage, or abortion.

Diagnostic Blood Tests:

⁃ 1. Type and Crossmatch - done to identify the blood group of blood recipient &
donor.

⏺Blood Typing-determines the ABO and Rh blood groups of blood sample;

presence of agglutination identifies the antigens on RBC.

⏺Crossmatch - tests for agglutination reactions between donor & recipients blood;
donor's blood is considered safe for transfusion only if no agglutination occurs in
either match.
⁃
⁃ 2. Complete Blood Count - analysis of blood that consists of:
3. Differential White Blood Count - determines the percentage of each of five kinds of
WBC.

💛Neutrophils: 60-70%

💛Eosinophils: 2-4%

💛Lymphocytes: 20-25%

💛Basophils: 0.5-1%

💛Monocytes: 3-8%

4. Clotting -has two common ways to measure the ability to clot:

⁃ Platelet Count-normal is 250,000-400,000 platelets/μL of blood
⁃ Prothrombin Time Measurement - calculates how long it takes for the blood to
start clotting, which is normally 9-12 seconds; officially reported as International
Normalized Ratio (INR),which standardizes the time it takes to clot

5. Blood Chemistry-the composition of materials dissolved or suspended in plasma

(glucose, urea nitrogen,bilirubin &cholesterol) can be used to assess the functioning and
status of a body's systems.

Diseases and Disorder of Blood: