Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 1: Forces and Motion

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Acceleration:​ The rate of change of velocity. It can be calculated from the gradient of a
velocity-time graph.

Balanced Forces:​ A resultant force of zero.

Braking Distance: ​The distance a vehicle travels under the braking force. This can be
affected by adverse road and weather conditions as well as the condition of the vehicle.

*Changes of Momentum: ​When a force acts on a moving object, or on an object that

has the ability to move, a change of momentum will occur. The force is equal to the
rate of change of momentum.

*Conservation of Momentum:​ ​The total momentum of a system before an event is

always equal to the total momentum of the system after the event.

Contact Force:​ A force that acts on an object through physical contact.

*Crumple Zone:​ ​A vehicle safety feature that compresses during a collision. It

increases the time over which the momentum change occurs, and so reduces the
force experienced by the occupants.

Distance-Time Graph: ​A plot of how an object’s distance changes over time. The gradient of
the graph at any point, equals the object’s speed at that point.

Distance: ​A measure of how far an object moves. It doesn’t depend on direction and is
therefore a scalar quantity.

Distortion:​ The changing of an object’s size or shape as a result of a deforming force.

Elastic Deformation: ​A non-permanent deformation for which the object will return to its
original shape when the deforming forces are removed.

Elastic Limit:​ The force beyond which an object will no longer deform elastically, and will
instead deform plastically.
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Equilibrium: ​An object is in equilibrium if the resultant force ​and resultant moment ​are both
equal to zero.

Friction: ​A resistive contact force that acts to oppose the relative motion between two
surfaces.

Hooke’s Law:​ The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied to it, up
to the limit of proportionality. The constant in this relationship is known as the spring
constant.

Human Reaction Time: ​The time it takes for the brain to react to a stimulus. Typical human
reaction times are in the range of 0.2-0.9 seconds.

Limit of Proportionality: ​The point beyond which the extension of an elastic object is no
longer directly proportional to the force applied to it.

Linear Relationship: ​A relationship between two variables where if one variable increases,
so does the other by the same factor. They produce straight lines when plotted.

*Moment:​ ​The turning effect of a force, equal to the product of the magnitude of the
force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.

*Momentum:​ ​The product of an object’s mass and velocity.

Newton Meter:​ A device used to measure the magnitude of a force. It is commonly used to
measure an object’s weight.

*Newton Metre:​ ​The unit of a moment.

Newton:​ The unit of force.

Newton’s First Law: ​If a stationary object’s resultant force is zero, the object will remain
stationary. If a moving object’s resultant force is zero, the object will continue to move at a
constant velocity (same speed and direction).

Newton’s Second Law: ​An object’s acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force
acting on it, and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.

Newton’s Third Law: ​The forces that two objects exert on each other when they interact are
equal and opposite.

Non-Contact Force: ​A force that acts on an object at a distance. There is no physical

contact, and instead the force acts through a field.

Plastic Deformation:​ A permanent deformation for which the object will no longer return to
its original shape when the deforming forces are removed.

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*Principle of Moments: ​For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise
moments about any point on the object must equal the anticlockwise moments about
that same point.

Resultant Force: ​The single force that can replace all the individual forces acting on an
object, and have the same effect.

*Resultant Moment:​ ​The single moment that has the same effect as the sum of all the
other clockwise and anticlockwise moments acting on an object.

Scalar Quantities: ​Quantities that only have a magnitude, not a direction.

*Seat Belt:​ ​A vehicle safety device that increases the time over which the momentum
change occurs during a collision, and so reduces the force experienced by the wearer.

Spring Constant: ​A measure of a spring’s stiffness. The higher the spring constant, the
smaller the extension is for a given force.

Stopping Distance:​ The sum of the thinking and braking distances.

Terminal Velocity:​ The maximum velocity an object can reach when falling through a fluid. It
occurs when the resistive forces equal the object’s weight.

Thinking Distance: ​The distance a vehicle travels during the driver’s reaction time. This
reaction time may be affected by tiredness, drugs or alcohol.

Vector Quantities:​ Quantities that have both a magnitude and direction. They are
represented by an arrow, with the length representing the magnitude and the arrowhead
representing the direction.

Velocity-Time Graph:​ A plot of how an object’s velocity changes over time. The gradient at
any point, equals the object’s acceleration at that point. The area under the graph equals the
object’s displacement.

Velocity: ​A vector quantity that is a measure of the rate of change of displacement. It is the
speed in a given direction.

Weight: ​The force acting on an object due to gravity. It is equal to the product of the object’s
mass and the gravitational field strength at its location.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 1: Forces and Motion

Summary Notes
(Content in bold is for physics only)

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Movement and position

• Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. If the speed of something is
changing, it is accelerating. The acceleration of free fall near to the Earth is constant.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
• Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣−𝑢
• 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎= 𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
• (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)2 = (𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)2 + (2 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
• Distance is measured in metres (m), time in seconds (s), speed and velocity in metres per
second (m/s), and acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2).

In a distance-time graph:

• The gradient is velocity

o Negative gradient is returning back to the
starting point
• A horizontal line means it is stationary
• If the distance is zero, it is back at the starting point
• A curved line means that the velocity is changing,
and it is accelerating.

In a velocity-time graph:

• The gradient is acceleration

o Negative gradient (i.e. negative acceleration)
is deceleration
• If the speed is zero, it is at rest
• A horizontal line means constant speed
• The area under the line is the distance travelled
• A curved line means that the acceleration is
changing.

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Forces, movement, shape and momentum
Vectors & scalars:

• A vector has magnitude and direction

• A scalar has just a magnitude

Examples:

Scalars Vectors
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Time Acceleration
Energy Force

Effects of forces:

Forces can change the speed, shape or direction of a body and they are measured in Newtons (N).
There are various different types of forces (e.g. gravitational, electrostatic).

Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating. Air
resistance is a form of friction.

To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they should be added
together if in the same direction and subtracted if in the opposite direction.

• Newton’s first law states that an object has a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.
• Newton’s second law states that 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
• Newton’s third law states that every action force has an equal and opposite reaction
force. For example, the force of the Earth’s gravity on an object is equal and
opposite to the force of the object’s gravity on the Earth.

Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object, measured in kilograms (kg). Weight is a
gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational field on a mass).

• 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

• The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10N/kg.
• The weight of an object acts through its centre of gravity.

For example, motion of a body falling in a uniform gravitational field:

• Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
• As it falls, it accelerates which increases its speed and hence air resistance
• This causes the resultant force downwards to decrease
• Therefore, the acceleration decreases, so it is not speeding up as quickly
• Eventually they are equal and opposite and balance so there is no resultant force
• So, there is no acceleration and the terminal velocity is reached

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When a driver notices a hazard:
• The distance travelled in the time between the driving realising he needs to brake and
actually pressing the brakes is called the thinking distance. Factors which increase the
thinking distance include:
o Greater speed
o Slower reaction time due to alcohol, tiredness or distractions. Reaction time can
also be increased by caffeine, which reduces the thinking distance.
• The distance travelled in the time between pressing the brakes and the vehicle coming to a
stop is called the braking distance. Factors which increase the stopping distance include:
o Greater speed or mass
o Poor road conditions (icy, wet) or car conditions (worn tires, worn brake pads)
• The stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance.

A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This is called deformation:

• Elastic deformation is when the object returns to its original shape when the load has been
removed, an example being a spring being stretched under normal usage.

Hooke’s law states that for a spring, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 where F is the force applied to the spring, k is the
spring constant, and x is the extension.

Linear (straight line) force-extension graph:

• Elastic deformation following Hooke’s law
o The point it stops being linear is called the
limit of proportionality. From then on, it
does not obey Hooke’s law.
• Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension graph:

• Deformation not following Hooke’s law
• After this region, it will fracture

The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect, measured in Newton metres (Nm).
• 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑭𝒅
• An object is in equilibrium when the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of
anticlockwise moments (the principle of moments) and there is no resultant force.
• For a horizontal beam supported at its ends, the upwards forces at the supports
change with the position of a heavy object placed on the beam. The nearer the heavy
object to a given support, the greater the force at that support.

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The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity:
• 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
• It is measured in kilogram metres per second (kgm/s).

The force exerted on an object is equal to its change in momentum over time:
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒎𝒗−𝒎𝒖
• 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝑭= 𝒕
• Safety features in cars work by increasing the time taken for the people in the car to
come to rest (i.e. there is the same change in momentum in a longer time, so the
force is reduced). For example, a seatbelt achieves this by stretching.

In a collision, the total momentum before is equal to the total momentum afterwards, known
as the principle of the conservation of momentum.

For example: a 10kg stationary gun is loaded with a 0.01kg bullet. It is fired, with the bullet
travelling at 100m/s. What is the recoil speed of the gun?

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒗
𝒗 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎/𝒔
So, the recoil speed is 0.1m/s (-0.1m/s is the velocity which is a vector, so we take the
magnitude of it as we are finding the speed).

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 Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 2: Electricity

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Alternating Current:​ Current flow consisting of charges that continually change direction.
These oscillations usually occur at a set frequency.

Ammeter:​ A device connected in series with a component to measure the current that flows
through it.

Ampere (Amp): ​The unit of current.

Circuit Breaker:​ A safety device that cuts off the power supply if a surge of current passes
through it. Circuit breakers can be reset and are quicker acting than fuses.

Conductor:​ ​A material that allows electrical charge to flow easily. Metals are particularly
good conductors due to the free electrons in their structures.

Coulomb: ​The unit of charge.

Currents at a Junction: ​The sum of the currents entering a junction must always equal the
sum of the currents leaving it. This is a consequence of the conservation of charge.

Diode:​ A component that only allows current to flow through in the forward direction. They
have very large resistances in the reverse direction.

Direct Current: ​Current flow consisting of charges flowing in a single direction only. Batteries
and cells provide direct current.

Earthing: ​The removal of excess charge by providing a low resistance path for electrons to
flow through.

Earth Wire: ​The green and yellow striped safety wire connected to metal casings, that
prevents an appliance from becoming live.

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Electric Current: ​The rate of flow of electrical charge. Its value is the same at any position in
a single closed loop. In metals, the charges that flow are electrons.

Energy Transfers in Circuits:​ Electrical energy is transferred to thermal energy when

current does work against a resistance. In metals this is a result of collisions between
electrons and ions.

Filament Lamp: ​A light emitting component consisting of an enclosed metal filament. Its
resistance increases as the filament’s temperature increases.

Fuse:​ A safety device consisting of a thin metal filament that melts and cuts off the power
supply if there is a surge in current. Fuses are connected to the live wire.

Insulator:​ ​A material that doesn’t allow electrical charge to flow.

*Lightning:​ ​A consequence of static charge building up in the clouds. Lightning

strikes are caused by the discharge of this charge.

*Like Charges: ​When two charges of the same polarity meet, they will repel.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):​ A light sensitive component whose resistance decreases
as its temperature increases.

Light Emitting Diode: ​A device that gives out light when a current flows through it. Current
can only flow through it in one direction, and a minimum voltage must be applied across it
before it illuminates.

Live Wire: ​The brown coloured wire that carries the alternating current from the supply in a
mains power supply.

Mains Electricity: ​An a.c supply, which in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz a value of 230V.

Neutral Wire: ​The blue coloured wire that completes the circuit in a mains power supply.

Ohmic Conductor:​ A conductor whose current flow is directly proportional to the potential
difference (voltage) across it, when held at a constant temperature.

Ohm: ​The unit of resistance.

Ohm’s Law:​ The current flowing through an Ohmic conductor at constant temperature is
directly proportional to the potential difference (voltage) across it.

Parallel:​ Components connected in parallel have the same potential difference (voltage)
across each component. The total current is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through
each component.

Potential Difference: ​The energy that is transferred per unit charge between two points in a

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circuit. It is often also called a voltage.

Power:​ The rate at which an appliance transfers energy. For a circuit component, it is equal
to the product of the current passing through it and the potential difference across it.

Resistance:​ A measure of the opposition to current flow.

Resistors in Parallel: ​The total resistance is less than the lowest individual resistance.

Resistors in Series: ​The total resistance is equal to the sum of the resistances of the
individual resistors.

Series:​ Components connected in series have the same current passing through each
component but share the total potential difference (voltage) of the power supply.

*Sparking: ​The transfer of electrons between two surfaces that have an imbalance of
charges. Sparking can be particularly dangerous in locations such as petrol pumps,
and so the pumps must be earthed.

*Static Charge: ​The charge caused by an imbalance of positive and negative charges
in, or on, an object’s surface. It is often caused by electrons being rubbed from one
surface onto another.

Thermistor: ​A temperature dependent component, whose resistance increases as its

temperature decreases.

*Unlike Charges:​ ​When two charges of opposite polarities meet, they will attract.

Volt: ​The unit of potential difference (voltage). One volt is equal to one joule per coulomb.

Voltmeter: ​A device that is connected in parallel with a component to measure the potential
difference (voltage) across it.

Watt: ​The unit of power.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 2: Electricity
Summary Notes
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Energy and voltage in circuits
Current

Current​ I is measured in ​amperes (A)​ and is the ​rate of flow of charge​ at a ​point​ in the circuit.
● The current is given by I=Q/t, where Q is measured in ​coulombs (C) ​and t in ​seconds (s).
● In metals, current is due to a ​flow of electrons.​ In solutions it can be the flow of ions.
Conventional current is the rate of flow of ​positive​ charge - this is in the ​opposite​ direction
to the flow of electrons because electrons are ​negatively​ charged.
● Current is ​conserved​ at a ​junction ​in a circuit because charge is always conserved.
● Current is measured with an ​ammeter ​connected in ​series ​with the component.

Potential difference

Potential difference ​V is measured in​ volts (V where 1 V = 1 JC​ ) ​and is the ​work done per unit
-1​

charge​ in moving​ between two points​ in a circuit.

● The potential difference is given by V=E/Q.
● It is measured with a ​voltmeter​ placed in​ parallel ​across the component.
● The higher the potential difference, the greater the current (​V = IR​).

Resistance

The ​resistance​ of a component is measured in ​ohms (Ω) ​and is given by the potential difference
across it divided by the current through it, i.e. ​R=V/I​. The greater the resistance, the harder it is for
current to flow through the component.

In an ​ohmic conductor ​(such as a ​resistor at a constant temperature​),​ ​the current is directly

proportional to the voltage (i.e. it has constant resistance). In a non-ohmic conductor (such as a
filament lamp​), the resistance changes as the voltage and current changes.

In a filament lamp, this is because as the ​current increases​ through the filament, so does the
temperature,​ which means ​electrons and ions vibrate more​ and ​collide more, increasing
resistance.

A​ thermistor​ is a resistor whose resistance decreases as the​ temperature​ increases.

A ​light dependent resistor​ is a resistor whose resistance decreases as ​light intensity​ increases.

Electric circuits

Series:
● Components are connected ​end to end​ in one loop
● The ​same current​ flows through every component

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 ● The ​potential difference is shared​ across each component - depending upon their
resistance (i.e. the sum of the p.d.s across the components is equal to the total p.d. across
the supply) - components with a higher resistance have a greater PD across.
● The total resistance in series is the ​sum of the resistances​ of each component​ R​ = R​ + R​
T​ 1​ 2

Parallel:
● Components are connected to the power supply in ​separate branches
● The ​current is shared ​between each branch (i.e. the sum of the currents in the separate
branches is equal to the current through the source) - because charge can only flow one
way.
● The ​potential difference​ is the ​same​ across every branch
● Connecting lamps in parallel is advantageous because if one breaks, current can still pass
through the rest.

Mains electricity
Dangers of electricity

Hazards:

● Damaged insulation​ – contact with the wire due to gaps in the insulation can cause an
electric shock​ or pose a​ fire hazard​ by creating a short circuit.
● Overheating of cables​ – high currents passing through thin wire conductors cause the
wires to heat up to very high temperatures which could ​melt the insulation​ and cause a
fire.
● Damp conditions – water can conduct a current so wet electrical equipment can cause an
electric shock.

Fuses and circuit breakers:

● A ​fuse​ is a thin piece of​ wire ​which overheats and ​melts​ if the ​current is too high,
protecting the circuit.​ They have a current ​rating​ which should be slightly higher than the
current used by the device in the circuit. The most common are 3A, 5A and 13A.
● Circuit breakers ​consist of an automatic ​electromagnet​ switch which ​breaks the circuit ​if
the ​current rises over a certain value.​ This is better than a fuse as it can be ​reset​ and
used again, and they operate ​faster.

Earthing metal cases:

● Earth wires create a ​safe route​ for current to flow through in the case of a ​short circuit,
preventing electric shocks.
● Earth wires have a​ very low resistance​ so a strong current surges through them which
breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.

Double insulation:

● Appliances with ​double insulation ​have either ​plastic casings ​completely covering their
electrical components, or have been designed so that the earth wire ​cannot touch​ the
metal casing, preventing them from giving an electric shock.

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Electrical transfer of energy

Energy, measured in ​joules (J)​, is transferred from ​chemical ​energy in the ​battery ​to​ electrical
energy used by ​circuit components ​and then to the ​surroundings.
● The ​power​ of a component is measured in ​watts (W) ​and is given by P=IV (by using V=IR,
this can be shown to be equivalent to P=I​2​R and P=V​2​/R)​. ​Using this equation, the energy
transferred is given by E=IVt.

Alternating current and direct current

In a​ direct current,​ the current only flows in ​one direction​ whereas in an​ alternating current,​ the
current continuously ​changes direction.

Mains electricity ​is an alternating current (a.c.) whereas the current supplied by a ​cell or battery
is direct current (d.c.).

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Electric charge
Charge​ is measured in coulombs, C. There are ​positive​ and ​negative​ charges; ​opposite ​charges
attract​ and ​like​ charges​ repel.
● Atoms are composed of protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons have a charge of ​+1​,
electrons have a charge of ​-1​ and neutrons have a charge of ​0​.
● Charging a body involves the ​addition​ or ​removal​ of ​electrons - ​charging atoms creates
ions.
● Conductors​ such as ​metals​ allow electrons to flow through them whereas ​insulators ​such
as ​plastics​ impede the flow of electrons.
o When two insulators are ​rubbed​ together, friction causes electrons to move from
one to the other and they become charged. The material that loses electrons
becomes ​positively charged​ and the material that gains electrons becomes
negatively charged​.
o The ​magnitude​ of the charge on each material is equal, since they lose/gain the
same number​ of electrons.
o For example, when a​ rod​ is rubbed with a ​cloth,​ electrons are transferred from the
rod onto the cloth and the rod becomes positively charged.
The charges cannot move within the insulator so they build up - this is known as ​static electricity​.

Consequences of static electricity can be seen in a number of phenomena.

● Lightning:
○ Electrostatic charge can build up on clouds due to ​friction​.
○ When this charge becomes large enough, the clouds ​discharge​ through the air to
the earth. This results in ​lightning​.
● Charged balloon on a wall:
○ A positively charged balloon will stick to a wall if moved close enough.
○ Positive charges in the wall are​ repelled by the balloon​ and move to other parts of
the wall. This leaves a ​negative charge​ on the area of the wall closest to the
balloon.
○ The ​attraction​ between the ​negatively charged wall​ and the​ positively charged
balloon​ makes the balloon stick.
● Comb picking up bits of paper:
○ Rubbing a comb against an​ insulator ​will cause it to pick up an electrostatic charge
due to the ​transfer of electrons​.
○ The charge on the comb ​repels ​like-charged in the paper, leaving the paper closest
to the comb with an electrostatic charge ​opposite to the comb​.
○ This end of the paper is then ​attracted​ to the comb.

Electrostatic phenomena caused by the movement of electrons have many useful applications but
also pose many risks.
● Dangers of electrostatic charges include:
o Static charges pose a risk of ​electric shock​. If a person touches an object with a
large amount of static charge, electrons will flow through the person’s body to the
earth​.
o When ​fuelling aircraft and tankers, ​if enough charge builds up on the vehicle or
pump it can create a ​spark.​ This can ignite the fuel and cause a ​fire or explosion.
For safety, an ​earthing ​wire can be attached so that the charge instead flows into
the earth.
● Safety measures when using electrostatic charges include:
o Earthing​ involves offering electrons an ​alternative pathway​ to the earth.

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 o This prevents too much electrostatic charge form ​building up​ on the surface of an
insulator. Less electrostatic charge​ reduces the risk​ of electric shock, or the harm it
can cause.
● Uses of electrostatic charges include:
o In an ​inkjet printer, ​droplets of ​ink​ are ​charged ​and pass between ​two charged
metal plates,​ one of which has a positive charge and the other a negative charge.
The droplets are attracted to the plate with the opposite charge and repelled by the
plate with the same charge and ​deflected​ towards a specific place on the paper.

o In a ​photocopier, ​the image of a document is projected onto a ​positively charged

plate; ​where light falls onto the plate, the charge leaks away. ​Negatively charged
toner particles ​are attracted to the remaining positive areas. Paper is then placed
over the plate and the toner is transferred to it, making the photocopy.

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 Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 3: Waves

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Amplitude: ​The maximum displacement of a wave from its undisturbed (equilibrium)

position.

Critical Angle: ​The angle of incidence beyond which all the wave is totally internally
reflected when it meets a boundary.

Doppler Effect: ​The change in a wave’s observed wavelength and frequency when there is
relative motion between its source and an observer.

Diffuse Reflection: ​The reflection of a wave from a rough surface that results in the wave
being scattered.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: ​A group of transverse waves that cover a large range of

frequencies and wavelengths. The highest frequency waves in the spectrum are gamma-rays
and the lowest are radio waves.

Electromagnetic Waves: ​Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the
waves, to an absorber. They form a continuous spectrum of different frequencies and all
travel at the same speed in a vacuum.

Frequency: ​The number of waves passing a given point in a second. It is the inverse of the
wave’s time period.

Gamma Rays: ​High energy radiation rays used for detecting and treating cancers, and
sterilising food and medical implements. They can cause cell damage and mutations.

Hertz (Hz): ​The unit of frequency.

*Human Hearing:​ Humans can hear sounds in the frequency range of 20Hz to 20kHz.

Infrared Radiation: ​A type of radiation that all objects emit and absorb. The hotter an object
is, the greater the infrared radiation it emits in a given time.

Infrared: ​Used for cooking food, thermal imaging and short range communications. It can
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cause skin burns.

Law of Reflection:​ The angle of incidence must always equal the angle of reflection when a
wave reflects.

Longitudinal Waves:​ Waves with oscillations that are parallel to the direction of
travel/energy transfer.

*Loudness:​ A measure of the amplitude of the oscillations of a sound wave. The larger
the amplitude, the louder the sound will be.

Microphone: ​A device that converts the particle oscillations of a sound wave into an
electrical signal that can be analysed using an oscilloscope.

Microwaves: ​Used for satellite communications and for cooking food. They can cause
internal heating of body cells.

Oscilloscope:​ A device used to display the waveform of a signal. It shows how the
voltage of the electrical signal varies with time.

*Pitch​: A measure of the frequency of the oscillations of a sound wave. The higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch of the sound.

Radio Waves: ​Used for television and radio signals. ​They can be produced by
oscillations in electrical circuits, or can induce these oscillations themselves.

*Ray Diagram:​ A visual representation of the path of a wave, usually around the point where
it meets a boundary. Rays are usually drawn as straight lines with an arrow pointing in their
direction of travel.

Real Image: ​An image produced by light-rays physically converging. Real images are ones
that can be projected onto a screen.

*Reflection: ​The bouncing back of a wave at a boundary.

*Refraction: ​The changing of speed, and consequently the direction, of a wave as it changes
medium. The wavelength of the wave will also change but the frequency remains constant.

Refractive Index:​ ​The ratio of the speed of the wave in a vacuum to the speed of the wave
in a given medium.

Seismic Waves:​ Waves that are produced by earthquakes.

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Sound Waves:​ ​The longitudinal waves responsible for sound. They require a medium to
travel through and are transmitted by the vibrations of the medium’s particles.

Specular Reflection:​ The reflection of a wave from a smooth surface.

Speed of EM Waves:​ All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum (3 x
10⁸ m/s).

Time Period: ​The time it takes for one complete wave to pass a given point. It is the inverse
of frequency.

Total Internal Reflection: ​The process of all a wave being reflected when it meets a
boundary. It occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, and only
when going from a higher refractive index to a lower one.

Transverse Waves:​ Waves with oscillations that are perpendicular to the direction of
travel/energy transfer.

*Ultrasound Waves: ​Waves that have a frequency higher than the upper limit of human
hearing (20kHz).

Ultraviolet: ​Used in energy efficient lamps, disinfecting water, and for sun tanning. It can
cause cell and eye damage that can result in skin cancer and eye conditions.

Virtual Image: ​An image produced by the apparent, but not actual, divergence of light-rays.
Virtual images cannot be projected onto a screen.

Visible Light: ​The only type of electromagnetic radiation that our eyes can detect. It is used
for fibre optic communications and photography.

Wave Velocity: ​The velocity at which energy is transferred through the medium. It is equal to
the product of the wave’s wavelength and frequency.

Wave:​ A process of energy transfer through oscillations, without matter being transferred
with it.

Wavefront: ​An imaginary surface representing points of a wave that are at the same point in
their cycle.

Wavelength: ​The distance from a point on one wave to the same point on the adjacent wave
(ie. peak to peak or trough to trough).

X-Rays: ​Used for medical imaging and security scanners. They can cause cell damage and
mutations.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 3: Waves
Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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General wave properties
Waves ​transfer energy and information without transferring matter; ​the particles oscillate
about a fixed point.

● Transverse​ waves
o Have​ peaks​ and ​troughs
o Vibrations are at ​right angles ​to the direction of travel
o An example is light
● Longitudinal​ waves
o Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions (particles
moved apart)
o Vibrations are in the ​same direction ​as the direction of travel
o An example is sound

Amplitude – the ​distance​ from the ​equilibrium​ position to the ​maximum displacement
Wavefront – a line joining points on a wave at the same point in their wave cycle at a given
time
Frequency – the ​number of waves​ that pass a single point​ per second
Wavelength – the ​distance​ between a ​point​ on one wave and the ​same point​ on the next wave
Time period – the ​time taken ​for ​one complete wave ​to pass a fixed point

The ​speed​ of a wave is equal to the product of the frequency and wavelength:
● speed = f requency×wavelength v = fλ
The frequency of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of the time period, measured in ​Hertz (Hz):
1
● f requency = time period f = T1

The Doppler Effect:

If a wave source is ​moving relative ​to an observer, there will be a

change​ in the ​observed frequency and wavelength ​due to the
Doppler effect. ​This is because the wavefronts either get ​bunched
together​ or ​spaced apart. ​An example of this is when the siren of an
ambulance is high-pitched as it approaches you, and low-pitched as
it goes away.

Reflection:
● All ​waves can be ​reflected ​when they travel from a medium of low
optical density ​(such as air) to one of much higher optical density
(such as glass)
● The law of reflection states that:
o Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
● Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all ​unchanged

Refraction:
● All waves can be refracted, which is when the ​speed​ of a wave
changes​ when it enters a new medium
● If the wave enters a ​denser​ medium, its speed ​decreases​ and it
bends ​towards​ the normal
● If the wave enters a​ less dense​ medium, its speed ​increases
and it bends ​away from​ the normal

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 ● In all cases, the ​frequency​ stays the ​same​ but the ​wavelength changes.​ As a result, the
velocity must change.

Electromagnetic spectrum
You need to learn the ​main groups ​of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of ​decreasing
wavelength ​and ​increasing frequency ​including the ​colours​ of the visible spectrum (ROYGBIV).

All electromagnetic waves travel with the ​same high speed​ in a vacuum and ​approximately the
same​ speed in air.

Uses of electromagnetic waves:

● Radio waves​ are used for ​radio and television communications.​ They have a long
wavelength and are reflected by a layer of the atmosphere called the ​ionosphere​.
● Microwaves​ are used for ​satellite transmissions​ and in ​cooking.​ As they have a greater
frequency (shorter wavelength) they are more penetrating so can pass through the
ionosphere and penetrate deep into food.
● Infrared radiation​ is used in ​heaters ​and​ night vision equipment.
● Visible light ​is used in ​fibre optics ​and ​photography.
● Ultraviolet ​light is used in ​fluorescent lamps.
● X-rays​ are used in ​medical imaging ​and in ​security​ as (because they have a very short
wavelength and high frequency) they can penetrate material easily.
● Gamma radiation​ is used in ​sterilising food and medical equipment ​due to its high
energy.

Hazards:
● Microwaves can cause ​internal heating​ of body tissues.
● Infrared radiation can cause ​skin burns.
● Ultraviolet light exposure increases the risk of​ skin cancer​ and ​blindness.
o Sun cream ​and ​sun glasses ​prevent over-exposure in summer.
● X-rays and Gamma rays are ​ionising​ radiation that can cause ​mutations​ leading to
cancer.
o Exposure​ to these kinds of radiation should be ​minimised ​(for example, by using
protective shielding made of very dense materials such as lead).

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Light and sound
Light​ waves are ​transverse​ waves and can be ​reflected​ and ​refracted.

● Reflection​ of light can be shown when light reflects at a plane

mirror and forms an image.
o This can be represented by a ​ray diagram​ like the first
one shown on the right.
● Refraction​ of light can be shown when light is passed through a
glass slab at an angle to its normal.
o When light enters a more optically dense medium,
the ​angle of incidence ​(the angle between the
incident ray and the normal) is​ greater​ than the
angle of refraction​ (the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal). This can be
represented by a ray diagram like the second one
shown on the right.
o The​ opposite​ is true when light enters a less
optically dense medium.

Snell's law​ relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive index of a
medium by n1sini = n2sinr where n is the optical density & i is the angle of incidence and r is the
angle of refraction.

Total internal reflection:

● At a certain angle of incidence called the ​critical angle​, the light
will travel along the boundary between the two media.
● Total internal reflection​ occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater​ than the critical angle and the light​ reflects​ back into the
medium.
● For total internal reflection to occur, the light must also be
travelling from a ​more optically dense medium​ into a ​less
optically dense medium​ (most common example is glass to
air).
● The critical angle c can be related to the refractive index by:
1
n= sin sin c
Optical fibres:
● An ​optical fibre​ is a long thin rod of ​glass​ surrounded by cladding which uses total internal
reflection to transfer information by light, even when bent.

● They are used extensively in ​medicine ​(endoscopes, inside-body flexible cameras) and
communications​ (high speed data transfer).

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Sound waves are ​longitudinal​ waves and can be ​reflected​ and ​refracted.

The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

To measure the​ speed of sound ​in air, you can make a noise at a known, large​ distance​ from
a solid wall and record the ​time​ for the ​echo​ (reflected sound) to be heard, then use
speed = distance/time, where distance is 2 x length - taking into account the fact that the
sound had to go there and back.

An ​oscilloscope​ connected to a ​microphone​ can be used to display a sound wave and find
its frequency and amplitude.
● The ​greater the amplitude​ of a sound wave, the ​louder​ it is.
● The​ greater the frequency​ of a sound wave, the ​higher its pitch.

● The first sound wave shown is

quiet​ and ​low pitched.
● The second sound wave shown
is ​loud ​and ​low pitched.
● The third sound wave shown is
loud​ and ​high pitched.

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 Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 4: Energy Resources and Energy

Transfers

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Chemical Energy: ​A store of energy found in things such as batteries, fuels and food.

Closed System:​ A system that experiences no net change in its total energy when energy
transfers occur within it.

Conduction: ​The transfer of heat energy through the vibrations of particles in a medium.

Conservation of Energy:​ The law that energy can be transferred, stored or dissipated but
never created or destroyed.

Constant Temperature:​ Bodies at a fixed temperature radiate the same average power that
they absorb.

Convection:​ The transfer of heat energy through convection currents in a fluid.

Elastic Potential Energy:​ The store of energy that stretched or compressed objects contain.

Electrostatic Potential Energy:​ The store of energy due to the relative position of a charge
in an electric field.

Fossil Fuels: ​Coal, oil and gas.

Gravitational Potential Energy:​ The store of energy that all raised matter has. It is directly
proportional to the mass of the object, the distance that it is raised, and the gravitational field
strength at that point.

Heat Transfer: ​The transfer of thermal energy from a hotter region to a cooler region,
through conduction, convection or radiation.

Joule: ​The unit used for energy. Equal to the work done when a force of one Newton acts
over a distance of one metre.

Kinetic Energy: ​The store of energy that all moving matter has. It is directly proportional to
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the object’s mass and to the square of its velocity.

Lubrication:​ The application of a lubricant (such as oil) to reduce the friction that acts
between surfaces. This may improve the efficiency of a system.

Magnetic Energy:​ The potential energy of a magnet.

*Non-Renewable Energy Resource​: ​An energy resource that cannot be replenished

whilst it is being used. It is a finite resource.

Nuclear Energy:​ The store of energy found in the nuclei of atoms.

Power:​ The rate at which energy is transferred, or the rate at which work is done. It is
calculated by dividing the work done by the time taken.

Radiation:​ The transfer of energy, without the transfer of matter. No medium is needed for
radiation to occur.

*Renewable Energy Resource: ​An energy resource that can be replenished whilst it is
being used.

Sankey Diagram:​ A diagram used to show the energy transfers of a system.

Surface Temperature:​ The temperature of a body is determined by the rate at which they
absorb and emit radiation.

Thermal Energy: ​The store of energy that all objects with a temperature contain. The higher
the temperature, the greater its thermal energy store.

Thermal Insulation:​ The addition of a material that reduces the amount of heat that is
transferred from a system to its surroundings.

Useful Energy Transfer: ​The transfer of energy by a system, to directly serve the purpose
of the system.

Waste Energy Transfer: ​The transfer of energy by a system to a form that doesn’t directly
serve the purpose of the system.

Work Done:​ Work is done on an object when a force causes it to move through a distance. It
is equal to the product of the distance travelled and the magnitude of the force in the
direction of motion.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 4: Energy Resources and Energy

Transfers
Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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Energy transfers
Energy​ can be transferred between different stores including ​chemical, kinetic, gravitational,
elastic, thermal, magnetic, electrostatic ​and​ nuclear ​as a result of an event or process.

Energy can be transferred in various ways including:

● Mechanically​ e.g. when gravity accelerates an object and gives it kinetic energy.
● Electrically​ e.g. when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.
● By heating​ e.g. when a fire is used to heat up an object.
● By radiation​ e.g. when vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound, or an
object emits electromagnetic radiation.

Energy is always ​conserved.​ The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

The ​efficiency​ is the ​ratio​ of the​ useful energy

output ​to the ​total energy supplied,​ often
expressed as a percentage.
usef ul energy output
ef f iciency = total energy input ×100%

Sankey diagrams ​can be used to represent the

transfer​ of input energy into useful energy and
wasted energy. For example, the diagram on the
left shows the Sankey diagram for a lamp.

Conduction:
● Thermal energy in ​solids​ and​ liquids ​can be transferred by the vibration of particles - this
is known as ​conduction.
● Non-metals are usually poor conductors known as​ thermal insulators.
As a substance is heated up, the molecules​ vibrate more​ hitting and cause adjacent
molecules to vibrate more too,​ transferring heat energy​ from hot parts to cooler parts.
Because insulators transfer heat much more slowly, they are used to ​reduce unwanted energy
transfer ​such as in homes.
● Metals are usually good conductors. The electrons can leave the atoms and move freely
among positively charged ions. As the metal is heated, the ions and electrons ​vibrate
more.​ The ​free electrons collide with ions ​throughout the metal and​ transfer heat
energy​ from hot parts to cooler parts.

Convection:
● Thermal energy in​ fluids​ (liquids and gases) can be transferred by ​convection.
● Convection occurs when molecules in a fluid (which are not fixed together by forces
between molecules like in a solid) move from an area of high to low thermal energy.
Preventing the circulation of the fluid can help reduce unwanted energy transfer by
convection.
● When part of a fluid is heated, it expands - the particles move further apart - and becomes
less dense.​ It therefore​ rises​ up to less dense areas in the fluid. Denser, colder fluid falls
down to take its place.
● Examples of convection include in ​water boilers ​and ​hot air balloons.

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Radiation

● Thermal energy is also transferred by ​infrared radiation​ which does ​not require a
medium.​ Infrared radiation is part of the ​electromagnetic spectrum.
● Black​ bodies with a ​dull ​texture are the​ best absorbers and emitters​ of radiation. ​White
bodies with a ​shiny​ texture are the ​best reflectors​ of radiation. Shiny surfaces can be
used to ​reduce unwanted energy transfer ​such as on the surface of a vacuum flask.
● The ​higher the temperature​ and the ​greater the surface area​ of a body the ​more
infrared radiation​ emitted.

Work and power

Work​ is done when a ​force​ moves something through a ​distance ​(whenever energy changes
forms).​ ​The work done is ​equal​ to the energy transferred.

work done = f orce × distance W = Fd

The conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy
and work. ​For example, when a ball is dropped, gravity does ​work​ on it and its ​gravitational
potential energy​ becomes ​kinetic energy​ as it accelerates downwards:

● k inetic energy = 21 ×mass×speed2

E k = 21 mv 2
● g ravitational potential energy = mass ×gravitational f ield strength×height
E p = mgh

Power​ is the ​rate at which energy is transferred​ or the ​rate at which work is done.​ For
example, a lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from
electrical energy to light and heat energy in a given time.

work done W
power = time taken P = t

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Energy resources and electricity generation
● Renewable ​energy is energy which can be ​replenished ​as quickly as it is used.
Examples include:
o Wind
o Water (hydroelectricity, waves, tides)
o Geothermal
o Solar (heating systems and cells)
All have a ​potentially infinite ​energy supply, but they are usually ​more costly ​(e.g. the
manufacture and implementation of solar panels is very expensive) and ​less reliable
(e.g. the wind is intermittent and solar energy relies on good weather).

● Non-renewable​ energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the ​large
energy output ​but will eventually ​run out. ​Examples include:
o Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
▪ Cheaper​ than most renewable sources but harmful for the environment
because they release ​greenhouse gases ​which cause ​global warming.
o Nuclear power
▪ A ​small amount ​of radioactive material produces a ​lot of energy, ​but
they produce ​highly toxic nuclear ​waste which needs to be safely
stored underground for many years.

Energy transfers​ take place in the generation of electricity. For example:

- In burning fossil fuels: ​chemical energy ​in chemical bonds
- In nuclear reactors: ​nuclear energy ​in atomic nuclei
- In a solar cell, ​light energy ​from the sun
- In geothermal energy: heat energy from the Earth’s core
- In wind energy: ​kinetic energy​ from the moving wind
- In HEP: ​kinetic energy ​of the moving waves or ​GPE ​of water stored high up
… is transferred into​ kinetic energy​ in a turning turbine, then into ​electrical energy.

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 Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 5: Solids, Liquids and Gases

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Absolute Zero:​ The lowest possible temperature. At this temperature the particles have no
kinetic energy and so are completely stationary.

*Change in Thermal Energy:​ ​The product of the mass, specific heat capacity and
temperature change of a substance.

Chemical Changes:​ Changes to the chemical structure of a substance. The substance does
not usually restore its original properties when the changes are reversed.

Condensation: ​The changing from vapour state to a liquid state, when a substance is
cooled.

Density:​ The mass per unit volume of an object.

Evaporation:​ The changing from liquid state to a vapour state, when a substance is heated.

Freezing: ​The changing from a liquid state to a solid state, when a substance is cooled.

Gas Temperature: ​The absolute temperature of a gas is directly proportional to the average
kinetic energy of its molecules.

*Gas:​ ​A state of matter in which the particles are spread apart and have high kinetic
energies. Any intermolecular forces acting between the particles are very weak.

Internal Energy: ​The energy stored by the atoms and molecules that make up a system. It is
equal to the sum of the total kinetic and potential energies of the particles in the system.

Kelvin: ​The SI unit of temperature, based on an absolute temperature scale. To convert from
degrees Celsius to degrees Kelvin, subtract 273 degrees. For a gas it is proportional to the
average kinetic energy of the molecules.

*Liquid:​ ​A state of matter in which the particles are in contact, but can flow over each
other. Intermolecular forces act between the particles.

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Melting:​ The changing from solid state to liquid state, when a substance is heated.

Pascals:​ The unit of pressure, equal to a force of one Newton acting perpendicular to an
area of one metre squared.

Physical Changes: ​Changes to the physical properties of a substance which can be

reversed. Changes of state are physical changes since substances can restore their original
properties when the changes are reversed.

Pressure in a Liquid Column: ​Equal to the product of the height of the column, the density
of the liquid and the gravitational field strength.

Pressure of a Gas: ​The perpendicular force per unit area acting on the surfaces of a
container as a result of the gas particles colliding with it. It acts equally in all directions.

Pressure: ​The force acting perpendicular to a surface, per unit area.

Pressure-Volume Relationship:​ ​When at a constant temperature, the volume of a fixed

quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.

Pressure-Temperature Relationship: ​When at a constant volume, the pressure of a fixed

quantity of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

*Solid:​ ​A state of matter in which the particles are tightly packed together and can only
vibrate about their fixed positions. Strong intermolecular forces act between the
particles

*Specific Heat Capacity:​ ​The amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of
one kilogram of a given substance by one degree Celsius.

Temperature: ​A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. An

increase in temperature will result in an increase in the particles’ kinetic energies and
velocities.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 5: Solids, Liquids and Gases

Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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Density and pressure

The ​density​ of a substance is defined as the ​mass per unit volume ​and is measured in
kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m​3​).
mass m
density = volume ρ= V

To find the density of a liquid:

● Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill it with the liquid
and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the mass of the liquid minus the
cylinder (alternatively, we can press tare on the balance so it’s zeroed). This avoids ​zero
error​.
● The volume can be read from the cylinder. It must be read straight-on to avoid ​parallax
error.
● Find the density using the equation.

To find the density of solid:

● Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
● If the solid is:
o regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a ruler or other measuring tool and
then use a mathematical formula to find the volume.
o irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume of the water
displaced. This is the volume of the solid.
● Find the density using the equation.
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area and is measured in ​Pascals (Pa).
f orce F
pressure = area p= A

For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail:

● The ​force​ applied is the weight of your body
● The total ​area​ is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a larger area
o Therefore, on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater.

The ​pressure​ at a point in a gas or liquid at rest acts ​equally​ in ​all directions​ and causes a force
at right angles to any surface. Pressure in a fluid (gas or liquid) is created from the movement of
particles (as they collide with a surface).

The pressure beneath a liquid surface increases with ​depth,​ the ​density ​of the liquid and the
gravitational field strength.
● It is given by p = ρgh
- Deeper in the fluid the more particles above the point, hence the greater their weight.
- Fluids with higher density have more particles per unit of volume, hence greater weight.
- Weight depends upon gravitational field strength.

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Change of state

Heating​ a system ​increases​ its ​internal energy ​and causes either an ​increase​ in ​temperature
or a ​change of state.
● When the ​temperature​ of a body ​rises​, the energy goes towards making the
molecules ​vibrate more ​and ​increases​ their ​kinetic energy.
● When a body ​changes state, ​energy goes towards making the molecules ​freer​ from
each other rather than increasing their kinetic energy – the temperature stays
constant.
o Melting ​occurs when molecules in a solid vibrate enough to move away from
their fixed positions, turning into a liquid.
o Boiling ​occurs when molecules in a liquid gain enough energy to break their
bonds and become separate molecules, turning into a gas.

Graph showing the temperature of ice with time when

energy is put in at a constant rate:
● From A to B the ice is rising in temperature
● From B to C it is melting into water
● From C to D the water is rising in temperature
● From D to E the water is boiling into steam
● From E to F the steam is rising in temperature

There is ​no change in temperature while the substance is changing state​ (the line is
horizontal) because energy supplied is used to separate the particles (breaking the forces
between the molecules).

Evaporation​ is the escape of molecules with ​higher energy​ from the ​surfaces ​of liquids.
After they escape, the remaining molecules have a ​lower average kinetic energy​ which
means the temperature is lower (i.e. evaporation ​cools​ the liquid). This is useful for cooling
things down such as sweating from the body.
● To increase the rate of evaporation, increase temperature, increase surface area, or
provide a draught.

Evaporation is different to boiling because it can happen at ​any temperature​ and only
occurs at the ​surface ​of the liquid (boiling occurs throughout a liquid and only at the boiling
point).

● Solids
o Molecules ​close​ together in ​regular ​pattern
o Strong​ intermolecular forces of attraction
o Molecules ​vibrate​ but can’t move about

● Liquids
o Molecules ​close ​together in ​random ​arrangement
o Weaker​ intermolecular forces of attraction than solids
o Molecules ​move around each other

● Gases
o Molecules ​far ​apart in ​random​ arrangement
o Negligible/very weak intermolecular forces
o Molecules move quickly in all directions

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The ​specific heat capacity​ is the ​amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg
of a substance by 1​℃​ ​and is measured in ​Joules per kilogram degree Celsius (J/kg​℃).

change in thermal energy = mass ×specif ic heat capacity ×temperature change

∆Q = mc∆T

Ideal gas molecules

Gas molecules move ​rapidly​ and ​randomly ​due to ​collisions ​with other gas molecules.

Gases exert ​pressure​ on a container due to​ collisions​ between gas molecules and the wall.
When the molecules rebound off the walls, they ​change direction​ so their velocity and therefore
momentum changes.​ This means they exert a​ force​ because force is equal to the change in
momentum over time.

● At a constant volume, if the ​temperature increases,​ the​ pressure increases ​because the
molecules move faster so they collide ​harder​ and ​more frequently ​with the walls.
o The temperature at which the ​pressure is zero​ is called ​absolute zero ​(-273​℃).
The ​Kelvin​ scale of temperature defines absolute zero to be 0K with an increment
of one Kelvin equal to an increment of one degree Celsius. This means that:
▪ temperature in kelvin = temperature in degrees celsius + 273
o For a gas at fixed mass and volume, where the temperature is measured in Kelvin:
p1 p2 p
T = T or T = constant
1 2
● At a constant temperature, if the ​volume increases,​ the​ pressure decreases​ because the
molecules collide ​less frequently ​with the walls and over a ​greater area.
o For a gas at fixed mass and temperature:
p1 V 1 = p2 V 2 or pV = constant
This is known as ​Boyle’s Law
The ​temperature in Kelvin​ of a gas is proportional to the​ average kinetic energy​ of the
molecules. The higher the temperature, the greater the average kinetic energy and so the faster
the ​average speed​ of the molecules.

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 Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Current-Carrying Wires: ​When current flows through a wire, a magnetic field is generated
around it. The strength of the field depends on the magnitude of the current and the distance
from the wire.

Electric Motor:​ A current-carrying coil of wire in a magnetic field. The two sides of the coil
that are perpendicular to the magnetic field experience forces in opposite directions, causing
rotation.

*Electromagnet:​ ​A solenoid with an iron core. The magnetism of an electromagnet can

be switched on and off, and the strength changed, through varying the current in the
solenoid.

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: ​A rule used to determine the orientation of the force (thumb),
current (second finger) and magnetic field (first finger) when a current-carrying wire is placed
in a magnetic field (motor effect).

Generator Effect: ​When there is relative motion between an electrical conductor and a
magnetic field, a voltage will be induced across the ends of the conductor. A current will flow
if this conductor is part of a complete circuit.

Induced Magnet:​ A material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in an existing

magnetic field, but loses its magnetism quickly once it is removed. Induced magnetism
always produces attractive forces.

Like Magnetic Poles:​ When matching poles of a magnet are brought near each other they
repel each other.

Loudspeaker: ​A device that converts variations in current into vibrations of a diaphragm to

produce corresponding sound waves.

Magnetic Field Lines: ​Lines that show the strength and direction of a magnetic field. The
lines point from North to South and their concentration represents the magnitude of the field.

Magnetic Field: ​The region around a magnet in which another magnet or magnetic material
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will experience a non-contact force.

Magnetic Materials:​ Iron, steel, cobalt and nickel.

Magnetic Poles:​ The regions of a magnet where the magnetic forces are at their strongest.

Magnetically Hard: ​A material property that means the material can be permanently
magnetised. Examples include iron and alloys containing large amounts of iron.

Magnetically Soft:​ A material property that means the material can be temporarily
magnetised. Examples include alloys with lower amounts of iron.

Permanent Magnet:​ A magnet that produces its own magnetic field.

*Power Cables:​ ​Metal wires that are part of the National Grid. Electricity is transported
along them at very high voltages to reduce the energy loss and make the
transportation more efficient.

*Solenoid:​ ​A wire wrapped into the shape of a coil, that has a strong and uniform
magnetic field inside of it. The solenoid’s magnetic field strength can be increased by
adding an iron core.

*Step-Down Transformer: ​A transformer that has a smaller potential difference in the

secondary coil than in the primary coil. This is a result of the secondary coil having
fewer turns.

*Step-Up Transformer: ​A transformer that has a larger potential difference in the

secondary coil than in the primary coil. This is a result of the secondary coil having
more turns.

*Transformer:​ An iron core with a primary and secondary coil of wire wound around
opposite ends. Transformers can change the magnitude of an alternating voltage.

*Turns Ratio: ​The number of turns in the primary coil of a transformer over the number
of turns in the secondary coil. This is equal to the voltage ratio for a 100% efficient
transformer.

Unlike Magnetic Poles: ​When opposite poles of a magnet are brought near each other they
attract each other.

*Voltage Ratio: ​The voltage across the primary coil of a transformer over the voltage
across the secondary coil.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 6: Magnetism and

Electromagnetism
Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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Magnetism
Magnets ​repel and attract other magnets ​and ​attract magnetic materials.​ Like poles of
magnets repel and opposite poles attract.

● Non-magnetic materials are materials that are not attracted to

magnets and cannot be magnetised (e.g. glass, plastic)
● Magnetic materials are materials that are attracted to magnets and
can be magnetised (e.g. iron, steel, cobalt, nickel)
o Magnetism can be ​induced​ in magnetic materials​ ​by
placing​ them in a ​magnetic field.
o Magnetic materials that can be ​permanently​ magnetised
are described as​ magnetically hard​ (e.g.​ steel​). Magnetic
materials that are only ​temporarily​ magnetised are
described as ​magnetically soft​ (e.g. ​soft iron​).

Magnetic field lines:

● Magnetic field lines​ represent the ​magnetic force ​on a
north pole ​at a given point.
o The ​direction​ of a magnetic field line shows the
direction ​of the force.
o How ​close together ​the magnetic field lines are
shows the ​magnitude​ of the force.
● Field lines​ from magnets point ​from north to south.
o The field lines of a bar magnet are shown in the diagram.
o There is a ​uniform magnetic field between the opposite poles of two magnets
placed close together, as the field lines move from the north pole of one straight
towards the south pole of the other. The field lines are ​parallel ​and ​evenly spaced​.

Electromagnetism
An ​electric current ​passing through a ​conductor ​produces a ​magnetic
field​ around it.

Electromagnets​ consist of a coil of wire wrapped around a

magnetically soft core ​and can be turned on and off.

● The​ ​right-hand grip rule determines the direction of the

magnetic field produced by a current carrying ​wire, ​shown
in the first diagram.
● The magnetic field created by a current carrying ​solenoid​ is
like the field produced by a ​bar magnet, ​shown in the
second diagram.
● The magnetic field created by a current carrying ​flat circular
coil ​is shown in the third diagram.

A ​force​ acts on a
current-carrying conductor​ in a
magnetic field. ​Fleming’s
left-hand rule​ shows the relative

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directions of the force, field, and current…
This is called the ​motor effect​.
● If the ​current ​is ​reversed​ or the ​magnetic field​ is ​reversed,​ the ​force​ will be ​reversed.
● If the ​magnitude​ of the ​current​ or of the ​magnetic field​ is ​increased,​ the ​magnitude​ of
the ​force​ will ​increase.

DC motors ​consist of a coil of wire in between two permanent magnets. ​Direct current​ flows
through the wire and it experiences a ​turning effect​ due to the forces exerted on it in the magnetic
field. As the current flows in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the forces on each side
are in opposite directions - making it turn. The turning effect can be increased by:
● increasing the current
● using a stronger magnetic field
● increasing the number of turns on the coil.
A ​split ring commutator​ is used to ensure that the ​direction​ that the​ current​ flows in the coil
reverses every half turn.

Loud speakers ​consist of a coil attached to a cone in a magnetic field. When ​alternating current
flows through the coil, the cone is continuously pushed away and pulled back, making a ​sound.
The ​frequency​ (and therefore pitch) of the sound can be altered by changing the frequency of the
alternating current used.

A force is also exerted on ​charged particles​ moving in a magnetic field (because moving
charged particles are current) as long as they are ​not​ moving parallel to the field.

Electromagnetic induction
● When there is relative movement between a conducting wire & a magnetic field, a voltage
will be induced. For example, if conducting wire ​moves across a magnetic field,​ a voltage
is induced in it. If it is part of a complete circuit, this causes a current to flow.
This is called the ​generator effect​.

● The induced voltage can be increased by:

- moving the wire ​more quickly,
- using a ​stronger magnetic​ field,
- or ​increasing the length​ of the wire inside the magnetic field (eg. by making it more
coiled).
● A voltage is also induced in a coil with a ​changing magnetic field​ through it.​ ​For example,
when a magnet is moved into a coil, a voltage is induced in it.
- The ​more quickly​ the magnetic ​field changes, ​the ​greater​ the ​voltage.

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Electricity can be generated by ​rotating a magnet​ within a ​coil​ or by ​rotating a coil ​in a
magnetic field.​ As they rotate, the magnetic field through the coil ​changes,​ which induces a
voltage​ and therefore a ​current​ in the coil. The voltage can be increased by:
● increasing the length of wire inside the magnetic field ​(eg. by using a larger area, more
turns or a longer wire)
● using a ​stronger magnet
● increasing the speed​ of rotation.

A transformer consists of two coils wrapped around a soft iron core and is used to change
the size of a voltage.
They are used to:
- ​step up​ the voltage (to a greater value) for transmission in ​power lines ​which
reduces power loss ​(because lower current causes less power loss due to the
resistance of the cables)
- then ​step down ​the voltage for usage in ​homes​ (to keep us safe)
● An alternating voltage produces an alternating current in the ​primary coil. ​ This
creates a changing magnetic field which links with the ​secondary coil​ and induces
an alternating voltage in it.
● A ​step-up ​transformer has ​more turns on the secondary than the primary​ which
means the voltage of the secondary is greater than that of the primary. A ​step-down
transformer has ​fewer turns on the secondary than the primary ​which means the
voltage of the secondary is less than that of the primary.
primary voltage primary turns
● secondary voltage = secondary turns
● For a ​100% efficient ​transformer, because the power used is constant, V p I p = V s I s

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 Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Activity: ​The rate at which an unstable nucleus decays. The activity of a radioactive source
reduces over time.

Alpha Particle: ​A positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons.
They are highly ionising, but can be stopped by a few centimetres of air.

Atomic Number: ​The number of protons found in an atom of a specific element. Each
element has a different atomic number.

Background Radiation: ​Radiation that is found in small quantities all around us and
originates from natural sources such as rocks and cosmic rays, as well as from man-made
sources such as nuclear weapons testing and accidents.

Becquerel: ​The unit of radioactive activity.

Beta Particle: ​A high speed electron that a nucleus emits when a neutron converts into a
proton. They are ionising but can be stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium.

Chain Reaction: ​The process of neutrons released by a fission reaction, being absorbed by
another unstable, large nuclei, and inducing further fission.

Control Rods: ​Found in nuclear reactors to control the rate of fission. They absorb neutrons,
preventing them from inducing further fission reactions.

Electrons: ​A negatively charged constituent of the atom, that are found in different energy
levels, around the nucleus.

Energy Levels: ​The stable states in which electrons are found in around a nucleus.
Electrons can transition to a higher energy level through the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation and can transition to a lower energy level through the emission of electromagnetic
radiation.

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Fission Products: ​Fission produces two smaller nuclei, two or three neutrons and gamma
rays. These products are released with kinetic energy.

Gamma Ray:​ Electromagnetic radiation emitted from a nucleus. They have a very high
penetrating power and require several centimetre of lead to absorb them.

Geiger-Muller Tube: ​A device used to detect ionising radiation.

Half-Life: ​The time it takes for the number of unstable nuclei of an isotope in a sample to
halve, or the time it takes for the initial count rate of a sample of the isotope to halve. It is
different for different isotopes.

Ions: ​Atoms with a resultant charge due to the loss or gain of electrons.

Ionising Radiation: ​Radiation that can cause cell mutations, damage cells and tissues, and
lead to cancers.

Irradiation: ​The process of an object being exposed to nuclear radiation. The object doesn’t
become radioactive.

Isotopes: ​Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The
atomic number is the same, but the mass number is different.

Mass Number:​ The number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Mass-Energy Equivalence: ​All matter has an associated energy. This means that mass can
be converted into energy in the form of radiation.

Moderator:​ ​A substance found in nuclear reactors to slow down neutrons so they are at
suitable speeds to induce fission in fissile nuclei.

Negative Ions:​ Atoms that gained electrons and so have a resultant negative charge.

Neutrons: ​A neutrally charged constituent of the nucleus.

Nuclear Fission: ​The splitting of a large and unstable nucleus into two smaller and more
stable nuclei to produce energy. This is the method currently used in nuclear power stations.

Nuclear Fusion:​ The joining of two small, light nuclei to form a larger, heavier one and
release energy. It cannot happen at low pressures and temperatures since in these
conditions the electrostatic repulsion of protons in the nucleus cannot be overcome.

PET Scanner:​ A medical imaging device that uses radioactive tracers and detectors to form
internal body images.

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Photographic Film:​ ​A material that reacts to ionising radiation, allowing an image to be
formed.

Positive Ions: ​Atoms that have lost electrons and so have a resultant positive charge.

Protons:​ A positively charged constituent of the nucleus.

Radioactive Contamination: ​The unwanted presence of radioactive atoms on other

materials. It is hazardous due to the decay of the contaminating atoms.

Radioactive Decay: ​The random process involving unstable nuclei emitting radiation to
become more stable.

Random Nature of Radioactive Decay: ​You cannot predict which nuclei in a radioactive
sample will decay next, or when the next decay will occur - it is a random process.

Shielding: ​A barrier used to prevent radioactive daughter products leaving a nuclear reactor.

Uranium-235: ​The radioactive isotope used in nuclear reactors. It is often referred to as

U-235.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles

Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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Radioactivity

An atom consists of:

● A ​positively charged nucleus ​made of:
o Positive ​protons
o Neutral ​neutrons
● Surrounded by​ negatively charged electrons ​which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the ​same​ number of protons. ​Isotopes​ are forms of an element’s
atom with the ​same number of protons​ but a​ different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide (distinct nucleus):
● X is the ​symbol​ of the element
● A is the ​mass (nucleon) number​ (number of neutrons and protons)
● Z is the ​atomic (proton) number​ (number of protons)

Radioactive decay is the ​spontaneous​ transformation of an ​unstable​ nucleus into a more ​stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a ​random​ process which means one cannot know ​what
nucleus will decay or ​when​ it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

● Alpha:
o A heavy nucleus emits an ​alpha particle​ (helium nucleus - 2A, 4X).
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: Z AX→(X − 4A − 2Z) + α
o They are ​highly ionising​ and ​weakly penetrating. ​They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
● Beta:
o A neutron turns into a proton and emits a ​beta particle​ (electron)
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: ZAX→(X − A − Z ) + β −
o They are ​moderately ionising​ and ​moderately penetrating. ​They are stopped by
a thin sheet of aluminium.
● Gamma:
o After a previous decay, a nucleus with excess energy emits a ​gamma particle.
o Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
o They are ​lowly ionising ​and ​highly penetrating. ​They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
● Neutron radiation:
o In neutron-rich nuclides, occasionally one or more ​neutrons​ are ejected. They are
also emitted during nuclear fission.
o The nucleus becomes a new isotope of the original element according to the
following equation: Z AX→(X − A) + 1n

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Some ways of detecting radiation include:
● Photographic film:
o The more radiation absorbed by the film, the ​darker​ it gets (the film is initially white).
o They are worn as ​badges​ by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
● Geiger-Muller tube:
o A Geiger-Muller tube is a ​tube​ which can detect radiation.
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a ​clicking sound.​ The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.

Weak radiation that can be detected from​ external ​sources is called ​background radiation.
Sources of background radiation include:
● From space:
o Cosmic rays include high-energy charged particles penetrating the atmosphere
● From Earth:
o Radioactive rocks which give off radioactive radon gas
o Food and drink which contains radioactive isotopes (such as Carbon 14)
o Fallout from nuclear weapons testing
o Medical sources such as x-rays from MRI scanners
o Nuclear power plants which produce radioactive waste

The ​activity​ of a radioactive source is the ​number of decays ​which occur ​per unit time ​and is
measured in ​becquerels (Bq where 1 Bq = 1 decay per second). ​The activity of a radioactive
source ​decreases​ over a period of time.

The ​half-life​ of an isotope is the ​time taken for

half the nuclei to decay​, or the ​time taken for
the activity to halve. ​It is different for different
radioactive isotopes.
● In the graph, the count rate drops from 80
to 40 counts per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is around 2 days. Or
from 40 counts per minute to 20 counts
per minute in the next two days. Half-life
is ​constant ​(it does not depend on how
many nuclei have decayed).
● Background radiation must be ​subtracted
before attempting to perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
● Industry
o Smoke detectors
Long half-life ​alpha​ emitters are used in ​smoke detectors.​ Alpha particles cause a​ current​ in the
alarm. If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are ​absorbed​ and the current
drops,​ triggering the alarm.
o Thickness monitoring
Long half-life ​beta​ emitters can be used for ​thickness monitoring​ of metal sheets. A source and
receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its production. If there is a ​drop ​or ​rise​ in the
number of beta particles detected, then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be
adjusted.

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 ● Medicine
o Sterilisation of equipment
Gamma​ emitters are used to ​kill ​bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is safe for operations
(this means they can be sterilised through their protective packaging to eliminate the risk of
contamination).
o Diagnosis and treatment
- Short half-life ​gamma​ emitters such as technetium-99m are used as ​tracers​ in medicine as
they concentrate in certain parts of the body. The half-life must be long enough for
diagnostic procedures to be performed, but short enough to not remain radioactive for too
long.
- Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to ​destroy​ tumours with a ​high dose
of radiation.

Contamination​ occurs when a ​radioactive source ​has been ​introduced into or onto ​an object.
The contaminated object will be radioactive for as long as the source is in or on it.

Irradiation​ occurs when an object is exposed to a ​radioactive source ​which is ​outside​ the object.
The irradiated object does ​not​ become radioactive.

Exposure to radiation can ​destroy living cell membranes​ by ​ionisation,​ causing the cells to ​die,
or ​damage DNA ​which causes ​mutations​ that could lead to ​cancer.

Safety measures include:

● Minimising the time​ of exposure to radiation, keeping as ​big a distance​ from the
radioactive source as possible, and using ​shielding​ against radiation (such as protective
clothing made from dense materials such as lead).
● Radioactive waste from nuclear reactors must be ​disposed of carefully,​ usually by burying
it in sealed drums deep underground and ​remotely handling ​it after it has been thoroughly
cooled.

Fission and fusion

Nuclear fission:
● The process of ​splitting a nucleus​ is called ​nuclear fission.
● When a ​uranium-235 ​nucleus ​absorbs a thermal ​(slow-moving) ​neutron,​ it splits into ​two
daughter nuclei​ and ​2 or 3 neutrons,​ releasing ​energy​ in the process.
● The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a ​chain reaction ​by striking other
uranium-235 nuclei.
● In a nuclear reactor:
o Control rods ​(usually made of boron) are used to
absorb neutrons ​and keep the number of neutrons
such that only ​one​ fission neutron per event goes on to
induce further fission.
o The ​moderator ​(usually water) ​slows down neutrons
by ​collisions​ so that they are moving slow enough to be
absorbed by another uranium-235 nucleus.
o A coolant (also water) is used to prevent the system
from overheating.
o The reactor core is a ​thick steel vessel ​which
withstands the ​high pressures and temperatures​ and
absorbs​ some of the ​radiation.​ The whole core is kept in a building with ​thick
reinforced concrete walls ​that act as ​radiation shields ​to ​absorb ​all the
radiation​ that escapes the reactor core.

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Nuclear fusion:
● The process of ​fusing two nuclei​ to form a larger nucleus is called​ nuclear fusion.
● There is a very small ​loss of mass​ in the process, accompanied by a ​release of energy.
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other ​stars​ release energy.
● Nuclear fusion does ​not​ happen at ​low temperatures and pressures​ because the
electrostatic repulsion ​of the ​protons​ is too great.

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 Definitions and Concepts for Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 8: Astrophysics

Definitions in ​bold ​are for higher tier only

Definitions marked by ‘*’ are for separate sciences only

Artificial Satellites: ​Man-made satellites that have been sent into space for purposes such
as satellite imaging and communications.

*Big Bang Theory: ​The currently accepted model for the origin of the universe. It
suggests that the universe has expanded from an initially very small, hot and dense
point.

Circular Orbits: ​The circular path that a satellite or planet may travel in. Since their direction
is continually changing, their velocity is always changing. Gravity provides the required force
for these orbits.

*CMBR: ​Cosmic microwave background radiation. This is electromagnetic radiation

that is found in small quantities all around us. It is suggested to have come from the
high energy radiation emitted by the Big Bang.

Comets:​ ​Objects consisting of rock, dust and ice that travel in the universe at high speeds.
When they approach the sun they vaporise and produce a trail.

Doppler Effect: ​The change in a wave’s observed wavelength and frequency when there is
relative motion between its source and an observer.

Galaxy:​ ​A system containing billions of stars.

*Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram:​ A plot of the luminosity of stars against their

temperatures.

Main Sequence Star: ​The stable state of all stars. The gravitational forces pulling the star
together, and the pressure pushing outwards, are balanced.

Milky Way Galaxy:​ The galaxy in which our solar system is located.

Natural Satellites:​ The moons that orbit planets.

Nebula: ​A cloud of dust and gas.

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Orbital Radius: ​The radius of a body’s orbit. For a stable orbit, a change in its orbital radius
is required for the body to undergo a speed change.

Orbital Speed:​ ​A measure of how fast an object orbits. It is directly proportional to the orbital
radius and inversely proportional to the orbital period.

Orbital Period: ​The time it takes for an object in orbit to complete one full cycle.

Planet:​ ​A body that has a sufficiently large mass and that orbits a star. Our solar system
contains eight planets, all of which orbit the sun.

Protostar:​ The first stage all stars go through after forming from a nebula. In this stage the
star becomes hot enough for hydrogen nuclei to fuse.

Red Giant Star: ​When their hydrogen is used up and larger nuclei are produced by fusion,
stars of a similar magnitude to the Sun will expand to form a red giant.

*Red-Shift: ​The observed increase in the wavelength of the light emitted by distant
galaxies. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it is moving and so the bigger the
observed increase in wavelength.

Star Life Cycle:​ The stages that a star passes through in its lifetime, dependent on the size
of the star relative to the sun.

Sun:​ A star formed from a cloud of dust and gas being pulled together by gravitational
attraction. Fusion reactions occur in the sun.

Supernova: ​The explosion of a massive star, that distributes the elements created by the
fusion reactions in the star, throughout the universe.

Universe:​ ​A large system of billions of galaxies.

Weight: ​The force of matter due to gravity. It is equal to the product of mass and
gravitational field strength, and so varies depending on your location in the universe.

White Dwarf:​ When the fusion reactions in stars of a similar magnitude to the sun come to
an end, the star will contract under gravity and cool down to form a white dwarf.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 8: Astrophysics
Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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Motion in the universe
● The ​universe​ is a large collection of billions of galaxies.
● A ​galaxy ​is a large collection of billions of stars.
● A ​solar system​ is a collection of planets orbiting a common star. Our ​solar system ​is in
the ​Milky Way ​galaxy.

The ​gravitational field strength ​is the force per unit mass on a body in a gravitational field and is
measured in ​Newtons per kilogram (N/kg). ​It varies with the ​mass​ and ​size​ of the body and is
therefore different on other planets and the moon compared to the Earth.
● weight = mass×gravitational f ield strength W = mg

Gravitational force enables the various bodies to ​orbit

around others. For example:
● Moons orbit planets
o The orbits are ​slightly elliptical ​with ​near
constant orbital speed
● Planets and comets orbit the Sun
o The orbits of planets are ​slightly elliptical
with ​near constant orbital speed. ​The orbits
of comets are ​highly elliptical.
● Artificial satellites orbit the Earth
The greater the orbital radius or the smaller the time period,
the greater the orbital speed:

● orbital speed = 2×π×orbital radius

time period v = 2πr
T
Comets have a ​greater ​speed nearer to the star (when r is smaller) because the ice inside them
melts as they get closer (& warmer) - causing their mass to decrease.

Stellar evolution
● A star begins as a cloud of dust & gas called a
nebula.​ The particles experience a weak
attraction towards each other due to gravity and
begin to ​clump​ together.
● They continue to clump together until the
pressure​ and ​temperature​ is great enough for
nuclear fusion ​to occur.
o Hydrogen​ nuclei fuse together to form
helium nuclei which releases a large
amount of energy and causes a great
outwards pressure.
o This outwards pressure ​balances​ with the
inwards pressure ​due to gravity and the
star is now stable and called a ​main
sequence star.
● Eventually the hydrogen in the star is used up.
There is no longer enough outward pressure from
nuclear fusion and it ​collapses​ under its own
gravitational attraction, becoming ​unstable.
o If the star has a similar mass to the Sun, it expands massively and becomes a ​red
giant.​ It then becomes a ​white dwarf ​(and finally cools into a black dwarf).

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 o If the star has a mass larger than the Sun, it expands and becomes a ​red super
giant, ​before exploding in a ​supernova. ​What remains is either a ​neutron star, ​or if
it was exceptionally massive, a​ black hole.
Stars can be ​classified ​according to their ​colour.​ The colour of a star is related to its ​surface
temperature,​ with ​hotter​ stars being ​bluer​ and ​cooler ​stars being ​redder.

The ​brightness ​of a star depends upon where it is measured

- at a standard distance it can be represented using ​absolute
or ​apparent magnitude.
- A star’s ​absolute magnitude​ is defined to be ​equal​ to
the ​apparent magnitude​ that the star would have if it
were viewed from exactly 10 parsecs (32.6
light-years) away.
- The ​apparent magnitude​ is how bright it appears at a
particular point in space.

A ​Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram) ​shows the

relationship between a star’s ​surface temperature ​and
brightness.​ The main components are shown in the diagram on the right.
- Supergiants (top right)
- Red giants (below supergiants)
- The Main Sequence (a diagonal strip from top left to bottom right)
- White dwarfs (bottom left)
Other stages don’t show on the HR diagram because a star is only in them for a very short
period of time.

Cosmology

The ​Big Bang ​theory states that the universe expanded outwards from a single point.
Evidence for this theory includes:
● Red shift
o The ​red shift ​of light from galaxies shows that they are all ​moving away ​from
us and that those which are ​furthest away ​are moving the ​fastest,​ suggesting
that the universe was formed from an explosion at a single point, evidence for
the Big Bang. This is the principle of the Doppler effect.
● Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
o Just after the Big Bang, lots of ​short wavelength radiation ​should have been
released. This radiation, as the universe expanded over time, would have been
stretched to become ​microwaves.
o The fact that there is ​cosmic microwave background radiation ​present
wherever you point a telescope in the sky provides evidence for the Big Bang.
As the Big Bang theory is currently the only theory which accounts for all the experimental
evidence, it is the most accepted model.

If a wave source is ​moving relative ​to an observer, there will be a ​change​ in the ​observed
frequency and wavelength ​due to the ​Doppler effect. ​An example of this is when the siren of
an ambulance is high-pitched as it approaches you, and low-pitched as it goes away.
change in wavelength velocity of a galaxy λ−λ0 Δλ v
● ref erence wavelength = speed of light λ = λ = c
0 0

Doppler shift is responsible for the ​red-shift ​of light from galaxies which are ​moving away
from Earth, which is when the ​wavelength​ of the light coming from them ​increases.​ The
faster​ it is ​moving,​ the ​more ​its light is ​red-shifted.

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