Chapter-3: Line Generation

Chapter-3: Line generation

Que-1: Geometry:
Ans: -By now we know that the smallest element is a point and that for a raster device, it
is pixel.

-Pixel is the smallest addressable element of raster device. It is derived from the “Picture
Element”.

-The number of pixel of a display device determines the resolution of the device, and
therefore higher number of pixels is preferred for graphics applications.

-Each of these pixels is associated with the coordinate of Cartesian plane.

-These coordinates identify pixel or point. To draw any image or object, some of pixels are
activated by setting some intensity. In other words, the pixels turned on.

-For example, to draw a straight line segment the adjacent pixels between two points are
turned on.

Que-2: Explain Geomatry of Point.

Ans:-The smallest element which can be shown on a graph is a point.

-As in the figure Point A has been positioned in the XY-plane and (x1, y1) is the position of
point A.

- It implies that the A is located at x1 distance in X direction and at y1 distance in Y

direction from the origin (0,0).

- Where the (x1,y1) is known as the coordinates of point A.

 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Que-3: Geometry of line. (Feb-2019, Feb-2018, Jan-2017, Feb-2016)

Ans: -Any two points specified in the Plane will define a line, which means that for
defining the line we must have to specify two points. In the figure 2.2, two points
P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) define a line l1.

-To define the line we need an equation. A random point P(xi,yi) is said to be on the line l1
if and only if it satisfies the equation of the line.

-The equation of a straight line can be derived with the help of slope of a straight line.

- y=mx+b is a straight line equation which is also called slope- Intercept line equation.

slope of a line: It is the rate at which an ordinate of a point on a plane changes with
respect to a change in the horizontal coordinate.

-slope is denoted by m.

-slope(m) = vertical distance between two points / Horizontal distance between two
points.

-let us assume two points P1(x1,y1) and P2 (x2,y2) on a line.

-For this slope is m= (y2-y1) / ( x2-x1).

Types of Slope.(Feb-2020)
-So the slope of any line can be one of four types:

the straight line 1) with positive slope, 2) with negative slope, 3) with zero slope and 4)
with undefined slope.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Que-4: Line Generation Algorithms.

Ans: There are 3 main line drawing algorithms:

1) DDA Algoritm

2) VECGEN Algoritm

3) Bresenham Algorithm

Que-5: DDA Algorithm. (Feb-2020)

Ans: Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm is the simple line generation algorithm
which is explained step by step here.

Step 1 − Get the input of two end points(X0 ,Y0 ) and (X1 ,Y1 ).

Step 2 − Calculate the difference between two end points.

dx = X1 - X0

dy = Y1 - Y0

Step 3 − Based on the calculated difference in step-2, you need to identify the number of
steps to put pixel. If dx > dy, then you need more steps in x coordinate; otherwise in y
coordinate.

if (absolute(dx) > absolute(dy))

Steps = absolute(dx);

else
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Steps = absolute(dy);

Step 4 − Calculate the increment in x coordinate and y coordinate.

Xincrement = dx / (float) steps;

Yincrement = dy / (float) steps;

Step 5 − Put the pixel by successfully incrementing x and y coordinates accordingly and
complete the drawing of the line.

for(int v=0; v < Steps; v++)

x = x + Xincrement;

y = y + Yincrement;

putpixel(Round(x), Round(y));

Advantages of DDA:
-It is simple to implement
-It is faster than direct line equation
-We can not use multiplication method

Disdvantages of DDA:
-Round-off is time consuming

-floating point arithmatic implimentation is time consuming

-sometimes point position is not accurate

Que-6: VECGEN Algorithm. (Feb-2019)

Ans: - The concept of drawing a line or a curve, stepping along a row index (y) or a column
index (x) to determine the corresponding column index or row index respectively is known
as Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA).

- The line equation works well for gentle slope but when the slope is sharp the role of x
and y are interchanged as well as slope m replaced by 1/m. This method is known as
VECGEN method.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Step: 1 If the slope is less than or equal to 1, the unit x intervals dx=1 and compute each
successive y values.

dx=1

m = dy / dx

m = ( y2 - y1 ) / 1

m = ( yk + 1 – yk ) /1

yk+1 = yk + m ------ (2)

Subscript k takes integer values starting from 1,for the first point and increment by 1 until
the final end point is reached.

m -> any real numbers between 0 and 1

Calculate y values must be rounded to the nearest integer

Step: 2 If the slope is greater than 1, the roles of x any y at the unit y intervals dy=1 and
compute each successive y values.

dy=1

m= dy / dx

m= 1/ ( x2-x1 )

m = 1 / ( xk+1 – xk )

xk+1 = xk + ( 1 / m ) ------( 3 )

Equation 2 and Equation 3 that the lines are to be processed from left end point to the
right end point.

Step: 3 If the processing is reversed, the starting point at the right

dx= -1

m= dy / dx

m = ( y2 – y1 ) / -1

yk+1 = yk - m -------- ( 4 )

Intervals dy=1 and compute each successive y values.

Step: 4 Here, dy= -1

m= dy / dx
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

m = -1 / ( x2 – x1 )

m = -1 / ( xk+1 – xk ) \

xk+1 = xk + ( 1 / m ) -------- ( 5 )

Equation 2 and Equation 5 used to calculate pixel position along a line with –ve slope.

This algorithm can also be written in following form:

Step-1: Input two line end points A(xa,ya) and B(xb,yb) and start with the left endpoint
A(xa,ya) and declare Δx, Δy, step, k, xinc, yinc, x, y.

Step-2: Calculate Δx = xb - xa ; Δy = yb - ya [find the difference of end points]

Step-3: If abs(Δx) > abs(Δy) then step = abs(Δx) else step = abs(Δy)

Step-4: We have xinc = Δx / steps and yinc = Δy / steps [Find total intermediate points]

Step-5: setPixel(round(xa), round(xa), 1) [Plot the first point]

Step-6: x = x + xinc; y = y + yinc ; setPixel(round(x), round(y),1) [Plot all points]

Step-7: Repeat step-6 for step times

Advantage of VECGEN:
1) It is a faster method for calculating pixel position then simple line algorithm.

2) It eliminates continues multiplication in equation “Y=mx+b” so that appropriate

increments are applied on x or y.

Disadvantage of VECGEN:
1) Round off error in successive additions can cause the pixel positions to drift away from
the true line path for long line segments.

2) The rounding operations and floating point arithmetic are still time consuming.

Que-7: Explain Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm. (Feb-2019, Feb-2018,

Jan-2017, Feb-2016)
Ans: -The line generating algorithm developed by Bresenham is accurate and faster; which
converts scan lines using incremental integer calculations that can be used to draw not
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

only lines but also used to display circles and other curves.

-As we can see in fig:2.4 last turned on pixel is (2,b) and the problem is which pixel should
be turned on next,(3,c) or (3,d)?

-According to the Bresenham’s algorithm the pixel closest to the line to be drawn will be
chosen. For this he has defined a decision parameter, so let understand what is this
decision parameter?

-Let us assume that we are drawing a line y = mx+b that passes through a point (x0,y0).
Here 0 < m < 1. Let us also assume that the last pixel turned on is (xk,yk) and the decision
to be made is for the next step that is for the vertical distance xk+1 as in fig:2.5.

-Now let us assume a vertical row of pixels which passes through horizontal distance xk+1.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

-There are three vertical points, (xk+1, yk), (xk+1, y) and (xk+1, yk+1), fall on this assumed
line.

-In addition the assumed distance between (xk+1, yk) and (xk+1, y) is d1 and distance
between (xk+1, y) and (xk+1, yk+1) is d2 in figure.

Bresenham's Line-Drawing Algorithm for |m| < 1

Step 1: Input the two line endpoints (x1,y1) and (x2,y2).

Step 2: Calculate constants dx=x2-x1, dy=y2-y1, 2dx, 2dy, and 2dy – 2dx,

Step 3: obtain the starting value for the decision parameter as Pk = 2dy - dx

Step 4: perform the following test:

If Pk < 0, the next point to plot is (xk +1, yk) and Pk +1 = Pk + 2dy

Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk +1, yk +1)and Pk +1 = Pk + 2dy - 2dx

Step 5: Repeat step 4 dx no. of times.

Que-8: Geomatry of Circle.

Ans:- The circle is defined as a set of all points that are placed at a fixed given distance
from a given centre point.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Some of the important terminologies used in the circle are as follows:

Terms Description
Circumference The boundary of the circle is known as the circumference
The line from the centre “O” of the circle to the circumference of the circle
Radius
is called the radius and it is denoted by “r”
The line that passes through the centre of the circle and touches the two
Diameter points on the circumference is called the diameter and
it is denoted by the symbol “D”
Arc is the part of the circumference where the largest arc is called the ma-
Arc
jor arc and the smaller one is called the minor arc
Chord The straight line that joins any two points in a circle is called a chord

Circle Formulas:
Equation of Circle, x2 + y2 = radius2
Area of a circle, A = πr2
The circumference of a circle = 2πr
Diameter = 2 x Radius

Que-9: Geomatry of Ellipse.

Ans: An ellipse is the locus of all those points in a plane such that the sum of their
distances from two fixed points in the plane, is constant. The fixed points are known as the
foci points (singular focus), which are surrounded by the curve.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

The foci(focus) are two fixed points equidistant from the center of the ellipse.

Ellipse is defined by its two-axis along x and y-axis:

1)Major axis: The major axis is the longest diameter of the ellipse, going through the
center from one end to the other, at the broad part of the ellipse. Half of major axis is
called semi-major axis
2)Minor Axis: the minor axis is the shortest diameter of ellipse, crossing through the cen-
tre at the narrowest part. Half of minor axis is called semi-minor axis.
Equation of Ellipse:

Que-10: Explain Line Styles.(Feb-2020)

Ans:- Generally, solid lines, dashed lines, dotted lines and thick lines are used as different
line styles in graphics applications.

- Dashed lines and dotted lines are generated by just a minor modification in our standard
DDA algorithms.

- A dashed line can be generated by inter-dash spaces between the dashes. Generally,
dashes and inter-dash spaces are equal in length whereas a dotted line can be generated
by very short length dashes.

- By using different characters in this method, different line styles can be created.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Que-11: Expalin Thick Lines.

Ans: The thick line primitive is more interesting. A line or a line segment generated by the
standard DDA algorithm is a single pixel width. Let us assume a line with a gentle slope,
that is, a slope less than 1. If you need such a line segment with a thickness of three pixels,
you need to put there a vertical span of three pixels for each value of . Thus, a line with
any width , can be generated just by putting a vertical span of ( w/2) pixels on both the
sides of the central line as shown in fig:2.7
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Let p1(x1,y1) and p2(x2,y2) be the end points of a line segment with width w , which is to
be drawn. Here two parallel line segments will be drawn from a central line(x1,y1) and

(x2,y2) at a distance( w/2).

Que-12: Explain Thick Line Segments.

Ans:- When two thick line segments are connected with each other, they create problems
at the joining end points.

- It creates an angle at the joining end. Joint of two such lines is shown in the figure below:

- The discreteness that occurs while joining two thick lines can be removed from the poly-
lines by adding some additional portion to the joint as some specific types of joining
process.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Que-13: Explain Line Caps. (Feb-2020, Feb-2018, Jan-2017, Feb-2016)

Ans:- When we construct the thick lines the issue is generated for its ends whether it
should be vertical or horizontal.

- To clear this issue line caps can be used.

- There are three basic techniques or caps which are used in graphics applications: 1) butt
cap, 2) round cap, and 3) projecting square cap.

1)Butt Cap: In the butt cap the end positions of the thick lines are adjusted in such a way
that the line segment appears with square ends. The ends of such thick lines are
perpendicular to the original line segment.

2) Round Cap:In the round cap, the upper and lower line boundaries are joined by a
circular arch with a semi-circle of the diameter of the width of the thick line segment.

3) Projecting square Cap:In the projecting square cap, the portion of line segment is just
extended to give a line segment an effect of square.

Que-14 : Explain Thick line joints. (Feb-2018, Jan-2017, Feb-2016)

Ans:-There are three types of Thick line joints:

1) Miter Joint

2) Round Joint

3) Bevel Joint.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

1) Miter Joint: The miter joint is one in which the exterior boundaries of two thick line
segments are extended up to their intersection point – the point where these two line
segments meet each other, if they are extended.

2) Round Joint: In the round joint, the exterior boundaries are connected with a circular
arch with a diameter of total thickness of two thick lines, which are joined.

3) Bevel Joint: The bevel joint is one where butt cap is used to draw line segment and the
little triangle that is created at the joint is filled with color of these two line segments.

Que-15: Expalin Pen Styles.

Ans:- There are many graphics applications, which make use of different pens and brushes
of different shapes.

- Different color is also used with different shapes of pens and brushes. Some of the
brushes and pens are shown in the following figure.

Que-16: Anti-Aliasing of Line.

Ans:-When a line segment of an image is enlarged, one can notice this dimension as
Jaggy boundaries of it as shown in figure.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

-This type of effect is an error in line segment of image. This error is called aliasing.
(jagged line are known as aliasing).

-There are many aliasing error that are observed in practice. Most common aliasing
effects are jagged profile, disappeared or improper line details, and disintegrating
texture.

-Jagged profile or jagged line is the most probable and known effect.

-The process of removing aliasing error is called anti-aliasing. In other words, the process
of making image boundary smoother, is called anti-aliasing process.

Methods of Anti-aliasing: There are Two general approaches:

1) Super-sampling:
-samples at higher resolution, then filters down the resulting image

-Sometimes called post-filtering

-The prevalent form of anti-aliasing in hardware

-It is expensive method.

2) Area sampling:
-sample primitives with a box (or Gaussian, or whatever) rather than spikes

-Requires primitives that have area (lines with width) -Sometimes referred to as pre-
filtering

a) Unweighted area sampling:

Fill pixels according to the proportion of their square covered by the line

b) Weighed area sampling:

weight the contribution according to where in the square the primitive falls
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Short Questions
Que-1: What is line segment? How to find a slope of line segment?(Feb-2020,
Feb-2018)
Ans: -Any two points specified in the Plane will define a line, which means that for
defining the line we must have to specify two points.

-y=mx+b is a straight line equation.

slope of a line: It is the rate at which an ordinate of a point on a plane changes with
respect to a change in the horizontal coordinate.

-slope is denoted by m.

-slope(m) = vertical distance between two points / Horizontal distance between two
points.

-slope (m)= (y2-y1) / ( x2-x1).

Que-2: Explain slope of a line segment.(Jan-2017)

Ans: - slope of a line is the rate at which an ordinate of a point on a plane changes with
respect to a change in the horizontal coordinate.

-slope is denoted by m.

-slope(m) = vertical distance between two points / Horizontal distance between two
points.

-slope (m)= (y2-y1) / ( x2-x1).

Que-3: Define intercept of line. How to find the intercept of line?(Feb-2019)

Ans: -The intercepts of a graph are points at which the graph crosses the axes.
-The x-intercept is the point at which the graph crosses the x-axis. At this point, the y-
coordinate is zero.
-The y-intercept is the point at which the graph crosses the y-axis. At this point, the x-
coordinate is zero.
-To determine the x-intercept, we set y equal to zero and solve for x. Similarly, to deter-
mine the y-intercept, we set x equal to zero and solve for y.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Que-4: Define Circle and chord of a circle.(Feb-2018)

Ans: -The circle is defined as a set of all points that are placed at a fixed given distance
from a given centre point.

-Chord: The straight line that joins any two points in a circle is called a chord

-Equation of Circle, x2 + y2 = radius2

Que-5:What is an ellipse?(Feb-2019, Feb-2016)

Ans:- An ellipse is the locus of all those points in a plane such that the sum of their
distances from two fixed points in the plane, is constant. The fixed points are known as the
foci points (singular focus), which are surrounded by the curve.

- The foci(focus) are two fixed points equidistant from the center of the ellipse.
 Chapter-3: Line Generation

Que-6:Explain major axis and minor axis of ellipse.(Feb-2019, Jan-2017)

Ans: Ellipse is defined by its two-axis along x and y-axis:

1) Major axis: The major axis is the longest diameter of the ellipse, going through the
center from one end to the other, at the broad part of the ellipse. Half of major axis is
called semi-major axis
2) Minor Axis: the minor axis is the shortest diameter of ellipse, crossing through the cen-
tre at the narrowest part. Half of minor axis is called semi-minor axis.

Que-7:What is aliasing? How will you remove it?(Feb-2020, Jan-2017, Feb-

2016)
Ans: - When a line segment of an image is enlarged, one can notice this dimension as
Jaggy boundaries of it as shown in figure.

-This type of effect is an error in line segment of image. This error is called aliasing.
(jagged line are known as aliasing).

-The process of removing aliasing error is called anti-aliasing. In other words, the process
of making image boundary smoother, is called anti-aliasing process.

-Methods of Anti-aliasing:

-There are Two general approaches for anti-aliasing:

1) Super-sampling

2) Area sampling