Lecture 8

SEE211
Energy, Climate Change and Sustainability
Thermodynamics
Ø Interaction of the system with its surroundings is important
• True for energy conversion systems

Electrical
Heat Work
Energy

Ø Work: ! = #. %& (Force * Distance)

Ø Energy: %' = (. %) (heat capacity * temperature change)

First Law
Ø Energy Conservation

• Incremental change in total energy of the system related to changes in the

work (done by the system) and heat (to the system)
o !" = $% − $' OR ∆" = ∆% − ∆'

• Sum of the system energy change (dE), incremental work (dW) and heat
added to the environment (-dQ) is always zero.

• Q and W: path dependent

• ∆": initial and final states
Second Law
Ø First law
• does not say anything about irreversibility or spontaneity making it incomplete.
• No mention of the direction of the process

Ø Second law: Defines the direction and the extent of maximum work obtained
• It is impossible to make a cyclic process in which heat supplied from a single source can be fully converted
to the work.
• In simple words
o Heat always flows spontaneously from higher to lower temperature regions
o In a cyclic process, all heat cannot be converted into work. Some heat must be rejected to a sink at a lower temperature
than the heat source.

• For an actually possible infinitesimal process without exchange of mass with the surroundings i.e. irreversible
process in a closed system
!"
o !" ≥ (Clausius inequality) (different differential notations for incremental changes)
#
o Entropy can never decrease for a process
Thermal system
Ø Related to conventional energy

Ø Consist of components that have steady flow of fluids

• Heat exchanger, turbine, boiler, compressor etc

Ø Change in fluid enthalpy (for unit mass)

• ∆, = ,,-. − ,/0 = & − /
• Q=0, turbines, pumps, compressor (adiabatic)
• W=0, heat exchanger
• Combustion chamber is both
Heat transfer
ØHeat exchange happens in all thermal systems

ØTime rate of heat transfer "̇ = ℎ%∆'

• h: heat transfer coefficient
Fossil fuel burning
Ø Fossil fuels drive the modern power generation
1 1
• (0 )1 + + + ,3 → +. (,3 + )3, + )/01
2 3

!
*+ ,-
"
Ø Oxygen/Fuel mass is the stoichiometric ratio (O/F):
.+,-/

Ø Air/Fuel ratio = 4.319 (O/F): important parameter in combustion

Fuel Heating Value
Amount of heat available to be transferred to the working fluid (energy per unit
mass of the fuel)

H p=constant Reactants Products Example:

Combustion chamber with steady state flow of air-fuel mixture
Initial Pressure: PR, Initial temperature: TR

Fuel is burnt with no heat loss (Adiabatic)

Cooling HR (TR, p)=HP (TP, p)

TR TP T Upon Cooling ∆, = ,1 41 , 6 − ,1 42 , 6 = ,2 42 , 6 − ,3 44 , 6
P = constant

TP: Adiabatic combustion temperature

9̇ 8
234 57, 7 = 37 57, 7 − 39 57, 7
9̇ 7

Can be measured using calorimeter

Ref: Jay and Golomb, Table 3.1
Ideal Heat Engine Cycles
Ø Needed for drawing mechanical work from fossil fuels

Ø Fossil fuelsà Combustionà transfer of heat to/by a fluidà mechanical work by/on the
fluid
• Pistons or turbines

Ø Movement of fluid through a cycle: heat engine

6 (08. 9,4: ,-.3-.)
• Thermal Efficiency :.5 =
" (58<. <!!8!)

Ø Extent of work extracted governed by thermodynamic laws

Carnot Cycle Sadi Carnot, 1824 (France)

Ø Impractical but excellent example

Isothermal Expansion
Heat engine (+QH)

Isentropic Expansion
Compression

(Adiabatic)
(Adiabatic)
Isentropic
(Fuel)
(Source: Wikipedia)

Heat engine: a cylinder with a movable piston

Isothermal Compression
&= &> (-QC)
&= − &> = / = ; )!* = ; 4!" =
4= 4>
= (?@AB @CDEFGHI) NA
<?@ = =M−
K& (LHED EIIHI) N&

Carnot's theorem is a formal statement of this fact:

No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot engine
operating between those same reservoirs.
Carnot Cycle (contd..)
TH cannot exceed TADIABATIC

$!" %$#
So, one can at best add a fraction of FHV to the hot reservoir which is
$!" %$$

#! !!" "!#
(!" = ) −
#" !!" "!$

Question: The Carnot engine is not a practical device, so why not?

Rankine Cycle William Rankine, 1850s (Scotland)

Ø Steam cycle used in thermal power plants, used for generating

mechanical power from burning fossil fuels
Turbine

• Fuel burned with air , producing heat

• Heat used to produce steam through
Condenser boilers
• Steam powers a turbine

Boiler • Fuel transfers its FCV to fluid

Pump • Heat is then converted to work
(Source: Wikipedia)

• Mechanically robust
• Very practical
Rankine Cycle
Energy and mass balance
Isentropic compression /̇ 3-B3
1–2 (Pumping of fluid from low to high pressure = HC − HD = R *!)
into the boiler) Ṗ
Heating at constant pressure in boiler &̇ /0
2–3 (Heating in the boiler to get a dry saturated = HE − HC
vapour) Ṗ
Isentropic expansion
(Expansion of vapour in the turbine,
6̇ $%&'()*
3–4 generating power, lowering the temperature = HE − HG = ∫ *!)
Ḃ
Steam Steam and pressure of the vapour)
Some condensation may occur.
+
Water Cooling at constant pressure in condenser &̇ ,-.
4–1 (Condensation of wet vapour into a condenser = HG − HD
at a constant pressure into a saturated liquid)
Ṗ

/̇ .-4H/08 − /̇ 3-B3 /̇ .-4H/08

:.5 = ≈ < 40% usually
(Wikipedia) &̇ /0 &̇ /0

• Efficiency depends on the properties of working fluid unlike Carnot

• Increasing boiler pressure increased efficiency