Rituparna Banerjee, Arun K. Verma, Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui - Natural Antioxidants - Applications in Foods of Animal Origin-Apple Academic Press (2017)
Rituparna Banerjee, Arun K. Verma, Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui - Natural Antioxidants - Applications in Foods of Animal Origin-Apple Academic Press (2017)
Edited by
Rituparna Banerjee, MVSc
Arun K. Verma, PhD
Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD
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Natural antioxidants : applications in foods of animal origin / edited by Rituparna Banerjee, MVSc,
Arun K. Verma, PhD, Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-459-4 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-315-36591-6 (PDF)
1. Antioxidants. 2. Food of animal origin. 3. Food additives. I. Siddiqui, Mohammed Wasim, author,
editor II. Banerjee, Rituparna, author, editor III. Verma, Arun K., author, editor
Names: Banerjee, Rituparna, editor. | Verma, Arun K., editor. | Siddiqui, Mohammed Wasim, editor.
Title: Natural antioxidants : applications in foods of animal origin / editors, Rituparna Banerjee,
MVSc, Arun K. Verma, PhD, Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD.
Description: Toronto : Apple Academic Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017003500 (print) | LCCN 2017004858 (ebook) (print) | LCCN 2017004858
(ebook) | ISBN 9781771884594 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315365916 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Antioxidants. | Food--Preservation. | Oils and fats, Edible--Deterioration. | Lipids-
-Oxidation.
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ABOUT THE EDITORS
articles, and three book chapters to his credit. He has presented more than 25
papers at various seminars, symposia, and conferences.
has received several grants from various funding agencies to carry out his
research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has been associated with postharvest tech-
nology and processing aspects of horticultural crops. He is very engaged in
teaching (graduate and doctorate students) and research, and he has proved
himself as an active scientist in the area of postharvest technology.
CONTENTS
Index .....................................................................................................................383
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Sumit Arora
Dairy Technology Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 132001, Haryana, India
Ugochukwu Anyanwu
North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, USA
Rituparna Banerjee
ICAR-National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla 500092, Hyderabad, India
A. K. Biswas
Division of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly
243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sanket Borad
Dairy Technology Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 132001, Haryana, India
Javier Carballo
Área de Tecnología de los Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias de Ourense, Universidad de Vigo, Ourense
32004, Spain
Manat Chaijan
Food Technology and Innovation Center of Excellence, Department of Agro-Industry, School of Agricul-
tural Technology, Walailak University, Thasala 80160, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
M. K Chatli
Department of Livestock Products Technology, GADVASU, Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India
Ruben Domínguez
Centro Tecnológico de la Carne de Galicia, Rua Galicia No. 4, Parque Tecnológico de Galicia, San
Cibrao das Viñas, Ourense 32900, Spain
Gauri Jairath
Department of Livestock Products Technology, LUVAS, Hisar 125001, Haryana, India
Tom Jones
Meat Products, Global Applications and Product Development, Kalsec®, Inc., Kalamazoo, MI 49006,
USA. E-mail: [email protected]
V. V. Kulkarni
ICAR-National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla 500092, Hyderabad, India
Rewa Kulshrestha
Bilaspur University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
José M. Lorenzo
Centro Tecnológico de la Carne de Galicia, Rua Galicia No. 4, Parque Tecnológico de Galicia, San
Cibrao das Viñas, Ourense 32900, Spain
xii List of Contributors
Minaxi
Agricultural Structures and Environmental Control Division, ICAR- Central Institute of Post-Harvest
Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India
B. M. Naveena
ICAR-National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla 500092, Hyderabad, India
Worawan Panpipat
Functional Food Research Unit, Department of Agro-Industry, School of Agricultural Technology,
Walailak University, Thasala, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
V. Rajkumar
Goat Products Technology Laboratory, ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom,
Farah, Mathura 281122, Uttar Pradesh, India
Reza Tahergorabi
Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Food and Nutritional Sciences, North Carolina Agricul-
tural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, USA
Neelam Upadhyay
Dairy Technology Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 132001, Haryana, India
N. Veena
Dairy Chemistry Division, College of Dairy Science and Technology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and
Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana 141001, Punjab, India
Arun K. Verma
Goat Products Technology Laboratory, ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom,
Farah, Mathura 281122, Uttar Pradesh, India
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
•
OH hydroxyl radical
1
O2 singlet oxygen
4-NHE 4-hydroxynonenal
ABTS 2,2ʹ-azino-bis3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid
ADF antioxidant dietary fiber
ADI acceptable daily intake
ADP adenosine diphosphate
AF antioxidant factor
AGEs advanced glycation end products
AH antioxidant
AH• L-ascorbic acid radical
AH2 L-Ascorbic acid
AI atherogenic index
ALE advanced lipid oxidation end
AOA antioxidant activity
APE allylic position equivalent
ARP anti-radical power
aw water activity
BAPE bis-allylic position equivalent
BCAAs branched chain amino acids
BHA butylated hydroxy anisole
BHT butylated hydroxy toluene
BPR bael pulp residue
C of V coefficient of variance
CA citric acid
Ca calcium
CB control biscuits
CF commercially available fat
CFR code of federal regulations
CHD coronary heart diseases
CIE International Commission on Illumination
CLA conjugated linoleic acid
CO2 carbon dioxide
CP cauliflower powder
xiv List of Abbreviations
Many food preservation strategies can be used for the control of oxidation
in foods; however, these quality problems are not yet controlled adequately.
Although synthetic antioxidant agents are approved in many countries,
their excessive use has increased pressure on food manufacturers to either
completely remove these agents or to adopt natural alternatives for the
maintenance or extension of a product´s shelf life. Therefore, the use of
natural safe and effective preservatives is a demand of food consumers and
producers.
Foods of animal origin are one of the key components of our diet supplying
several vital nutrients like protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Fat is one of
the most important nutrients in foods of the animal origin and is composed
of various fatty acids such as saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids. Depending upon the nature and origin of foods, propor-
tion of these fatty acids varies. As the amount of unsaturated fatty acids
increases, the animal foods become more vulnerable to oxidation. Oxidation
of fat damages the nutritional and sensory characteristics, particularly flavor
of food products, and thus affects their storage stability. Proteins in animal
foods are also susceptible to the oxidation thus affecting the quality of foods.
Moreover, during processing and storage, food products undergo changes
in their physicochemical characteristics leading to development of oxygen-
ated free radicals which initiate the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids
while destruction of the endogenous antioxidant system. Various approaches
are being applied to minimize the oxidation of these foods such as use of
antioxidants and anaerobic and active packaging.
The search of new safe substances for food preservation is being
performed around the world. Many naturally occurring bioactive compounds
can be considered as good alternatives to synthetic antioxidant food addi-
tives. Natural antioxidants could be extracted from various plant and
animal sources. These are extracted using different approaches and solvents
depending upon feasibility and yield. In foods of animal origin such as
meat and meat products, dairy products, fish and fish products, and poultry
products, natural antioxidants are applied in various forms and ways. As
such, there is no compiled literature on the oxidation of animal products and
approaches for its reduction. In this book, attempts are made to address the
xx Preface
aforesaid issues and appraise the potential use of antioxidants from natural
sources to ameliorate the oxidative stress in animal products, to prevent
lipid–protein oxidation, and to improve oxidative stability considering
demand for safety and nutrition.
This book, Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal
Origin, will be a standard reference work describing the potential of natural
antioxidants in the animal food industries. It will also contemplate the senso-
rial and toxicological shortcomings of using natural products. This proposed
book looks forward to promoting the use of natural extracts and fulfilling
consumer demands for healthier foods.
CHAPTER 1
MECHANISM OF OXIDATION IN
FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN
MANAT CHAIJAN* and WORAWAN PANPIPAT
Food Technology and Innovation Center of Excellence, Department
of Agro-Industry, School of Agricultural Technology, Walailak
University, Thasala 80160, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
*
CONTENTS
Abstract ........................................................................................................2
1.1 Introduction .........................................................................................2
1.2 Impact of Lipid Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin .......................3
1.3 Basic Mechanism of Lipid Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin .....5
1.4 Effect of Intrinsic Factors and Processing Parameters in
Lipid Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin .....................................10
1.5 Myoglobin Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin ............................18
1.6 Interrelationship Between Lipid Oxidation and Myoglobin
Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin ...............................................20
1.7 Interaction Between Lipid Oxidation Products and Myoglobin .......27
1.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................28
Keywords ...................................................................................................29
References ..................................................................................................29
2 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
(PUFA) and other lipid substrates, causing significant losses in food quality,
health, and well-being (Chaijan et al., 2006; Chaijan, 2008). Lipid oxidation
in food systems is a detrimental process. It is difficult to find a food compo-
nent that would not be capable of affecting lipid oxidation because lipids are
only a part of a food product (Kolakowska, 2002). Generally, lipid oxidation
deteriorates the sensory quality and nutritive value of a product, poses a
health hazard, and presents a number of analytical problems (Kolakowska,
2002). Lipid oxidation is also one of the main factors limiting the quality
and acceptability of meats and other muscle foods, especially following
refrigerated and frozen storages (Zamora & Hidago, 2001; Renerre, 2000;
Morrissey et al., 1998). Oxidation of lipids is accentuated in the immediate
post-slaughter period, during handling, processing, storage, and cooking.
This process leads to discoloration, drip losses, off-odor and off-flavor devel-
opment, texture defects, and the production of potentially toxic compounds
in meat products (Richards et al., 2002; Morrissey et al., 1998).
Hydroperoxide is a primary oxidation product during storage of foods
which is readily decomposed to a variety of volatile compounds including
aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols (Frankel et al., 1984). The formation of the
secondary lipid oxidation products is one of the main causes of the devel-
opment of undesirable odors in muscle foods. Human olfactory receptors
usually have remarkably low organoleptic thresholds to most of these vola-
tile compounds (Ke et al., 1975; McGill et al., 1977). The effect of lipid
oxidation and off-odor development in postmortem fish has been reported.
Lipid oxidation is mainly associated with the rejection by consumer due to
the off-odor and off-flavor. Flavor is a very complex attribute of meat palat-
ability. Rancid or fishy odor has been identified as a common off-flavor asso-
ciated with fish flesh and directly related with the formation of the secondary
lipid oxidation products (Ke et al., 1975; McGill et al., 1977; Sohn et al.,
2005; Thiansilakul et al., 2010). Varlet et al. (2006) reported that carbonyl
compounds, such as heptanal or (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal, show a high detection
frequency and odorant intensity in salmon (Salmo salar), giving the flesh its
typical fishy odor. The fishy volatiles identified in the boiled sardine were
dimethyl sulfide, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, 2-ethyl-
furan, valeraldehyde, 2,3-pentanedione, hexanal, and 1-penten-3-ol (Kasa-
hara & Osawa, 1998).
Lipid oxidation usually causes a decrease in consumer acceptance.
However, in some cases, lipid oxidation leads to enhancement of product
quality such as the enzymatic production of fresh fish aromas and the cured
meat flavor derived from lipid oxidation during ripening (Ladikos & Lougo-
vois, 1990). A notable exception is observed in dry cured country hams and
Mechanism of Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin 5
some fermented sausages and the desirable flavor of which does not occur
until hydrolysis of some of the fat and a certain degree of oxidation has taken
place during ripening (Pearson et al., 1977). On the other hand, lipid oxida-
tion during cooking may be a source of intermediate which react with other
components to give important constituents of the desirable flavor of normal
cooked meat (Enser, 1987). The types of flavor developed from the volatile
lipid oxidation compounds depend on a multitude of complex interactions,
concentration ranges, and the medium in which they are tasted (Frankel,
1984). Many of the reactions involved in the formation of volatile aroma
compounds from lipid, follow the same basic pathways for both thermal and
rancid oxidation and similar volatile products are formed. However, subtle
differences in the precise mechanisms of oxidation under storage conditions
and under thermal processing lead to mixtures of volatiles exhibiting both
qualitative and quantitative differences (Mottram, 1987).
The two major components involved in lipid oxidation are unsaturated fatty
acids and oxygen. In this process, atmospheric oxygen is added to some
fatty acids, producing unstable intermediates that finally breakdown to
form unpleasant flavor and aroma compounds (Erickson, 2003). Although
enzymatic and photogenic oxidation may play a role, the most common and
important process by which unsaturated fatty acids and oxygen interact is a
free radical mechanism (Erickson, 2003). A free radical reaction or autoxi-
dation is the main reaction involved in oxidative deterioration of food lipids,
including foods of animal origin (Hoac et al., 2006). It is a chain reaction that
consists of initiation, propagation, and termination reactions, and involves
the production of free radicals (Gunstone & Norris, 1983; Nawar, 1996;
6 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
1. Initiation
Initiator free radicals (R•, ROO•)
2. Propagation
R •+ O 2 ROO• ; ROO• + RH ROOH + R•
3. Termination
R• + R• R-R
R• + ROO• ROOR
ROO• + ROO• ROOR + O2
FIGURE 1.1 Mechanism of lipid oxidation via free radical route.
two free radicals combine to terminate the process. The lipid radical reacts
very quickly with atmospheric oxygen making a peroxyl radical which again
may abstract hydrogen from another acyl chain, resulting in the formation
of a lipid hydroperoxide and a new radical. By themselves, lipid hydroper-
oxides are not considered harmful to food quality; however, they are further
degraded into compounds, especially aldehydes that are responsible for off-
flavors (Erickson, 2003).
To break the repeating sequence of propagating steps, two types of
termination reactions are encountered: radical–radical coupling and radical–
radical disproportionation, a process in which two stable products are
formed from free radicals by an atom or group transfer process. In both
cases, non-radical products are formed. However, the termination reactions
are not always efficient. When coupling gives rise to tertiary tetroxides, they
decompose to peroxyl radicals at temperatures above −80 °C and to alkoxyl
radicals at temperatures above −30 °C. On the other hand, secondary and
primary peroxyl radicals, terminate efficiently by a mechanism in which the
tetroxide decomposes to give molecular oxygen, an alcohol, and a carbonyl
compound (Erickson, 2003). On the other word, termination of free radical
oxidative reaction occurs when two radical species (peroxyl, alcoxyl, or
alkyl) react with each other to form a non-radical adduct. Free radical reac-
tions can also be terminated when one of the lipid radicals reacts with an
AH proper, because hydrogen abstraction by a peroxide radical from the AH
molecule produces an inert AH radical (Kolakowska, 2002).
1.3.2 PHOTOOXIDATION
LOX-catalyzed lipid oxidation differs from the free radical reaction by the
formation of hydroperoxides at a certain position of the chain of a free fatty
Mechanism of Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin 9
acid. LOX use molecular oxygen to catalyze the stereo and regiospecific
oxygenation of PUFA with 1-cis, 4-cis-pentadiene moieties (Kolakowska,
2002). LOX react enzymatically with more than one methylene carbon on
the substrate molecule to yield double oxygenation sites (German et al.,
1992). The newly formed fatty acid peroxy free radical removes hydrogen
from another unsaturated fatty acid molecule to form a conjugated hydro-
peroxy diene. LOX forms a high-energy (radical) intermediate complex with
the substrate; this complex is capable of initiating the oxidation of lipids
and other compounds (e.g., carotenoids, chlorophyll, tocopherols, thiol
compounds, and protein), which can themselves interact with the enzyme
substrate complex as well (Hammer, 1993; Hultin, 1994).
Kolakowska (2002) reported that mammalian LOX are categorized
according to the positional specificity of oxygen insertion into arachi-
donic acid. Four isoform positions of arachidonate LOX have been identi-
fied: 5-LOX (E.C. 1.13.11.34), 8-LOX, 12-LOX (E.C. 1.13.11.31), and
15-LOX (E.C. 1.13.11.33). The LOX that catalyzes oxidation of linoleate
(E.C.1.13.11.12) attacks linoleic acid, both at position 9 and position 13.
In chicken meat arachidonate, 15-LOX was found to be active during
12-month storage at −20 °C (Grossman et al., 1988). In frozen-stored
fish, LOX contributes to oxidative lipid deterioration. However, LOX in
fish is also responsible for the formation of desirable fresh fish flavor, the
seaweed flavor (Lindsay, 1994). Some species show a higher activity of
12-LOX, while 15-LOX is more active in others; for this reason, the fresh
fish flavor spectrum is species dependent. The half-lives of 12- and 15-
LOX at 0 °C were less than 3 h and more than 10 h, respectively (German
et al., 1992). LOX was observed to be active in cold-stored fish after 48 h
of storage (Medina et al., 1999). The storage of herring, three weeks at
−20 °C, resulted in an increase in LOX activity. During prolonged frozen
storage of herring, a decrease in LOX activity was observed (Samson &
Stodolnik, 2001). Sae-leaw et al. (2013) reported that the development of
fishy odor in Nile tilapia skin during iced storage was mostly governed by
lipid oxidation via autoxidation or induced by LOX. Although the partici-
pation of LOX in the post mortem animal lipid oxidation is acknowledged,
the role of LOX in lipid oxidation is much more important in plant than
in animal food products. LOXs are responsible for the off flavor in frozen
vegetables (Ganthavorn et al., 1991), lipid oxidation in cereal products,
rapeseed, pea, avocado, and muscle foods, and for the beany and bitter
flavor (Frankel, 1998).
10 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Ladikos and Lougovois (1990) reported that the nature and relative propor-
tions of the compounds formed from lipid oxidation depend at least in part on
the composition of the fat of the animal from which they are derived, which
may reflect a variety of factors including the nature of diet (Pearson et al.,
1977). Additionally, factors such as processing and storage conditions, type
of ingredients and concentration of pro- or antioxidants, are very important in
determining the rate of development and the possible deteriorative effects of
lipid oxidation. Therefore, the extent of lipid oxidation can be influenced by
both intrinsic and extrinsic factors such as the content and activity of pro- and
antioxidants, endogenous ferrous iron, myoglobin, enzymes, pH, tempera-
ture, ionic strength, irradiation, oxygen consumption reaction, surface area
in contact with oxygen, water activity (aw), and the fatty acid composition of
the meat (Andreo et al., 2003; Undeland, 2001; Harris & Tall, 1994; Renerre
& Labas, 1987; Castell et al., 1965; Nawar, 1996; Slabyj & Hultin, 1984;
Undeland et al., 2003). Erickson (2003) summarized typical responses exhib-
ited by muscle tissue during storage following various treatments. Processing
treatments like bleeding, curing, smoking, glazing, edible coating, freezing
and packaging inhibit the lipid oxidation whereas mincing, salting, rinsing
with oxidizing agent, cooking, deep fat frying, and radiation promote the
lipid oxidation. However, responses by muscle foods to some processing
treatments such as washing and skinning are varied among studies.
Slaughter of animals or fish is a necessary first step in converting the
living organism to food. Slaughter methods and the accompanying bleeding
step; however, may affect lipid oxidation through alteration in the removal
of hemoglobin catalysts. For example, bleeding was a potential means in
retarding lipid oxidation, fishy odor development, and microbial growth of
Asian seabass slices during storage in ice (Maqsood & Benjakul, 2011a,
2011b). Electrostatic interactions between hemoglobin and muscle compo-
nents may be an initial step of hemoglobin-mediated lipid oxidation
(Sannaveerappa et al., 2014).
A major cause of muscle food quality deterioration is lipid oxidation and the
changes associated with it. Lipid oxidation is a complex process whereby
Mechanism of Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin 11
1.4.3 TEMPERATURE
Like most chemical reactions, lipid oxidation rates increase with increasing
temperature and time (Hultin, 1992). Saeed and Howell (2002) reported
that the rate of lipid oxidation in frozen Atlantic mackerel increased with
increasing storage time and storage temperature. Furthermore, freezing can
facilitate lipid oxidation, partly because of concentration effects (Foegeding
et al., 1996). The influence of long-term frozen storage, temperature (−25 and
−45 °C) and type of packaging materials (low and medium oxygen barriers)
on the lipid oxidation of frozen Atlantic herring fillets (Clupea harengus)
was studied by Tolstorebrov et al. (2014). The lowest lipid oxidation in term
of PV and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) was detected in
frozen Atlantic herring fillets kept at −45 °C and the packaging material with
a medium oxygen barrier. From the result, the oxygen concentration in the
package was considered to be the dominating factor for the herring’s oxida-
tion during frozen storing.
Cooked meats held in a refrigerator develop rancid odors and flavors
which usually become apparent within 48 h at 4 °C. These flavors are
particularly noticeable after reheating the meat and are referred to as WOF
(Tims & Watts, 1958). The rapid development of oxidized flavor in refrig-
erated cooked meats is in marked contrast to the slow onset of rancidity
commonly encountered in raw meats, fatty tissues, rendered fat, or lard,
which is normally not apparent until they have been stored for weeks or
months (Pearson et al., 1977).
Heating results in the release of heme-bound iron and in forming other
polymers with proteins; those polymers enhance the catalytic effect of iron.
This is also true with respect to the thermal inactivation of enzymes that
contain metals acting as prosthetic groups (e.g., LOX and peroxidases).
These enzymes, even after denaturation, are capable of catalyzing oxida-
tion. On the other hand, heating does not release iron from ferritin, but does
enhance its reduction (Kanner, 1992). The rate of oxidation in the presence
of metals is higher at lower pH than at neutral pH for Fe3+ and Fe2+ (Richards
& Hultin, 2000).
The extent of lipid oxidation in cooked meat appears to be related to the
intensity of heat treatment. Pearson et al. (1977) reported that meat heated
at 70 °C for 1 h developed rancidity rapidly. However, thiobarbituric acid
(TBA) values decreased when the cooking temperature was raised above
80 °C. According to Huang and Greene (1978), meat subjected to high
temperatures and/or long periods of heating developed lower TBA values,
than did samples subjected to lower temperature for a shorter period of time.
14 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
and cooked beef, both during cooking and subsequent storage. Chaijan
(2011) reported that salting caused an increase in lipid oxidation in tilapia
muscle. The effect of sodium chloride on fat oxidation depends on the level
of free moisture in the system (Pearson et al., 1977). According to Love and
Pearson (1971), the oxidative effect of sodium chloride may be attributed to
the action of the reactive chloride ion on lipids, or to a modification of the
heme proteins catalyzing lipid oxidation.
1.4.6 MUSCLE pH
Several studies have shown that lipid oxidation in muscle foods increases
with a decrease in pH (Chen & Waimaleongora, 1981; Ogden et al., 1995;
Tichivangana & Morrissey, 1985). Acid injection and marination have been
used as a practice to improve the water-holding capacity and tenderness of
muscle foods (Ke et al., 2009). In general, the lower the pH values, the
stronger the prooxidant effect. Rapid formation of the oxidized forms of
heme proteins (methemoglobin and metmyoglobin) might contribute to the
rapid oxidation of muscle at acidic pH values (Chaijan et al., 2007). An
increase in iron solubility with decreasing pH could also increase oxida-
tion rates. Vareltzis and Hutin (2007) observed that exposing hemoglobin
and microsomes to low pH affected lipid oxidation rates. When isolated
membranes alone were exposed to low pH, they were less susceptible to
hemoglobin-promoted lipid oxidation. Exposure of cod hemoglobin to pH
3 decreased its prooxidant activity compared to untreated cod hemoglobin
(Vareltzis & Hultin, 2007). However, if cod hemoglobin and isolated cod
microsomes were exposed to low pH together, oxidation was promoted
(Vareltzis & Hultin, 2007).
Hemoglobin-mediated lipid oxidation can be accelerated by reduction in
pH and could be due to enhanced autoxidation of hemoglobin at reduced pH.
Hemoglobin from different fish is known to promote lipid oxidation in fish
muscle differently (Maqsood et al., 2012). Maqsood and Benjakul (2011a)
monitored the lipid oxidation of washed Asian seabass mince added with
hemoglobin from various fish at different pH (6, 6.5, and 7) during 10 days
of iced storage. Hemoglobins accelerated lipid oxidation more effectively
at pH 6, compared with pH 6.5 and 7 as indicated by the higher PV and
TBARS.
Mechanism of Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin 17
Ladikos and Lougovois (1990) postulated that any process causing disruption
of the muscle membrane system, such as grinding, cooking, and deboning,
results in exposure of the labile lipid components to oxygen, and thus accel-
erate development of oxidative rancidity. Destruction of the extremely well
organized structure of living animal cells will bring together lipids, oxidation
catalysts, and enzymes responsible for lipid oxidation. Pearson et al. (1977)
suggested that chopping and emulsification are at least as likely to cause
WOF as grinding or mincing of samples. Dawson and Gartner (1983) attrib-
uted the high oxidative potential of mechanically deboned poultry to the
extreme stress and aeration during the process and the compositional nature
(bone marrow, heme, and lipids) of the product; TBA values increase most
rapidly with decreasing particle sizes, as the latter are related to greater cell
disruption. On the other hand, comminuted beef has a storage life similar to
that of intact pork, despite the differences in fatty acid composition (Enser,
1987).
The mechanical force of tumbling can break the structure of the cell and
organelle membranes which could lead to an exposure of phospholipids
to cellular prooxidants (e.g., iron and heme proteins) or free radicals. The
tumbling process has also been found to promote lipid oxidation in beef
bottom round (Cheng & Ockerman, 2003). However, inhibition of lipid
oxidation by the citric acid marination could be due the removal of prooxi-
dants such as heme proteins by the marination/tumbling procedure. Alter-
nately, inhibition of lipid oxidation could be due to the presence of citric acid
since these molecules are strong metal chelators (Ke et al., 2009).
High pressure (HP) processing has been shown to initiate lipid oxidation in
fresh meat, especially a threshold pressure around 500 MPa seems to exist,
which can lead to reduced quality and shelf life (Bolumar et al., 2014). Two
mechanisms have been proposed to explain the pressure-induced lipid oxida-
tion: (a) increased accessibility of iron from hemoproteins and (b) membrane
disruption. Several studies have observed that the addition of ethylenediami-
netetraacetic acid (EDTA), which can chelate metal ions like iron, can be
correlated with a reduction of the lipid oxidation in meat processed by HP,
which suggests that transition metal ion catalysis is the major factor under-
lying the increased lipid oxidation (Beltran et al., 2004; Ma et al., 2007).
18 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
However, iron release was not observed after HP treatment of chicken breast
(Orlien et al., 2000). In the same study, it was also concluded that the cata-
lytic activity of metmyoglobin did not increase during HP-treatment, indi-
cating that pressure-induced changes of the metmyoglobin conformation that
facilitates the access to the catalytic heme group did not take place (Orlien
et al., 2000). So far, the role of iron in the induction of lipid oxidation of
meats treated by HP is not well established. Membrane disruption facilitates
contact between unsaturated lipids from the membrane and enzymes and
catalysts like heme, nonheme iron as well as other metal cations and, thus,
may contribute to the initiation of lipid oxidation. Recently, the formation of
free radicals during HP has been proposed as a possible mechanism behind
the induction of lipid oxidation in HP processed meats (Bolumar et al., 2011).
Radical formation in the aqueous and lipid phases from HP-treated meat was
first reported by Mariutti et al. (2008), and further studied by Bolumar et
al. (2012), who characterized the kinetics of the formation of radicals in
chicken meat during the application of different HP treatments. It was found
that there is a threshold for the formation of radicals under HP conditions
at 400 MPa at 25 °C and 500 MPa at 5 °C. The chemical mechanism which
leads to the formation of radicals in meats by HP was intensively described
by Bolumar et al. (2014) using electron spin resonance detection. The higher
level of spin adducts was observed in the beef loin than in the chicken breast
with radicals forming in the sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar fractions as well
as in the non-soluble protein fraction due to the HP treatment, indicating
that other radicals than iron-derived radicals were formed, and most likely
protein derived radicals. The addition of EDTA reduced the radical forma-
tion suggesting iron-species (protein-bound or free) catalyzes the formation
of radicals when meat systems are submitted to HP.
and mackerel, and higher contents of both constituents were found in sardine
muscle than mackerel muscle.
Myoglobin is made up of a single polypeptide chain, globin, consisting
of 153 amino acids and a prosthetic heme group, an iron (II) protoporphyrin-
IX complex (Hayashi et al., 1998; Pegg & Shahidi, 1997). This heme group
gives myoglobin and its derivatives their distinctive color (Dunn et al., 1999;
Pegg & Shahidi, 1997). The structure and chemistry of the iron atom have
an impact on the reactions and color changes that myoglobin undergoes
(Livingston & Brown, 1981). The oxidation of ferrous-oxymyoglobin (Fe2+)
to ferric-metmyoglobin (Fe3+) is responsible for discoloration of meat during
storage. Ferrous iron (Fe2+) can react with molecular oxygen to produce
superoxide anion (O2•-) with concomitant oxidation to ferric iron (Fe3+).
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which may be produced by dismutation of O2•-,
can react with Fe2+ to produce hydroxyl radical (OH•) (Hultin, 1992). This
reaction termed as Fenton reaction is the principal mechanism for myoglobin
oxidation (Fig. 1.2).
In general, fish myoglobins are more readily oxidized than the mamma-
lian counterpart (Haard, 1992). Discoloration of tuna meat during frozen
storage is associated with the formation of metmyoglobin (Haard, 1992).
This phenomenon can be influenced by many factors such as pH, tempera-
ture, ionic strength, and oxygen consumption reaction (Renerre & Labas,
1987). Metmyoglobin formation is positively correlated with lipid oxida-
tion (Chan et al., 1997a, 1997b; Lee et al., 2003a, 2003b). Benjakul and
Bauer (2001) suggested that the freeze-thaw process caused damage of cell
and heme-proteins, resulting in the release of prooxidants. Haard (1992)
also reported that fish myoglobins are at least 2.5 times more sensitive to
autoxidation than mammalian myoglobins. Autoxidation of myoglobin
becomes greater as temperature increased and pH decreased (Livingston
et al., 1981; Chaijan et al., 2007). Chaijan et al. (2007) demonstrated that
sardine myoglobin was prone to oxidation and denaturation at tempera-
ture above 40 °C and at very acidic or alkaline pHs as evidenced by the
20 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
in dark muscle than in ordinary muscle of both sardine and mackerel. Satu-
ration of red color in meat was directly related to myoglobin concentration
(Faustman et al., 1992). Other constituents of meat including enzymatic and
non-enzymatic reducing systems can accelerate oxidation by converting iron
from the inactive ferric form to the active ferrous state (Foegeding et al.,
1996). Changes of PV, conjugated diene (CD) and TBARS in sardine muscle
indicated that lipid oxidation occurred throughout 15 days of iced storage.
Apart from a plenty of unsaturated fatty acids, heme protein as well as reac-
tive iron in the muscle might contribute to the accelerated oxidation (Chaijan
et al., 2006).
Under fluctuating oxygen supply and pH decrease of post mortem system,
the heme pigments like hemoglobin and myoglobin become catalytic in
lipid peroxidation by mechanisms involving both one- and two-electron
transfer processes, which are different from mechanisms for lipid oxida-
tion by the non-heme-iron LOX (Carlsen et al., 2005). Reeder and Wilson
(1998) suggested that myoglobin plays a role of photosensitizer which may
be responsible for the initial formation of lipid hydroperoxides and increase
the rate of oxygen uptake of fish oil via a photosensitized oxidation.
The physiologically active myoglobin species are the purple high-spin iron
(II) myoglobin (deoxymyoglobin), which has the sixth coordination site
of the heme iron vacant, and the bright cherry-red low-spin oxy-iron (II)
myoglobin (oxymyoglobin), which bind a molecule of oxygen at the sixth
coordination of the heme iron, due to their high affinity for oxygen (Baron
& Andersen, 2002; Faustman et al., 1999; Gorelik & Kanner, 2001). Distur-
bance of the globin structure can result in binding of the unusual ligands
(e.g., the distal histidine in the heme cavity, exogenous amino acids as histi-
dine and methionine, or a hydroxyl group) at the sixth coordination of the
heme iron and induce the formation of a low-spin iron (II) species, known
as hemochromes. Hemochromes in its oxidation state II can be found either
reversible (binding to the imidazole group of the distal histidine or hydroxyl
ion) or irreversible (binding to the imidazole group of free histidine) (Baron
& Andersen, 2002).
The study regarding prooxidative activity of deoxymyoglobin in biolog-
ical system including muscle foods is scarce (Baron & Andersen, 2002).
This is mainly due to the fact that deoxymyoglobin initiated lipid oxidation
demands strictly anaerobic condition; to exclude oxymyoglobin initiated
Mechanism of Oxidation in Foods of Animal Origin 23
Oxymyoglobin oxidation and lipid oxidation are coupled (Yin & Faustman,
1993). A high correlation between oxymyoglobin oxidation and lipid oxida-
tion both in microsomes and liposomes was reported by Yin and Faustman
(1993, 1994) and O’Grady et al. (2001). Lipid oxidation in fresh meat is
influenced by the oxidation of oxymyoglobin since the oxymyoglobin
oxidation results in production of two species known as the prooxidants,
namely metmyoglobin and H2O2 (Chan et al., 1997a, 1997b). It has been
proposed that O2•- and H2O2 are produced during oxidation of oxymyoglobin
to metmyoglobin (Gotoh & Shikama, 1976). O2•- can further react with H2O2
and Fe3+ via the Fenton reaction to produce OH• and facilitate lipid oxida-
tion (Chan et al., 1997a, 1997b). The prooxidative effect of oxymyoglobin
toward lipid oxidation was concentration-dependent (Chan et al., 1997a,
1997b). Additionally, H2O2 can react with metmyoglobin to form a prooxi-
dative ferrylmyoglobin radical (Decker & Hultin, 1992). Kanner and Harel
(1985) reported that H2O2-activated metmyoglobin caused the rapid oxida-
tion of poultry skeletal muscle microsomes. Moreover, reactive oxygen
species including superoxide, hydroperoxyl radical (HOO•), and H2O2, orig-
inated by the autoxidation of oxymyoglobin (Kruger-Ohlsen & Skibsted,
1997), can cause damage to muscle lipids via oxidation reaction (Skulachev,
1996; Hultin & Kelleher, 2000).
Prooxidative activity of oxymyoglobin in a myoglobin-liposome system
was concentration-dependent and showed the higher activity than did
metmyoglobin. The added sperm whale myoglobin was found to promote
lipid oxidation in washed cod by which lipid oxidation occurred more rapidly
at pH 5.7 compared to pH 6.3 (Grunwald & Richards, 2006b). Prooxidative
activity of oxymyoglobin is difficult to assess because of continuous autoxi-
dation of oxymyoglobin to metmyoglobin. Chan et al. (1997a) and Yin and
Faustman (1993) reported a high correlation between oxymyoglobin oxida-
tion and lipid oxidation both in microsomes and liposomes system. The role
of oxymyoglobin oxidation in lipid oxidation was reported by Chan et al.
24 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
(1997b). Hogg et al. (1994) showed that oxymyoglobin can promote oxida-
tive modification of low-density lipoprotein. Galaris et al. (1990) showed
visible absorption spectral change of oxymyoglobin upon incubation with
linoleic acid at physiological pH. This could be attributed to the formation
of the noncatalytic low-spin myoglobin derivative, hemochrome (Akhrem
et al., 1989).
Metmyoglobin + H2O2 •
MbFe(IV)=O MbFe(IV)=O
1.8 CONCLUSION
KEYWORDS
• mechanism
• lipid oxidation
• myoglobin
• muscle foods
• quality
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CHAPTER 2
NATURAL ANTIOXIDANTS:
OCCURRENCE AND THEIR ROLE IN
FOOD PRESERVATION
AJIT SINGH BHATNAGAR and REWA KULSHRESTHA*
Department of Food Processing and Technology, Bilaspur University,
Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
CONTENTS
Abstract ......................................................................................................41
2.1 Antioxidants: What, Why, and How ................................................41
2.2 Antioxidants Versus Free Radicals ..................................................43
2.3 Synthetic Antioxidants Versus Natural Antioxidants .......................44
2.4 Natural Antioxidants: Dynamics and Mechanism ...........................45
2.5 Role of Lipid Fractions in Radical Scavenging and
Antioxidant Activity ........................................................................46
2.6 Role of Fatty Acids in Oxidative Stability .......................................47
2.7 Vitamin E or Tocols (Tocopherols and Tocotrienols) ......................48
2.8 Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone)............................................................54
2.9 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) ..............................................................55
2.10 Phytosterols......................................................................................60
2.11 Phenolic Compounds .......................................................................63
2.12 Carotenoids ......................................................................................66
2.13 Phytic Acid.......................................................................................69
2.14 Sesame Lignans ...............................................................................73
40 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
body, degenerative disorders, and cancer. Oxidative stress can cause single/
multi-organ disorders/diseases including brain disorders like Alzheimer,
Parkinson, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), attention deficit hyperac-
tivity disorder (ADHD), autism, migraine, stroke, trauma, and cancer; lung
disorders like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), aller-
gies, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and cancer; eye disor-
ders like macular or retinal degeneration and cataract; heart disorders like
coronary heart diseases (CHD), cardiac fibrosis, hypertension, ischemia,
and myocardial infarction; kidney disorders like chronic kidney diseases,
renal graft, and nephritis; bone and joint disorders like rheumatism, osteo-
arthritis, and psoriasis; blood vessel disorders like restenosis, atheroscle-
rosis, endothelial dysfunction, and hypertension; skin disorders like skin
aging, sunburn, psoriasis, dermatitis, and melanoma; multi-organ disorders
like diabetes, aging, and chronic fatigue; and immune system disorders like
chronic inflammations, auto-immune disorders, lupus, inflammatory bowel
disease (IBD), multiple sclerosis (MS), and cancer. Oxidative stress in the
body leads to the generation of free radicals like ROS and RNS which cause
the above-mentioned disorders/diseases. Now, the million-dollar question
is how to reduce the oxidative stress in the body? The answer would be by
slowing down the oxidative processes inside the body. How would it be
achieved? The answer is ANTIOXIDANTS.
As we said earlier, antioxidants are compounds which neutralize free radi-
cals or inhibit free radicals. An antioxidant can be defined as: “any substance
that, when present in low concentrations compared to that of an oxidisable
substrate, significantly delays or inhibits the oxidation of that substrate.”
This oxidisable substrate (lipid, protein, and carbohydrate) can generate
free radicals if it involves transfer of unpaired single electrons. Examples
of oxygen-centered free radicals, also known as ROS, are superoxide (O2−),
hydroxyl (HO•), peroxyl (ROO•), alkoxyl (RO•), and nitric oxide (NO•). The
hydroxyl (half-life of 10−9 s) and the alkoxyl (half-life of seconds) free radi-
cals are very reactive and rapidly attack the molecules in nearby cells, and
probably the damage caused by them is unavoidable and is dealt with by
repair processes (Gülcin, 2012). The repair process involves scavenging free
radicals by antioxidant compounds. Antioxidants have dual role: shelf-life
prolongation and combating oxidative stress. Antioxidants are often added
to foods to prevent the radical chain reactions of oxidation, and they act
by inhibiting the initiation and propagation step leading to the termination
of the reaction and delay the oxidation process (Shahidi & Wanasundara,
1992; Gülcin, 2006). Antioxidants may be broadly grouped according to
their mechanism of action into primary or chain-breaking antioxidants and
Natural Antioxidants: Occurrence and Their Role in Food Preservation 43
Several assays for quantifying antioxidant capacity are known and well
established. Few of them include:
2. DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl).
3. ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)).
4. FRAP (ferric ion reducing antioxidant power).
The use of synthetic antioxidants (such as BHA, BHT, PG, and TBHQ)
to preserve food products for a longer shelf life with retained quality and
organoleptic attributes has become common commercially. However, the
consumers’ concerns regarding their bio-safety have motivated the food
industry to seek natural alternatives. Synthetic phenolic antioxidants BHA,
BHT, PG, and TBHQ effectively inhibit oxidation by scavenging free radi-
cals. Chelating agents, such as EDTA, can bind radically active trace metals
reducing their contribution to the process. Some natural substances like
vitamins (AA, tocols, and phylloquinone), carotenoids, polyphenols/pheno-
lics, PS, sesame lignans, OZ, and phytic acid can also perform the role of
radical scavenging and metal ion chelating effectively and as efficiently as
their synthetic counterparts. Natural antioxidants, mostly absorb light in
the UV region (100–400 nm), can effectively scavenge free radicals, and
chelate transition metals, thus stopping progressive autoxidative damage
and production of off-odors and off-tastes in food products. Consumers
Natural Antioxidants: Occurrence and Their Role in Food Preservation 45
positions suitable for molecular oxygen attack. Both synthetic (BHA, BHT,
and PG) and natural antioxidants contain phenolics (flavonoids) function in
this manner. Natural extracts with antioxidant activity generally quench free
radical oxygen with phenolic compounds (POH) as well. Because bivalent
transition metal ions, Fe2+ in particular, can catalyze oxidative processes,
leading to formation of hydroxyl radicals, and can decompose hydroper-
oxides via Fenton reactions, chelating these metals can effectively reduce
oxidation (Halliwell et al., 1987; Brewer, 2011). Food materials containing
significant amounts of these transition metals (red meat) can be particularly
susceptible to metal-catalyzed reactions. Food tissues, because they are (or
were) living, are under constant oxidative stress from free radicals, ROS, and
pro-oxidants generated both exogenously (heat and light) and endogenously
(H2O2 and transition metals). For this reason, many of these tissues have
developed antioxidant systems to control free radicals, lipid oxidation cata-
lysts, oxidation intermediates, and secondary breakdown products (Naka-
tani, 2003; Agati et al., 2007; Brown & Kelly, 2007; Chen, 2008; Iacopini
et al., 2008; Brewer, 2011). These antioxidant compounds include flavo-
noids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, and tocopherols that can inhibit Fe3+/AA
induced oxidation, scavenge free radicals, and act as reductants (Khanduja,
2003; Ozsoy et al., 2009; Brewer, 2011). Spices and herbs, used in foods for
their flavor and in medicinal mixtures for their physiological effects, often
contain high concentrations of POH that have strong H-donating activity
(Lugasi et al., 1995; Muchuweti et al., 2007; Brewer, 2011).
Radical scavenging activity (RSA) tests are used to evaluate the health
impact of many bioactive compounds found in foods. RSA tests like DPPH
and galvinoxyl free radicals are generally used for seed oils and their free
radical quenching ability are measured by spectrophotometric and ESR
assays. Generally, it is accepted that the higher the degree of unsaturation of
an oil, the more susceptible it is to oxidative deterioration. RSA of seed oil
fractions like neutral lipids (NL), glycolipids (GL), and PL is also studied.
The results revealed that the PL fraction had the strongest antiradical action
followed by GL and NL, respectively (Ramadan et al., 2003). The radical
quenching property of GL was expected to be due to reducing sugars in
all GL components and the sterol moiety in steryl glucoside. Moreover,
less polar POH that have been extracted with GL may be responsible for
Natural Antioxidants: Occurrence and Their Role in Food Preservation 47
the strong antiradical action. On the other hand, four postulates have been
proposed to explain the antioxidant activity of PL:
All edible oils and fats consist of triglycerides with a variety of fatty acids
that differ in chain-length (number of carbon atoms in molecule), degree
of saturation (number of double bond in carbon chain), position of double
bond within the carbon chain, and geometry of each double bond (cis and
trans isomers). Oleic acid is the most abundant monounsaturated fatty acid
(MUFA) in all the common edible oils (Gunstone, 2000; Abdulkarim et al.,
2007). Compared with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), oleic acid is
more stable toward oxidation both at ambient storage temperatures and at the
high temperatures that prevail during the cooking and frying of food. There-
fore, oils with high amounts of oleic acid are slower to develop oxidative
rancidity during shelf life or undergo oxidative decomposition during frying
than those oils that contain high amounts of PUFA. The various strengths
of hydrogen–carbon bond of fatty acids explain the differences of oxidation
rates of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linoleic acids during thermal oxidation
or autoxidation. Compared with (PUFA) (ω-6 and ω-3 PUFA), oleic acid
(ω-9 MUFA) and saturated fatty acids are more stable toward oxidation both
at ambient storage temperatures and at the high temperatures that prevail
during the cooking and frying of food (Abdulkarim et al., 2007).
The oil rich in linoleic acid is more easily polymerized during deep-fat
frying than the oil rich in oleic acid. The energy required to break carbon–
hydrogen bond on the carbon 11 of linoleic acid is 50 kcal/mol (Min & Boff,
2002; Choe & Min, 2007). The double bonds at carbon 9 and carbon 12
decrease the carbon–hydrogen bond at carbon 11 by withdrawing electrons.
The carbon–hydrogen bond on carbon 8 or 11, which is α to the double
bond of oleic acid, is about 75 kcal/mol. The carbon–hydrogen bond on the
saturated carbon without any double bond next to it is ~100 kcal/mol (Min
& Boff, 2002; Choe & Min, 2007). Oxidation produces hydroperoxides and
48 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
is site for tocol biosynthesis and the aromatic amino acid tyrosine is consid-
ered to be its precursor. The mechanism of biosynthesis of tocols involves
coupling of phytyl diphosphate with homogenestic acid (2,5-dihydroxyphen-
ylacetic acid), followed by cyclization and methylation reactions. Vitamin E
compounds include the tocopherols and tocotrienols. Tocotrienols have a
conjugated triene double bond system in the phytyl side chain, while tocoph-
erols do not. Methyl substitution affects the bioactivity of vitamin E, as
well as its in vitro antioxidant activity. Tocopherols or vitamin E have eight
known homologues, that is, α-, β-, γ-, δ- tocopherols and α-, β-, γ-, δ- toco-
trienols. Tocopherols are fat-soluble antioxidants that function as scaven-
gers of lipid peroxyl radicals. Tocopherols’ content is found to be related to
RSA and antioxidant activity of oils. Tocopherols’ content decreases during
processing of oils. There have been many reports on the protective effect of
tocopherols as food antioxidants (Dougherty, 1988). Tocopherols protect PL
and cholesterol against oxidation (Faustman et al., 1989; Li et al., 1996).
Total tocopherol content and major tocopherol homologues differ from one
oil to another (Table 2.1 and Fig. 2.1). The level of tocopherols decreases
with time of storage and heating of oils (Li et al., 1996).
R'
·a/p/7a-tocopherol -CH3 -CH3
beta-tocopherol -CH3 -H
gamma-tocopherol -H -CH3
delta-tocopherol -H -H
CH3
R"
R' tocomeools
L• + O2 → LOO• (2.2)
where LH is a lipid; LOO• is the lipid peroxyl radical, and LOOH is the lipid
hydroperoxide. The main function of α-T is to scavenge the lipid peroxyl
radical before it is able to react with the lipid substrate as shown:
HO
tocopherol hydroquinone
FIGURE 2.2 Mechanism for radical quenching action of α-tocopherol.
Natural Antioxidants: Occurrence and Their Role in Food Preservation 53
0 00 00 00
00
00
0
FIGURE 2.3 Structure of vitamin K1 (phylloquinone).
properties, and low toxicity. AA reacts with superoxide radical (O2), perhy-
droxyl radical (HO2), hydroxyl radical (HO•), and singlet oxygen (Fessenden
& Verma, 1978; Nanni et al., 1980; Cabelli & Bielski, 1983; Ming-Long
& Paul, 1988). Those reactions by AH2 retard lipid autoxidation. Ascorbate
radical is the initial oxidation product of two enzyme reactions that occur in
plants (Loewus & Loewus, 1987; Ming & Paul, 1988). Ascorbate oxidase
is the enzyme that oxidizes AH2 in the presence of oxygen as shown by the
overall reaction below:
HO OH
OH
0
OH
FIGURE 2.4 Ascorbic acid.
TABLE 2.5 Antioxidants Permitted in Foodstuffs for Infants and Young Children (Miková,
2003).
E number Name Foodstuff Maximum level
E 300 L-ascorbic acid Fruit and vegetable based 0.3 g/kg
E 301 Sodium L-ascorbate drinks, juices, and baby foods
2.10 PHYTOSTEROLS
Cholesterol
Stigmasterol
Campesterol
HO
J3-Sitosterol
FIGURE 2.5 Different desmethylsterols of vegetable oils.
TABLE 2.6 Levels of Total Phytosterols (mg/kg) and Desmethylsterols (wt % of Total Sterols) in Some Crude Vegetable Oils (Kamal-Eldin & 62
Appelqvist, 1994; Gunstone, 2002; Codex Stan 210, 2011).
Sterols Coconut Groundnut Mustard Olive oil Palm oil Rice bran oil Safflower Sesame oil Soyabean Sunflower
oil oil oil seed oil oil seed oil
Total sterols 400–1200 900–2900 8000–8800 800–1000 300–700 10500–31000 2100–4600 4500–19000 1800–4500 2400–5000
Cholesterol ND-3.0 ND-3.8 ND-0.4 ND-0.5 2.6–6.7 ND-0.5 ND-0.7 0.1–0.3 0.2–1.4 ND-0.7
Brassicasterol ND-0.3 ND-0.2 10.0–13.2 ND-0.1 ND ND ND-0.4 0.1–0.2 ND-0.3 ND-0.2
Campesterol 6.0–11.2 12.0–19.8 30.0–34.4 3.5–4.0 18.7–27.5 11.0–35.0 9.2–13.3 10.3–20.5 15.8–24.2 6.5–13.0
Stigmasterol 11.4–15.6 5.4–13.2 ND-0.3 2.5–3.0 8.5–13.9 6.0–40.0 4.5–9.6 4.4–14.0 14.9–19.1 6.0–13.0
β-Sitosterol 32.6–50.7 47.4–69.0 40.0–47.9 93.0 50.2–62.1 25.0–67.0 40.2–50.6 57.7–61.9 47.0–60.0 50.0–70.0
δ-5-Avenasterol 20–40.7 5.0–18.8 1.0–2.1 ND-0.5 ND-2.8 ND-9.9 0.8–4.8 6.2–7.8 1.5–3.7 ND-6.9
δ-7-Stigmastenol ND-3.0 ND-5.1 0.8–1.6 ND-0.5 0.2–2.4 ND-14.1 13.7–24.6 0.5–7.6 1.4–5.2 6.5–24.0
δ-7-Avenasterol ND-3.0 ND-5.5 1.0–2.1 ND-0.5 ND-5.1 ND-4.4 2.2–6.3 1.2–5.6 1.0–4.6 3.0–7.5
Others ND-3.6 ND-1.4 ND-0.5 ND-0.5 ND ND 0.5–6.4 0.7–9.2 ND-1.8 ND-5.3
ND: not detected.
Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Natural Antioxidants: Occurrence and Their Role in Food Preservation 63
and storage could reduce the PS bioactivity. Chocolate bars were prepared
containing palm oil (CONT) or 2.2 g of PS (PHYT). All samples were stored
at 20 and 30 °C during five months. A peak of hydroperoxides formation
was observed after 60 days at 20 °C and after 30 days at 30 °C. PS-enriched
samples presented higher values of hydroperoxides than control samples,
which could be attributed to the higher level of α-linolenic acid present in the
PHYT samples. All chocolate bars became lighter and softer after 90 days
of storage. However, these physical changes did not reduce their sensory
acceptability. In addition, PS bioactivity was kept during the storage, since
no significant alterations in the PS esters were observed up to five months.
However, some PS oxidation occurred in the PHYT bars, being sitostane-
triol, 6-ketositosterol, 6β-hydroxycampesterol, and 7-ketocampesterol the
major phytosterol oxidation products (POPs). The POPs/PS ratio was low
(0.001). Therefore, the dark chocolate bars developed in this study kept their
potential functionality after five months of storage at room temperature,
representing an option as a functional food (Botelho et al., 2014).
POH have aromatic hydrocarbon ring with one or more hydroxyl group.
POH contribute to the quality of edible oils by enhancing the shelf life and
flavor stability of oil (Bendini et al., 2006). Several POH have been identified
that inhibit oxidation of fats and oils by interrupting the free radical mecha-
nism of oxidation. Structural groups influencing the antioxidant activity of
POH include position and number of hydroxyl groups, polarity, solubility,
and stability of POH during processing (Soobrattee et al., 2005). Phenolics
present in fats and oils are potent antioxidants and have anticarcinogenic
properties. The antioxidant property of phenolics depends on the structure
and type of phenolics present in oil. Hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives, that
is, gallic acid, vanillic acid, and vanillin show an UV-absorption maxima
at around 280 nm while hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, that is, caffeic,
cinnamic, p-coumaric, and ferulic acids show an UV-absorption maxima at
around 320 nm.
Virgin olive oil has a unique place among vegetable oils because of its
polyphenols and their beneficial role in human health (Visioli, 2000; Tricho-
poulou & Vasilopoulou, 2000). The polyphenols are an important class
of minor constituents linked both to the flavor of virgin olive oil and to
its keeping ability. POH present in olive oil are conventionally character-
ized as “polyphenols,” though not all of them are polyhydroxy aromatic
64 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
2.12 CAROTENOIDS
that pigment may have. The characteristic pattern of alternating single and
double bonds in the polyene backbone of carotenoids allows them to absorb
excess energy from other molecules, while the nature of the specific end
groups on carotenoids may influence their polarity. The former may account
for the antioxidant properties of biological carotenoids, while the latter may
explain the differences in the ways that individual carotenoids interact with
biological membranes (Britton, 1995).
The most important carotenoids are α-carotene, β-carotene,
β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, and lycopene. β-carotene,
α-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin are carotenes that are converted into vitamin
A or retinol in the body. β-carotene is the most widely studied carotenoid.
Lutein and zeaxanthin are both stored in the retina of the eye; however,
neither converts to vitamin A. Both are powerful antioxidants and may be
very important for healthy eyes. Carotenoids are singlet oxygen quenchers
and protect the oil from photo-oxidation (Psomiadou & Tsimidou, 1998). The
structure of some carotenoids of plant origin is provided in Figure 2.7. Among
the vegetable oils, palm oil is the richest source of carotenoids, especially β-
and α- carotenes. In comparison, other vegetable oils contain little amounts of
carotenoids, especially coconut, palmkernel, sesame, and groundnut oils have
very low content of carotenoids. The dark red-orange color of oil palm fruit is
due to the high concentration of carotenoids and anthocynanins. Crude palm
oil, extracted commercially by pressing, contains 400–1000 ppm of carot-
enoids, the variation being due to process conditions, species of oil palm,
and level of oxidation. Carotenoids in palm oil are α-carotene, β-carotene,
phytoene, phytofluene, cis β-carotene, cis α-carotene, δ-carotene, γ-carotene,
ζ-carotene, neurosporene, β-zeacarotene, α-zeacarotene, and lycopene (Table
2.8) (Yap et al., 1991; Jalani et al., 1997). Carotenoids are fat-soluble nutri-
ents and categorized as either xanthophylls or carotenes according to their
chemical composition. Carotenoids are singlet oxygen quenchers and protect
the oil from photo-oxidation (Psomiadou & Tsimidou, 1998).
TABLE 2.8 Composition of Carotenoids in Palm Oil, Given as % of Total Carotenoids (Yap
et al., 1991; Jalani et al., 1997).
Carotenoids Elaeis guineesis variety Elaeis oleifera variety crude
crude palm oil palm oil
Total (ppm) 500–700 4300–4600
Phytoene 1.27 1.12
Cis β-carotene 0.68 0.48
Phytofluene 0.06 Trace
68 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
~-Carotene
a-Carotene
~-carotene
l5- carotene
Phytic acid is one of the bioactive compounds that are being intensively
studied to evaluate their effects on health. It has been shown to have poten-
tial as anticancer agent which only affects malignant cells and does not
affect normal cells and tissues (Vucenik & Shamsuddin, 2003). Phytic
acid is a simple ranged carbohydrate with six phosphate groups attached to
each carbon (Shamsuddin, 2002). It serves as the major phosphorus storage
compound in plant in the seed, as well as being a natural antioxidant by its
chelating properties and reduction of the catalytic activities of many divalent
transition metals (Verghese et al., 2006). The chelation ability of phytic acid
with minerals has been suggested to have beneficial effects toward lowering
serum cholesterol and triglycerides and suppression of iron-mediated oxida-
tion (Lee et al., 2005). A variety of benefits of phytic acid on human health
has also been reported including its potential as an anti-cancer property in
soft tissue, colon, prostate, metastatic, and mammary cancers. It may also act
as an inhibitor for renal stone development (Dost & Tokul, 2006). In whole
grain cereals such as corn, wheat, and rice, the ranges of phytic acid is from
1.5 to 6.4% while defatted and dehulled oilseed meals such as soy, peanut,
and sesame contain 1.5% or more of the compound (Grases et al., 2004).
Phytic acid is primarily found in the outer layers (bran) of unpolished rice.
Phytin is a white amorphous powder, odorless and tasteless, almost insol-
uble in water, soluble in dilute mineral acids and in some organic acids. One
part phytin dissolves in 10 parts of 1 N hydrochloric acid and forms a clear
solution. According to some authors, phytin contains 36% organically bound
phosphoric acid. Upon heating with dilute acids, alkali, and water, phytin hydro-
lyzes to give o-phosphoric acid and the cyclitol myo-inositol as end products.
These are obtained together with some other products of semi-degradation.
Phytic acid (myo-inositol 1,2,3,4,5,6 hexakisphosphate) is the most abun-
dant form of phosphorus in rice and is virtually indigestible by humans or
non-ruminant livestock and hampers the nutritional value of rice and its
milling by-product rice bran (Larson et al., 2000). Studies have demonstrated
that the antinutrient effect of phytic acid can be manifested only when large
quantities of phytic acid are consumed in combination with a diet poor in
oligoelements (Shamsuddin & Vucenik, 2005). IP6 (phytic acid, phytin) is a
6-phosphate ester of inositol (Saad et al., 2011). It exists in almost all plants
as its mixed calcium and magnesium salts (phytin) and, especially, seeds and
grains contain it in a lot of amount.
It is considered as the storage of organic phosphates of plants with
60~90% of entire phosphorus quantity being in the form of phytin (Saad et
70 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
al., 2011). For rice bran, its concentration is particularly high and 9.5~14.5%
of rice bran is occupied by phytin (Saad et al., 2011), therefore, rice bran is
likely to be appropriate material for IP6. The most outstanding feature of
phytic acid is its strong metal chelate function (Saad et al., 2011), allowing
metal ions such as ferrum which often adversely affect the production or
storage of food in various forms to be removed or deactivated. Compared to
other chelate agents, it is distinctively effective in wider pH range (Saad et
al., 2011). Besides this function, it is known to have strong pH buffer action
(Saad et al., 2011), their derived effects of preventing the change of proper-
ties or colors and antioxidation effect (Saad et al., 2011). In recent years,
various physiologically active functions of phytic acid within living bodies
have been reported including the prevention of urinary and nephritic calculi
(Shamsuddin, 2002; Vucenik & Shamsuddin, 2003; Shamsuddin & Vucenik,
2005), prevention of colic cancer (Shamsuddin, 2002; Vucenik & Sham-
suddin, 2003; Shamsuddin & Vucenik, 2005), and suppression of bacterial
plaque formation (Shamsuddin, 2002; Vucenik & Shamsuddin, 2003; Sham-
suddin & Vucenik, 2005). In addition, other carcinostatic effects have also
been suggested (Shamsuddin, 2002; Vucenik & Shamsuddin, 2003; Sham-
suddin & Vucenik, 2005). Furthermore, as notable functions of phytic acid,
the deodorant effect of body odor, bad breath or uraroma (Shamsuddin, 2002;
Vucenik & Shamsuddin, 2003; Shamsuddin & Vucenik, 2005), prevention
of acute alcoholism (Saad et al., 2011), and enrichment of meat or fish taste
(Saad et al., 2011) are popular. These effects of phytic acid provide food
products with practical added values.
Patient
Patient Patient
Patient Patient
Crude or virgin sesame oil has these unique bioactive lignans namely
sesamin, sesamolin, sesaminol, and sesamolinol which occur with their
breakdown products like sesamol (from sesamolin) (Bhatnagar et al.,
2015). Sesame oil lignans are reported to have unique bioactive, functional,
physiological, and nutritional properties (Moazzami & Kamal-Eldin, 2006;
Smeds et al., 2007; Namiki, 2007). Sesame seeds contain 0.26–1.16% of
lignans mainly as sesamin, sesamolin, sesaminol, and sesamolinol (Moaz-
zami & Kamal-Eldin, 2006) and sesamol is a minor component of the total
lignans. Sesamin and sesamolin are usually present to an extent of 0.4 and
0.3% in sesame oil, respectively (Namiki, 2007). Sesame seeds and its oil
have unique physiological and nutritional properties, which are attributed
to the presence of oil soluble lignans such as sesamin and sesamolin and
oil insoluble lignans present as lignan glucosides namely sesaminol di- and
triglucosides, sesamolinol diglucoside, pinoresinol mono-, di-, and triglu-
cosides, and other glucosides of lariciresinol, 7-hydroxy matairesinol, and
medioresinol in minor amounts (Figs. 2.9 and 2.10) (Smeds et al., 2007);
(Namiki, 2007); (Milder et al., 2005); (Katsuzaki et al., 1992). Sesame seeds
contain 0.26–1.16% of lignans mainly as sesamin, sesamolin, sesaminol,
and sesamolinol (Moazzami & Kamal-Eldin, 2006). Lignans are a group
of natural compounds which are defined as an oxidative coupling product
of β-hydroxyphenylpropane. Sesamin has a typical lignan structure of β-β′
(8-8′) linked product of two coniferyl alcohol radicals. Sesamolin has a
unique structure involving one acetal oxygen bridge in a sesamin type struc-
ture. Both sesamin and sesamolin are characteristic lignans of sesame seed
(Namiki, 2007). Hydrolysis of sesamolin produces two breakdown prod-
ucts namely sesamol and samin (Fukuda et al., 1986a). Samin and sesamol
further combine to form sesaminol, another major sesame lignan (Nagata et
al., 1987).
74 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
~ 0 0
YOH
OH
OCH,
Sesamolinol ocHl
Pinoresinol Piperitol
O':. O CH
CH,Oxi~ ,O
)C(,
I
"" '· ~ o
HO 0
HO
A
(
OH
..
~I ""I
::,... OCH,
Larisiresinol
Sesaminol
monoglucoside
CH,O
Ctt,OH
C H,O~I
0
OH
H
CU,OI IO 011
ott~
11 1
,: ° Pinoresinol Pinoresinol
0>0
diglucoside monoglucoside
OH 0
OH OH
Sesaminol has sesamol as a moiety and has far stronger antioxidative activity
than sesamol because sesamol is easily dimerized and its products have lower
activity (Fukuda et al., 1986a). The markedly strong and stable antioxidative
property may be provided by the presence of a bulky samin group at the
ortho position of the phenol group in sesamol similar to the BHT molecule
(Namiki, 2007). Sesamin is the main characteristic lignan of sesame seed
with a content of about 0.4% in seed oil, but it has no free phenol group and
showed very weak or no antioxidative effect in conventional in vitro tests.
However, sesamin exhibits significant physiological activities assumed to
be due to antioxidative activity in vivo. Another important issue concerning
the stereochemical structure of sesame lignans is the fact that the artifact
episesamin, which is produced during food processing, has stronger physi-
ological activities than native sesamin (Namiki, 2007). Sesame lignans have
been found to exhibit various unique functions, such as a synergistic effect
with tocopherols on vitamin E activity and the specific inhibition of fatty
acid metabolism. These are quite different from the activities of other poly-
phenolic antioxidants, including sesamol, and they do not always appear to
be based upon their antioxidative activity. These facts suggest the existence
of some unique biochemical activity in sesame lignans due to their charac-
teristic structures in addition to their antioxidative activities (Namiki, 2007).
reaction contribute to the antioxidative activity. Thus, the very strong anti-
oxidative activity of the roasted oil might result from the synergistic effect
of the combination of such effective factors as sesamol produced from sesa-
molin, γ-tocopherol, sesamin, and roasted products like melanoidin (Fukuda
et al., 1986b; Koizumi et al., 1996; Fukuda et al., 1996). It has also been
shown that when foodstuff covered with wet material is fried in roasted seed
oil, as in the case of Japanese tempura, sesamol is produced by the splitting
of sesamolin, resulting in the formation of a strong antioxidative coating on
the fried food (Fukuda et al., 1986b).
There are various forms and methods of using sesame seed and oil in Asian
countries, particularly in China, Korea, and Japan, and people in these coun-
tries enjoy many kinds of foods containing sesame seed and oil with superb
taste and flavor. However, the use of sesame in the Western countries is
limited in variety and sesame is utilized mostly as topping on bread and
biscuits, with low consumption. In this respect, it will be necessary to develop
various sesame foods which will suit many people’s tastes throughout the
world. For example, one recommended form of sesame may be used in salad
dressing or seasoning containing ground sesame seed and oil, which can be
used with various vegetables. This use of sesame is delicious in taste and has
good digestibility with high nutritional value in combination with sesame
lignans and various vegetable components (Namiki, 2007).
2.15 ORYZANOL
Rice has been widely cultivated as one of the major food resources and
remains as staple food. With the advancement in rice milling technology,
by-products of rice milling such as rice bran is being produced. Rice bran
contains about 10–24% of oil which can be commercially utilized to produce
rice bran oil for edible as well as cosmetic purposes. Rice bran oil is loaded
with bioactive compounds such as γ-OZ, tocopherols, tocotrienols, PS,
and so forth, which contribute to the excellent stability and functionality
of rice bran oil. γ-OZ is a lipid soluble antioxidant/nutraceutical/bioactive
compound uniquely present in rice bran and rice bran oil. It has been widely
used in foods and cosmetics around the world. It is registered as a medicine
in Japan and South Korea. γ-OZ is a naturally occurring component in rice
Natural Antioxidants: Occurrence and Their Role in Food Preservation 77
bran and rice germ which consists of a mixture of ferulic acid esters of PS
and triterpene alcohols (Fig. 2.11). There are numerous reports indicating
the benefits, efficacy, and safety of γ-OZ (Rukumini & Raghuram, 1991).
26
0 0
H,co~
I ""' o H,CO~
I ""' o
HO .&- 28 29
HO .&-
0 0
H 3CO~""'
I o
H 3 C0~ 0
HO .& HO,Jl--J
H 3 CO~O
HO~
cyclobranol ferulate
Wilson et al. (2007) reported that γ-OZ reduced plasma cholesterol in hyper-
cholesterolemic hamsters. Clinically, oral intake of rice bran oil (containing
naturally occurring γ-OZ) has been shown to alleviate hypercholesterolemia
and hyperlipidemia. γ-OZ has been advocated as treatment for relieving
menopausal symptoms. Besides, Oka et al. (2010) reported that cycloartenyl
ferulate, a component of rice bran oil-derived γ-OZ, inhibits mass cells
degranulation. The anti-inflammatory effects of γ-OZ in ulcerative colitis
induced in mice have also been reported (Rukumini & Raghuram, 1991).
78 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
The antioxidant effect of γ-OZ is well documented and has been reported
to be excellent in inhibiting lipid peroxidation. Kanno et al. (1985) reported
that γ-OZ (0.5~1%) inhibited thermal oxidative polymerization of soybean
oil. The antioxidant effect of γ-OZ is contributed by ferulic acid entity, mean-
while, BHT and α-T have been revealed to be heat resistant. In addition,
Oryza Oil & Fat Chemical Co. Ltd. showed that the antioxidant effect of
γ-OZ was potentiated with rice bran/germ amino acid and showed a syner-
gistic increase in antioxidant effect of γ-OZ (Rukumini & Raghuram, 1991).
The excellent heat resistance property of γ-OZ is highly suitable for its
incorporation in heat-processed foods. Currently in Japan, γ-OZ is approved
and listed as “antioxidant” under the list of chemical composition of food
additives. In addition, γ-OZ is being incorporated as antioxidant in cosmetic
products (Rukumini & Raghuram, 1991).
TABLE 2.9 Natural Antioxidants Present in Cereal Brans (Rosa et al., 1999; Hídvégi and
Lásztity, 2003).
Nutrients (values/100 g) Rice bran Corn bran Oat bran Wheat bran
Vitamin E
Tocopherols (mg) 12.0 0.4 1.0 1.5
Tocotrienols (mg) 13.6 – – –
Total carotenoids (mg) 129.3 – – –
Gamma oryzanol (mg) 300.0 – – –
Phytosterols (mg) 341.1 – – –
Phytic acid (mg) 9500 620–1170 900–1420 520–1050
Synthetic antioxidants (BHA, BHT, PG, TBHQ, and EDTA) are regulated
by the FDA as direct food additives. They may be used alone or in combina-
tion not to exceed 0.02% (200 ppm) of the final product in specified food
products (21CFR172.110). These antioxidants are considered to be safe and
suitable ingredients for use in meat, poultry, and egg products, alone or in
combination, not to exceed 0.02% of the fat content (FSIS Directive 7120.1.
revision 5). Some herbs, spice extracts, and oleoresins are GRAS. Some
are considered to be indirect additives (21 CFR Vol. 3. Part 101); as such,
solvents permitted for the extraction process and solvent residues allowed are
specified. Some extracts, concentrates, and resins are regulated by the FDA
84 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
“Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994” and are considered
to be one (or more) of several defined dietary ingredients a vitamin, a mineral,
an herb or other botanical, amino acid, a dietary substance for use by man to
supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake, or a concentrate,
metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any ingredient described
in clause (A), (B), (C), (D), or (E) and is excluded from regulation as a food
additive. Extracts, concentrates, and resins are also regulated under the Food
Labeling Regulation, Amendments; Food Regulation Uniform Compliance
Date; and New Dietary Ingredient Premarket Notification Final Rule (1997).
If they are added to cause flavor or color changes, they are regulated as such
and specific quantities allowable for use in various foods are set forth. Based
on the number of various classifications under which an extract, concentrate,
or resin could be covered, allowable use levels vary widely (Brewer, 2011).
2.18 CONCLUSION
Plant and animal tissues contain unsaturated fatty acids, primarily in the
PL fraction of cell membranes. These lipids are especially susceptible to
oxidation because of their electron deficient double bonds. The breakdown
products of oxidation can produce off-odors, new flavors, loss of nutrient
content, and color deterioration. To manufacture high-quality, stable food
products, the most effective solution is often the addition of antioxidants,
either synthetic or natural, which can serve as “chain breakers,” by inter-
cepting the free radicals generated during various stages of oxidation or to
chelate metals. Chain-breaking antioxidants are generally the most effec-
tive. A common feature of these compounds is that they have one or more
aromatic rings (often phenolic) with one or more −OH groups capable of
donating H· to the oxidizing lipid. Synthetic antioxidants, such as BHA,
BHT, and PG, have one aromatic ring. The natural antioxidants AA and α-T
each have one aromatic ring as well. However, many of the natural anti-
oxidants (flavonoids and anthocyanins) have more than one aromatic ring.
The effectiveness of these aromatic antioxidants is generally proportional
to the number of −OH groups present on the aromatic ring(s). Depending
on the arrangement of the −OH groups, these compounds may also chelate
pro-oxidative metals. The facts that they are natural, and have antioxidative
activity that is as good or better than the synthetic antioxidants, make them
particularly attractive for commercial food processors because of consumer
demand for natural ingredients.
Natural Antioxidants: Occurrence and Their Role in Food Preservation 85
KEYWORDS
• antioxidants
• free radicals
• preservation
• applications
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CHAPTER 3
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF
NATURAL ANTIOXIDANTS IN MEAT
AND MEAT PRODUCTS
RITUPARNA BANERJEE1,*, ARUN K VERMA2,
MOHAMMED WASIM SIDDIQUI3, B. M. NAVEENA1, and
V. V. KULKARNI1
1
ICAR-National Research Centre on Meat, Chengicherla, Hyderabad
500092, Telangana, India
ICAR-Central Institute of Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Farah,
2
CONTENTS
Abstract ......................................................................................................96
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................96
3.2 Antioxidants: Mechanism of Action .................................................97
3.3 Synthetic or Natural? ........................................................................99
3.4 Natural Antioxidants .........................................................................99
3.5 Natural Antioxidants in Meat System .............................................102
3.6 Market Potential ..............................................................................124
3.7 Future Prospects ..............................................................................125
3.8 Conclusion ......................................................................................126
Keywords .................................................................................................127
References ................................................................................................127
96 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Though there are several different types of available antioxidants, they can
be broadly grouped into two categories: natural and synthetic. While natural
antioxidants are those that can be harvested directly from any organic source
such as herbs, fruits, vegetables, and so forth, synthetic antioxidants are
compounds produced artificially and added to processed or pre-packaged
food to prevent rancidity, browning or to preserve the flavor and texture.
Synthetic antioxidants such as BHA, BHT, TBHQ, and PG have been widely
used in meat and meat products (Biswas et al., 2004; Formanek et al., 2001;
Jayathilakan et al., 2007) by the food processors as they are cheaper than
the natural ones. But the demand for natural antioxidants, especially of
plant origin has increased in the recent years due to the growing concern
among consumers about these synthetic antioxidants because of their poten-
tial toxicological effects (Naveena et al., 2008b). However, both of these
antioxidants differ in performance level; the effectiveness can be measured
by the number of peroxides formed in lipids over time and by their ability
to provide stability under different processing conditions. Both natural and
synthetic antioxidants act by donating electron density to fat and preventing
their oxidation but synthetic antioxidants have shown to possess a higher
performance than the natural ones. They differ in their fortification values
also. The natural antioxidants are known to have higher additional health
benefits in preventing cancer and heart diseases.
Plants are persistently the generous source to supply man with valuable
bioactive substances (Tayel & El-Tras, 2012) and thus different plant prod-
ucts are being evaluated as natural antioxidants to improve the overall
quality of meat and meat products. The focus for using natural antioxidants
for the effective preservation of meat or meat products has almost exclu-
sively been on the use of plant phenolics or phenolic-containing extracts.
Phenolic compounds are plant secondary metabolites commonly found in
herbs and fruits, vegetables, grains and cereals, tea, coffee, and red and
white wines. Phenolic acids are phenols that possess carboxylic acid func-
tionality. Phenolic compounds can be broadly divided into two categories,
flavonoids and non-flavonoid polyphenols. Among phenolic compounds
found in plants, flavonoids are the most widely studied class of polyphenols
with respect to their antioxidant and biological activities. Flavonoids may be
100 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
TABLE 3.1 Extraction of Antioxidant Components from Different Sources and Its Application
in Meat Products.
Source Part used Extraction solvent Reference
Fruits
Bearberry Leaf 95% ethanol and Pegg et al. (2005)
50% acetone
Citrus paradisi (grape Bark Ethyl acetate, Sayari et al. (2015)
fruit) methanol, and water
Grape Seed 80% ethanol Shan et al. (2009)
Pomace Methanol Garrido et al. (2011)
Kinnow Peel Water Devatkal et al. (2010)
Pomegranate Peel Water Devatkal et al. (2010)
70% ethanol Tayel and El-Tras (2012)
80% ethanol Shan et al. (2009)
Prunus mume Fruit Methanol Jo et al. (2006)
Herbs and spices
Clove Bud 80% ethanol Shan et al. (2009)
Cinnamon Bark 70% ethanol Tayel and El-Tras (2012)
Cinnamon stick Cortex 80% ethanol Shan et al. (2009)
Fenugreek Seed 90% ethanol Mansour and Khalil (2000)
Green tea Leaf Water Rababah et al. (2011)
Rosemary & hissop Leaf and Dimethyl sulfoxide Fernandez-Lopez et al.
secondary (2003)
branches
Rosemary Leaf Deionized water Akarpat et al. (2008)
Leaf Acetone, hexane Naveena et al. (2013)
102 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
The natural antioxidants from plants, in several forms, have been obtained
from different sources such as fruits (grapes, pomegranate, date, and
kinnow), vegetables (broccoli, potato, drumstick, and curry leaves), herbs,
and spices (tea, rosemary, oregano, cinnamon, sage, thyme, mint, ginger,
and clove) and explored to decrease the lipid oxidation (Akarpat et al., 2008;
Banerjee et al., 2012; Das et al., 2012; Devatkal et al., 2010; Huang et al.,
2011; Kanatt et al., 2007; Mansour & Khalil, 2000; McCarthy et al., 2001a,
b; Rojas & Brewer, 2007, 2008; Shan et al., 2009).
Fruits have gathered interest from the public and scientific groups because of
their health-promoting properties. The benefits of fruits have been credited
to their high phenolic content, which acts as antioxidants (Zuo et al., 2002).
Numerous studies conducted on the antioxidant potential of fruits in meat
and meat products are presented below.
Potential Applications of Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products 103
3.5.1.1 BAEL
The bael fruit (Aegle marmelos L. Correa) is known in India since pre-historic
times. This fruit is native to Northern India but widely found throughout the
Indian Peninsula (Rahman & Pravin, 2014). Bael fruit pulp contains many
functional and bioactive compounds such as dietary fiber, carotenoids, pheno-
lics, alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other antioxidants
(Suvimol & Anprung, 2008). Major antioxidants in bael fruit are phenolics,
flavonoids, carotenoids, and vitamin C (Roy & Khurdiya, 1995). Bael fruit
is rich in carbohydrates, fibers and is also a good source of protein, vitamins,
and minerals (Ramulu & Rao, 2003). Kamalakkannan and Prince (2003a,
2003b) reported that the aqueous extract of the bael fruit pulp possesses potent
antioxidant effects. Abdullakasim et al. (2007) also reported that the bael
fruit drink was found to possess high quantities of total phenolic compounds
(83.89/37.6 mg gallic acid equivalents/100 mL) and was also a good anti-
oxidant in both 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and photochemilumi-
nescence assays. Das et al. (2014) had reported the antioxidant potential of
bael pulp residue (BPR), a by-product of bael fruit pulp in goat meat nuggets.
BPR was found to be a rich source of phenolic compounds and contained
15.16 mg GAE/g dry weight (DW) total phenolics. Incorporation of BPR
(0.25, 0.5%) in goat meat nuggets improved the lightness and redness values,
whereas yellowness value remained unaffected. The lighter and redder goat
meat nuggets looked very much appealing and could be helpful in attracting
the consumers. Lower thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value
was recorded in BPR treated nuggets; lowest value was observed in 0.5%
treatment. Incorporation of BPR may enrich meat products with dietary fiber
and antioxidants, and can be helpful in enhancing their physiological and
functional values as well as oxidative stability.
3.5.1.2 BEARBERRY
3.5.1.5 CRANBERRY
3.5.1.6 GRAPES
Grape seed extract has been reported to be one of the richest sources of natural
polyphenols, comprising flavanols, phenolic acids, catechins, proanthocy-
anidins, and anthocyanins. Among these, catechins and proanthocyanidins
108 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
are the major groups representing about 77.6% of total polyphenols (Silvan
et al., 2013). The high amount of phenol groups in grape seed extract
explains their strong lipid oxidation inhibition and antimicrobial activity in
raw and cooked muscle foods (Ahn et al., 2007a; Brannan, 2008). Numerous
authors have mentioned the potent antioxidant effect of grape polyphenols
(Vitis vinifera) in pork (Carpenter et al., 2007; O’Grady et al., 2008), beef
(Rojas & Brewer, 2007, 2008), and poultries (Brannan, 2009; Mielnik et al.,
2006; Sayago-Ayerdi et al., 2009).
Kulkarni et al. (2011) compared grape seed extract (100, 300, 500 ppm)
with ascorbic acid and PG (100 ppm of fat) in lean beef sausages cooked
(70 °C), sliced and stored at −18 °C for four months and concluded that
samples prepared with the grape seed extract and PG retained their fresh-
ness, had less rancid odor and had lower TBARS values compared to
controls and ascorbic acid containing samples during the storage period. It
was also demonstrated that frankfurters prepared with addition of different
concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5%) of grape seed flour, had lower
oxidation level and enhanced protein and total dietary fiber (TDF) content
with increasing levels of grape seed flour (Ozvural & Vural, 2011). The
addition of red grape pomace extract (0.06 g/100 g) to pork burgers resulted
in color stability, lipid oxidation inhibition and yielded best overall accept-
ability after six days storage at 4 °C under aerobic conditions (Garrido et
al., 2011).
Grape seed extract (ActiVin™) and pine bark extract (Pycnogenol®)
significantly improved the oxidative stability of cooked beef at three days
of refrigerated storage. TBARS values, hexanal content, and warmed over
flavor were reduced during the storage period (Ahn et al., 2002). In another
study, grape seed extract (ActiVin™), pine bark extract (Pycnogenol), oleo-
resin rosemary (Herbalox), and BHA/BHT were used in cooked ground
beef. The control showed significantly higher TBARS and hexanal content
over storage. BHA/BHT, ActiVin™, Pycnogenol, and Herbalox retarded the
formation of TBARS by 75, 92, 94, and 92%, respectively, after nine days,
and significantly lowered the hexanal content throughout the storage period.
The color of cooked beef treated with ActiVin™ was less light (L*), more
red (a*), and less yellow (b*) than those treated with BHA/BHT, Pycno-
genols, and Herbaloxs. ActiVin™ and Pycnogenols effectively retained the
redness in cooked beef during storage (Ahn et al., 2007a). The antioxidant
effect of grape seed extract was determined in raw or cooked ground muscle
during refrigerated or frozen storage (Brannan & Mah, 2007). It was found
that grape seed extract was more effective than gallic acid in inhibiting
Potential Applications of Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products 109
3.5.1.7 GUAVA
3.5.1.8 PLUM
Dried plums, known as prunes, have been extensively investigated for their
potential human health benefits. The phenolic compounds in dried plum prod-
ucts have been shown to inhibit low-density lipoprotein cholesterol oxida-
tion in humans (Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis et al., 2001) and have been shown to
have better antioxidant ability than vitamins C and E in vitro (Vinson et al.,
2005). Plum products exhibited antioxidant properties in a variety of meat
products under several different processing and storage conditions (Lee &
Ahn, 2005; Nuñez de Gonzalez et al., 2008a, 2008b; Yildiz-Turp & Serda-
roglu, 2010).
Leheska et al. (2006) added 5 and 10% of dried plum puree (DPP) and
dried blueberry purees in pork breakfast sausage patties, pre-cooked them
prior to sensory evaluation and total phenolic level was measured. This
research demonstrated that plum puree increased the phenolic content of the
sausage more than the blueberry puree. Yıldız-Turp and Serdaroglu (2010)
used different levels of plum puree (5, 10, and 15%) as an extender in low-
salt beef patties. Addition of plum puree slightly increased redness and
decreased yellowness and lightness both in cooked and uncooked samples.
TBARS values of treated samples were lower than control at the end of
the storage period. Lee and Ahn (2005) found that plum extract (California
Dried Plum Board, Sunsweet Growers Inc., Yuba City, CA) used at 3%
in irradiated (3 kGy) turkey breast rolls reduced (P < 0.05) lipid oxida-
tion. TBARS value for the control product was 0.95 mg MDA/kg meat
whereas the 3% plum extract sample had a reduced (P < 0.05) TBARS
value of 0.84 mg MDA/kg meat after seven days of storage at 4 °C. Nuñez
de Gonzalez et al. (2008a) added 3 and 6% each of DPP, dried plum and
apple puree, or 0.02% BHA/BHT to sausage. For the raw sausage, there
were no differences (P < 0.05) in TBARS values among treatments. The
3 and 6% DPP were about equal to the synthetic antioxidants BHA and
BHT. In the pre-cooked/refrigerated sausage TBARS values were similar to
the raw sausage, whereas the control without antioxidants exhibited higher
(P < 0.05) TBARS values which indicated lower antioxidant capacity.
Among the treatments for pre-cooked/frozen sausage only the 6% DPP
inhibited lipid oxidation such that its TBARS values (0.46 mg MDA/kg)
were similar (P < 0.05) to the raw, non-oxidized values. However, even
3% DPP was able to inhibit lipid oxidation to the same extent as BHA
and BHT. These researchers concluded that plum products could be used
as natural antioxidants and have the ability to replace BHA and BHT in
inhibiting lipid oxidation. The work was continued by Nuñez de Gonzalez
Potential Applications of Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products 111
et al. (2008b) in roast beef brine formulations. They used 2.5 and 5% each
of fresh plum puree (FPP), DPP, and spray dried plum powder (DPWD)
in addition to sodium chloride, dextrose, alkaline phosphate, potassium
lactate, and water. All treatments had reduced (P < 0.05) TBARS values
compared to the control (0.62 mg MDA/kg), which further proved that
dried plum ingredients were able to inhibit lipid oxidation.
Conversely, hams brined with the same amounts of plum products (2.5
and 5% FPP, DPP, and DPWD) and with sodium chloride, dextrose, alkaline
phosphate, potassium lactate, sodium nitrite, and sodium erythorbate did not
exhibit differences between treatments and control for TBARS values at 21
days post storage (Nuñez de Gonzalez et al., 2009). They suggested that the
hams were not susceptible to lipid oxidation due to the inclusion of sodium
nitrite and alkaline phosphates and therefore no differences were observed
among treatments.
3.5.1.9 POMEGRANATE
The herbs and spice extracts, including rosemary, oregano, clove, thyme,
and so forth have been investigated for their antioxidant potential in several
meat products. El-Alim et al. (1999) investigated the use of ground spices
and spice extracts as antioxidants in raw ground chicken and ground pork.
Ground chicken was treated with 1% of dried spices: marjoram, wild
marjoram, caraway, clove, peppermint, nutmeg, curry, cinnamon, basil,
sage, thyme, and ginger. TBARS formation was significantly inhibited in
refrigerated and frozen samples that were treated with spices. During refrig-
erated storage (4 °C for seven days), cloves showed the largest reduction
in TBARS values compared with the control. After six months of frozen
storage at −18 °C, marjoram-treated samples showed the highest inhibition
for TBARS formation. These researchers also examined use of spice extracts
of basil, sage, thyme, and ginger @ 1 ml/10g as antioxidants in ground pork.
After seven days of refrigerated storage, TBARS values for all treatments
were significantly lower than control. Sage, thyme, and basil were more
effective at inhibiting TBARS values than ginger. All treatments significantly
reduced TBARS formation after six months frozen storage compared with
the control. Efficacy of varying concentrations of dried holy basil powder
(0.07, 0.18, and 0.35%) and its ethanolic extracts (0.02, 0.05, and 0.10%)
in retarding oxidative rancidity was reported in cooked ground pork during
refrigerated storage at 5 °C for 14 days (Juntachote et al., 2007). Ethanolic
extracts of holy basil were less effective than dried holy basil powder in
controlling oxidative stability. Dried holy basil powder at a concentration of
0.35% (w/w) was the most effective in retarding lipid oxidation in cooked
ground pork during the storage period.
Potential Applications of Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products 115
EOs are aromatic and volatile oily liquids that are extracted from plant mate-
rials, such as flowers, buds, roots, bark, leaves, seeds, peels, fruits, wood,
and whole plants (Hyldgaard et al., 2012; Sanchez et al., 2010; Viuda-
Martos et al., 2010) and are characterized by a strong odor (Burt, 2004).
These have been widely used for centuries for their biological and flavoring
characteristics. Some of the beneficial properties, for example, antiseptic,
antioxidant, or, anti-inflammatory, have been supported by recent scientific
investigations (Bakkali et al., 2008; Adorjan et al., 2010). The advantages
associated with use of EOs in comparison to dried spice materials include
better stability during storage, higher concentrations of flavor components,
reduced need for storage space, ease of handling, microbial safety, and stan-
dardization (Tipsrisukond et al., 1998).
The composition of an EO is influenced by the extraction method, which
ultimately influences its antioxidative properties. Among the different
extraction methods that are used to obtain EOs, steam distillation is most
commonly used on a commercial basis (Burt, 2004). Antioxidant properties
play a pivotal role in some of EOs’ biological activities. These attributes are
due to the inherent ability of some of their components, particularly phenols,
to stop or delay the aerobic oxidation of organic matter. However, there are
some phenol-free EOs that express antioxidant behavior due to the radical
chemistry of some terpenoids and other volatile constituents like sulfur-
containing components of garlic (Valgimigli, 2012).
The effectiveness of a wide range of EOs against lipid oxidation has been
demonstrated by many researchers over the years. The antioxidant activity
of pork and beef (both raw and cooked) treated with oregano and sage EOs,
during meat storage (4 °C for 12 days), was determined by Fasseas et al.
(2007). Both meat samples showed significantly lower TBARS values and
DPPH radical scavenging effects during refrigerated storage when treated
EOs. Oregano EO was found more effective as an antioxidant than sage
EO in both meat samples. Findings of Estevez et al. (2007) revealed that
Potential Applications of Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products 117
sage and rosemary EOs at the levels of 0.1% improve the oxidative stability
of lipids in liver pates during refrigerated storage for 90 days, mainly by
reducing the degradation of PUFAs and thereby preventing the formation
of residual components such as malondialdehyde and lipid-derived vola-
tiles. At 60 and 90 days, TBARS values and lipid-derived volatiles in pates
with EOs were significantly lower than in the control samples. The effect of
addition of rosemary and marjoram EOs (200 ppm) to beef patties formu-
lated with mechanically deboned poultry meat (20%) was demonstrated by
Mohamed and Mansour (2012). The findings showed that both marjoram
and rosemary EOs reduced the lipid oxidation and improved the sensory
attributes of beef patties during frozen storage for three months. The TBARS
value of beef patties prepared with marjoram and rosemary EOs remained
significantly lower compared with those of control beef patties during frozen
storage. Additionally, these natural antioxidants were superior to BHT used
in the study with regard to their role in sensory attributes besides lowering
the lipid oxidation. Moreover, the addition of EOs to the beef patties signifi-
cantly increased the flavor and overall acceptability scores of patty formulas
processed with mechanically deboned poultry meat after processing and
during the frozen storage period. Dzudie et al. (2004) prepared beef patties
by incorporating ginger and basilica EOs together with maize oil. During 18
days of storage, the TBARS values of the beef patties with EOs were stable.
Fratianni et al. (2010) investigated the effectiveness of balm and thyme EOs
as natural antioxidants on fresh chicken breast meat that had been stored
for three weeks at 4 °C. During their experiment, they found that both EOs
reduced radical formation in meat compared with untreated control. Thyme
EO, in particular, was the most effective out of the two EOs, with a DPPH
radical inhibition percentage of 25–30%. Balm oil showed 15–20% DPPH
radical inhibition and lower activity of ~10% was demonstrated in the
control.
Vegetables account for a small part of our daily caloric intake; however, their
benefits to health surpass their caloric contribution mainly due to presence
of dietary fiber, phenolic compounds, minerals, and vitamins. Epidemiolog-
ical studies have indicated that the frequent consumption of fruits and vege-
tables significantly reduced the incidence of chronic diseases (WHO, 2003).
In order to obtain maximum health benefits, intake of sufficient amounts
of antioxidants from plant food (fruits, vegetables, etc.) is preferred. The
118 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
in ground beef patties. Plant extracts (butterbur and broccoli extracts) and
BHT were separately added to the patties at 0.1 and 0.5% (w/w) concentra-
tions and stored at refrigerated conditions for 12 days. TBARS values were
significantly lower in the samples containing plant extracts or BHT than the
non-treated control. In addition, the beef patties formulated with the selected
plant extracts showed significantly better color stability than those without
antioxidants (Kim et al., 2013b).
3.5.4.2 CARROT
Carrot is one of the important widely consumed root vegetable with high
nutritional value due to its enriched healthy composition, such as phyto-
nutrients and minerals. It is a good source of natural antioxidants espe-
cially carotenoids and phenolic compounds, having the highest carotenoid
content among foods (Arabshahi-D et al., 2007; Hsieh & Ko, 2008; Soria
et al., 2009). Antioxidant activity of carrot juice (unconcentrated carrot
juice, carrot juice concentrated by 35 and 60%) in gamma irradiated (0,
3, and 4.5 kGy) beef sausage was studied by Badr and Mahmoud (2011).
Carrot juice exerted a significant antioxidant effect during the irradiation
of sausages and the formation of hydroperoxides, and TBARS significantly
decreased with increasing the concentration of the carrot juice. Formulation
of sausages with carrot juice at the different concentrations decreased the
formation of hydroperoxides by 24.68, 40.38, and 58.01%, respectively, in
sausage samples exposed to the highest irradiation dose, while decreased
the formation of TBARS in the samples by 28.86, 42.86, and 54.29%,
respectively.
3.5.4.3 POTATO
in ground pork. The lowest free fatty acid value was reported in 0.2% MK
treated pork. The antioxidant power of broccoli powder extract (1.0, 1.5, and
2.0%) was determined and evaluated in goat meat nuggets by Banerjee et
al. (2012). Total phenolics, radical scavenging activity, and reducing power
estimation indicated that broccoli powder has good antioxidant potential.
Among treatments, TBARS number decreased with the higher levels of
broccoli powder extract with significant effect at 2% level and its value was
similar to the product with 100 ppm BHT. The antioxidant potential of cauli-
flower (Brassica oleracea) powder (CP) was evaluated in pork meatballs by
Banerjee et al. (2015). The amount of total phenolics (mgGAE/g) was higher
in aqueous extract (29.52) of CP as compared to the extract from acetone:
water mix (24.22). Addition of CP in pork meatballs significantly increased
the amount of total phenolics and TDF. It also reduced the lipid peroxidation
and thus enhanced their oxidative stability of meatballs. Therefore, inclu-
sion of CP in meat products makes them much healthier and stable without
affecting their acceptability.
3.5.4.5 TOMATO
dry tomato peel imparts a characteristic redness (a*) to the hamburger, inde-
pendent of the dose of radiation applied. The researchers also found that
the higher lycopene concentration (6 g/kg) sufficiently masked the nega-
tive effects of irradiation on sensory characteristics to ensure an acceptable
color and odor in the final product after the storage period. The nitrosomyo-
globin (NOMb) content, lycopene content, oxidation level, and the sensory
properties of frankfurters produced by both reducing the nitrite level and
adding tomato powder were analyzed by Eyiler and Oztan (2011). The pH
of the frankfurters produced with tomato powder was reduced, compared
with samples which did not contain tomato powder. The addition of 2 g
tomato powder/100 g decreased the level of oxidation; however, 4 g tomato
powder/100 g caused a slight increase compared with the samples which
did not contain tomato powder. According to sensorial evaluations, tomato
powder also improved consumer acceptability.
Sanchez-Escalante et al. (2003) analyzed the stabilization of color and
odor of beef patties using lycopene-rich tomato as a source of antioxidants,
which they found exerted a significant antioxidative effect on the beef patties,
depending on the lycopene concentration. These tomato products delayed
meat deterioration and the shelf life of treated beef patties ranged between
8 and 12 days. Mercadante et al. (2010) analyzed the oxidative stability of
sausages containing added natural pigments and stored under refrigeration.
These authors reported that the addition of lycopene (10%) produced signifi-
cant reductions in redness, although it did not exert any antioxidant effect.
From tea bags to grape seeds, the term antioxidant is used as a marketing
tool for food products especially processed foods. The increased demand for
processed meat products will undoubtedly advance the use of antioxidants
across the globe. The global market for processed meats is estimated to be
USD 362 billion in 2012 and is projected to reach USD 799 billion by 2018
with a compound annual growth rate of 14.3%. Maximum growth of this
sector is expected in China, India, Japan, and New Zealand. Similarly, the
global natural antioxidants’ market is expected to witness substantial growth
and is forecasted to reach USD 4.14 billion by 2022, particularly due to
increasing global meat consumption. Asia Pacific has experienced highest
Potential Applications of Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products 125
growth in 2014 followed by Europe and North America. Huge population and
growing health awareness in developing nations such as India and China are
influencing the growth of the antioxidants’ market in the Asia Pacific region.
Demand for vitamin C was highest accounting for over 80% of the global
demand in 2014 and this trend is likely to continue in the coming years too.
Growing demand for animal feed on account of increasing consumption of
dairy products and meat products on a global scale is expected to augment
vitamin E market growth over the forecast period. Demand-supply imbal-
ance has escalated the price of natural antioxidants. In an effort to deal with
the increasing raw material cost, food manufacturers are opting blending
of natural antioxidants, for example, TM with rosemary extract or herbal
extract with synthetic antioxidants, which produces a less expensive product
without compromising the efficacy of antioxidants.
3.8 CONCLUSION
KEYWORDS
• natural antioxidants
• plant material
• meat and meat products
• oxidation
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CHAPTER 4
CONTENTS
Abstract ....................................................................................................142
4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................142
4.2 Oxidation in Fish Products .............................................................144
4.3 Oxidation Mechanism .....................................................................147
4.4 Antioxidants ....................................................................................149
4.5 Application of Natural Antioxidants in Fish Products ....................155
4.6 Market and Consumer Acceptability of Natural Antioxidants........157
4.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................158
Keywords .................................................................................................159
References ................................................................................................159
142 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The demand for fish and fishery products in the global market has been
increasing with increase in the world population. Fish is an important part
of a healthy diet (Mozaffarian & Rimm, 2006). It is an important source
of a number of nutrients, particularly protein, vitamin D, retinol, iodine,
vitamin E, selenium, and the essential long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFAs), that is, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA) (Welch et al., 2002). It is recommended that fish and seafood
products take a prominent position in the human diet due to their benefi-
cial effect on chronic degenerative diseases. The consumption of fish may
protect against cancers and cardiovascular diseases (Nestel, 2000), hence the
food industry and health authorities have a joint interest in increasing the
consumption of fish.
Oxidation as a chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons
from one compound to another has long been reported to have negative
effects especially in physiological context. Oxidation of molecules such
as DNA or lipids has resulted in many problems such as cancer and heart
diseases, both of which are important for proper life function. Oxidation
reactions can occur in food items mainly as a result of prolonged exposure
to the atmosphere. These reactions can cause rancidity, browning, and
development of unpleasant flavor. Oxidation is one of the main factors
Natural Antioxidants: Control of Oxidation in Fish and Fish Products 143
that determine food quality loss and shelf-life reduction. Hence, delaying
oxidation is highly relevant to food processors. Oxidative processes in
fish products can lead to the degradation of lipids and proteins which, in
turn, contribute to the deterioration in texture and color (Decker et al.,
1995).
To combat oxidation in food and physiological context, compounds
known as antioxidants are utilized. Antioxidants are generally defined as
compounds that prevent oxidation. They vary greatly in size, molecular
weight, and composition. While some are small in size others are enor-
mous and can even be macromolecules such as proteins. They provide elec-
tron density to compounds likely to undergo oxidation, hence preventing
them from losing electrons. Since there are different types and sources
of antioxidants, they can be grouped into two major categories: natural
and synthetic. Natural antioxidants are harvested directly from organic
sources or compounds found in foods consumed without much processing
whereas synthetic antioxidants are artificial compounds created in labo-
ratories and generally added to processed or pre-packaged foods acting
as preservatives. Although, synthetic antioxidants have been widely used
to inhibit lipid oxidation, the trend is to decrease their use because of the
growing concern among consumers about such synthetic materials (Chas-
tain et al., 1982). Therefore, the search for natural additives, especially
of plant origin, has increased in recent years. Compounds obtained from
natural sources such as grains, fruit, oilseeds, spices, and vegetables have
been investigated (Chen & Ho, 1997). The development and application of
natural products with antioxidant activities in fish products may be neces-
sary and useful to prolong their shelf life and potential for preventing fish
spoilage.
Natural antioxidants have shown to have significant health benefits espe-
cially in prevention of cancer and heart diseases. Due to this, many food
manufacturers have begun publicizing this fact and have achieved promi-
nence on many food labels on various food products. Although natural anti-
oxidants are known as key supplements by vitamin and health food manu-
facturers, consumers must remain aware of the sources from which these
compounds are procured as well as their concentrations. Therefore, the aim
of this chapter is to elucidate the natural antioxidants commonly applied
to fish, their mode of chemical reaction, and consumer awareness of these
compounds.
144 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Oxidation in fish and fish products possess a high risk of quality loss leading
to rancid taste, off-flavor, and development of many different compounds
which have adverse effect to human health (Ames et al., 1993). Oxidation
limits storage time and this affects marketing and distribution of fish and
fish products. Oxidation is high in fish because of presence of omega-3
PUFAs susceptible to peroxidation and results in restriction to storage and
processing possibilities (Gray et al., 1996). Products of peroxidation-alde-
hydes, react with specific amino acids to form carbonyls and protein aggre-
gates which causes additional nutritional loss (Uchida & Stadtman, 1993);
for instance, in red fish such as salmon, oxidation not only deteriorates
the lipids but also affects the color, thus affecting visual consumer accept-
ability of fish products (Scaife et al., 2000). Two forms of oxidation occur
in fish products—lipid and protein oxidation and they are discussed in the
following subsections. While lipid oxidation leads to formation of unhealthy
compounds and off-flavors such as rancid, protein oxidation affects the
functional properties, including texture, and may potentially affect the taste
of fish products. Lipid and protein oxidation occur as a result of the pres-
ence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which include oxygen radicals such
as superoxide anion (O2−), hydroxyl (HO−), peroxy (ROO−), alkoxy (RO−),
and hydroperoxy (HOO) radicals. Non-radical derivates of oxygen such as
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), ozone (O3), and singlet oxygen (1O2−) are also
ROS (Choe & Min, 2009).
The thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) as reported by
Botsoglou et al. (1994) are naturally present in biological specimens and
composed of lipid hydroperoxides (HPOs) and aldehydes which increase in
concentration as a response to oxidative stress. The sensitivity of measuring
TBARS has made this assay the method of choice for screening and moni-
toring lipid peroxidation which is a major indicator of oxidative stress.
TBARS assay values are usually reported in malonaldehyde (MDA) equiva-
lents, which is a compound that results from the decomposition of PUFA
lipid peroxides. This assay is well recognized and an established method for
quantifying lipid peroxides.
Like lipid oxidation, ROS also take part in protein oxidation. Their mecha-
nisms are very similar to that of lipid oxidation and caused by metal catal-
ysis, irradiation, light exposure, and peroxidation. The negative effect of
protein oxidation is seen in the oxidation of sulfhydryl groups, reactions
with aldehydes, establishment of cross-links between proteins, formation of
oxidative adducts on amino acids, and protein fragmentations (Stadtman &
Oliver, 1991). The outcome of oxidation of the majority of amino acids leads
to the generation of several products and formation of protein carbonyls
viz., glutamic semialdehyde from alanine, hydroperoxides and carbonyl
compounds from arginine, sulfenyle chloride from cysteine, hydroperox-
ides from glutamic acids, asparatate and asparagines form histidine, alco-
hols and carbonyl compounds from isoleucine, hydroxyleucine and alcohols
carbonyls from leucine, etc. (Stadtman and Oliver, 1991).
According to Stadtman (2006), the mechanisms that can lead to protein–
protein cross-linking by reactive species are described as:
texture of the product. Metal catalyzed reactions oxidize amino acids such
as arginine, proline, and lysine into carbonyl residues (Lund et al., 2011).
Amino acids such as cysteine or methionine react in cross-linking or sulfur
derivatives. Furthermore, H2O2 reacts with metmyoglobin (Mb (Fe3+)) which
accumulates in the muscle after slaughter, leading to formation of perfer-
rylmyoglobin and ferrylmyoglobin. Lund et al. (2011) went further to state
that protein oxidation can also be catalyzed by non-heme iron and other
transition metals in the presence of H2O2. Myofibrillar proteins are oxidized
in the presence of ferric iron (Fe3+) and H2O2, resulting in formation of a
semialdehyde and ferrous iron (Fe2+). Ferrous iron in the presence of H2O2
continues the oxidative reaction degrading amino acids into hydroxyl radi-
cals. Also, reaction between H2O2 and the thio groups of amino acids, such
as cysteine leads to the formation of sulfhydryl groups. The results of the
oxidation of thio groups are sulfenic acid (RSOH), sulfinic acid (RSOOH),
and RSSR (Lund et al., 2011).
The formation of carbonyl during protein oxidation can alter the tertiary
structure of protein and lead to various degrees of irreversible and irrepa-
rable protein unfolding (Aldini et al., 2007). Protein oxidation causes the
loss of normal functions, such as enzymatic activity, channel-forming prop-
erties, and the proteins become more susceptible to proteolytic degradation.
However, with alteration in the tertiary structure and increased hydropho-
bicity by oxidation, the rate of protein degradation is reduced (Matsuishi &
Okitani, 1997).
Fish and fish products are made up of several compounds especially lipids
that can easily undergo oxidation due to its high tendency to lose electrons.
The centerpiece of this reaction is the molecular species known as free radi-
cals. Free radicals are molecules or atoms that have unpaired electrons and
can vary greatly in their energy. Auto-oxidation of lipids triggered by expo-
sure to light, ionizing radiations, metalloprotein catalyst, or heat can have a
deteriorating effect on color, texture, flavor, quality, and safety of fish prod-
ucts (Urquiaga & Leighton, 2000). Two major components are involved in
lipid oxidation; unsaturated fatty acids and oxygen. In the oxidation process,
oxygen from the atmosphere is added to fatty acids particularly oleate, lino-
leate, and linolenate, creating unstable intermediates which break down to
form unpleasant compounds. This process involves primary auto-oxidative
reactions which are further accompanied by various secondary reactions
148 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
RH → R. + H
RH → ROO. + H.
R. + O2 → ROO.
ROO. + RH → R. + ROOH
2RO2. → O2 + RO2R
RO2. → RO2R
4.4 ANTIOXIDANTS
BHT and BHA are the most prevalent synthetic antioxidants in food.
Chemically, they are monohydric phenol with BHA consisting of two
isomers 3-tertiary butyl 4-hydroxyanisole and 2-tertiary butyl 4-hydroxy-
anisol in the ratio 9:1. It is available as white waxy flakes, while BHT is a
white crystalline solid and both are extremely soluble in fats but not in water
as a result of their phenolic structure with bulky hydrocarbon side chains.
Because of their carry through properties, both compounds can withstand
various processing steps such as baking and frying as well as maintaining
their functionality (Devlieghere et al., 2004). They are effective in protecting
the flavor and color of foods.
The FDA stated that the presence of synthetic antioxidants used in foods
be mentioned on food labels with an explanation of their intended usage.
Their permissible levels in food is decided on the basis of the fat content
of the food and usually limited to 0.02% total antioxidants (Naidu, 2010).
When used within recommended levels, they have shown to prevent lipid
deterioration in food thereby extending the shelf life of foods. Even though
at current levels of intake, synthetic antioxidants seem to pose no reason-
able threat to health, but long-term ingestion may aid in modifying the
acute toxicity of several carcinogenic and mutagenic chemicals and lead
to chronic side effects. Therefore, in recent time, there has been growing
concern over possible carcinogenic effects of synthetic antioxidants in
foods. BHA, TBHQ, as well as other synthetic antioxidants are no longer
allowed for food application in Japan and a number of other countries
although still in use at recommended levels in certain countries; there is
a general desire to replace synthetic antioxidants with natural ingredients
(Venkatesh, 2011).
Amino acids, peptides, and carotenoids are three animal products that could
serve as natural antioxidants. Glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase,
and catalase are antioxidant enzymes present in muscle systems. Anserine,
carnosine, and ophidine are histidine-containing dipeptides reported to
chelate metals and scavenge radicals (Chan et al., 1994). L-Histidine as part
of a small peptide/protein or in the free form can scavenge hydroxyl radi-
cals and quench singlet oxygen, which can react with the double bond of
L-histidine to form a peroxyl radical (Wade & Tucker, 1998). L-Histidine
has the ability to quench singlet oxygen three-fold higher than tryptophan
and five-fold higher than methionine.
Carotenoids typically associated with the color of fruits and vegetables
are also found in many animals. Crustacea demonstrate a multitude of carot-
enoid pigments found in nature. According to Zagalsky et al. (1990), carot-
enoids of invertebrates are associated with protein in a complex defined as
carotenoprotein. The carotenoids present in the exoskeleton of crustaceans
may provide the best opportunity to develop natural antioxidants from
animal sources. Red crabs contain β-carotene and astaxanthin while blue
crabs contain 4-hydroxyechinenone, canthaxanthin, 3-hydroxycanthax-
anthin, echinenone, isocryptoxanthin, β-carotene, and astaxanthin. These
compounds are the most common and important pigments from animal
sources that serve as natural antioxidants although limited research have been
completed on the antioxidant activity of carotenoids in crustacean (Ramı́rez
et al., 2001). However, their activity would be expected to be similar to plant
carotenoids due to the structural similarities between plant and animal carot-
enoids. Development of extraction or concentration processes is required
for the production of adequate amount of natural antioxidants from animal
sources.
Natural Antioxidants: Control of Oxidation in Fish and Fish Products 153
Microorganisms are one of the most abundant and diverse species found on
earth and their exploitation to produce food ingredients has been going on
for the past decade. However, the isolation of microbial antioxidants became
a focus of research in the early 1980s, Forbes et al. (1958) established a
relationship between antioxidants and microorganisms and since this early
work, a vast number of compounds and microorganisms have been charac-
terized. Several studies have demonstrated the antioxidant activity of micro-
organisms. Using the thiocyanate method, the antioxidant activity of ethyl
acetate extracts of several Penicillium and Aspergillus species was evaluated
(Yen & Lee, 1996). Extracts of these species protected linoleic acid better
than the control. In a study by Yen and Chang, it was reported that sucrose or
lactose and ammonium sulphate in culture media enhanced the Aspergillus
candidus production of antioxidants (Yen & Chang, 1999). Extracts with
similar activity were produced from ethyl acetate extraction of the broth and
mycelium.
In a study conducted by Aoyama et al. (1982), 750 filamentous fungi
isolated from soil were screened. Two antioxidants were identified as
citrinin and protocatechuic. A third compound, curvulic acid, isolated from
an unidentified Penicillium was also evaluated for antioxidant activity in
linoleic acid. All three compounds were reported to have good antioxidant
activity. The curvulic acid had the largest antioxidant activity followed by
the curvulic acid methyl ester, protocatechuic acid, and citrinin.
According to Esaki et al. (1997) Aspergillus species are effective
producers of antioxidant activity compounds. In their study, 30 strains
of Aspergillus were evaluated and it was found that methanol extracts of
fermented soybeans (MEFS) prevented oxidation of methyl linoleate. The
MEFS of 28 strains had better antioxidant activity than the non-fermented
soybean while all strains were better than the control. Separation of the
MEFS revealed 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid as a component of the most
active fraction. Hayashi et al. (1995) also identified this compound in Peni-
cillium roquefortii IFO 5956 cultures.
In another study, Esaki et al. (1997) evaluated the antioxidant activity of
methanol extracts (MEs) of miso, natto, and tempeh and found that tempeh
was the most effective followed by miso. They further stated that fermenta-
tion by mold cultures are more active than bacterial (Bacillus natto) ones
in producing antioxidants. This was evident as a result of the antioxidant
activity of the natto ME being less than that of other fermented products
but was equivalent to that of unfermented soybeans. Hoppe et al. (1997)
Natural Antioxidants: Control of Oxidation in Fish and Fish Products 155
The necessity to stabilize food against oxidation was realized before World
War II and, surprisingly, natural antioxidants have been in use because
synthetic antioxidants for edible uses were not yet available at that time
(Musher, 1944). However, composition and efficiency of the natural prep-
arations were found extremely variable and their activity was considered
insufficient. This led to the invention of synthetic antioxidants which were
chemically pure, possessed antioxidant activity, tested for safety, then made
readily available in the market. However, natural antioxidants isolated
from herbs, tea, grapes, and seeds have gained interest as replacement for
synthetic antioxidants (Samaranayaka & Li-Chan, 2011). They are readily
156 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
cancer and heart diseases by decreasing the amount of plaque buildup in the
blood vessels (McClain & Bausch, 2003). Additionally, they are reported to
increase the amount of high density lipoproteins (HDL), commonly known
as “good cholesterol” in the blood, thus as preventing heart disease (Yao
et al., 2004). These beneficial properties have put natural antioxidant on
the forefront of recent advertising and public awareness concerning natural
antioxidants and their positive effect has increased greatly. Asahara (1987)
studied the antioxidant effect of natural tocopherol mixture on marinated
sardine during cold storage which was compared with the effect of BHA.
Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value was determined on lipids of samples during
storage time (200 days). Sensory evaluation revealed no negative effect on
the organoleptic properties on the samples. Lemon balm and oregano have
been reported to have a safe history of use as herbal food ingredients, and
their natural extractives are listed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) in
the United States. Furthermore, herbs and flower tips of Origanum vulgare
and Melissa officinalis have been allocated the status N2 by the Council
of Europe; N2 comprises admissible natural sources of flavorings (Boskou,
2006).
4.7 CONCLUSION
Antioxidants are compounds that are present either naturally or added to food
items to prevent oxidation which always leads to rancidity, browning, and
general lack of freshness. Fish and fish products contain unsaturated fatty
acids which are especially susceptible to oxidation because of their electron
deficient double bonds. The breakdown products of oxidation can produce
off-odors, loss of nutrient content, new flavors, and color deterioration. To
manufacture high-quality, stable fish products, the most effective solution
is the addition of antioxidants, especially natural, which can serve as “chain
breakers,” by intercepting generation of free radicals during various stages
of oxidation or to chelate metals. A common feature of these compounds is
that they have one or more aromatic rings (often phenolic) with one or more
–OH groups capable of donating H· to the oxidizing lipid. The facts that
they are natural, and have antioxidative activity that is as good as or even
better than the synthetic antioxidants, make them particularly attractive for
commercial food processors. It is clear that consumers are becoming increas-
ingly aware of and selective against foods that are perceived by them to be
unnatural and containing additives. This means that controlling oxidation
Natural Antioxidants: Control of Oxidation in Fish and Fish Products 159
KEYWORDS
• seafood
• lipid oxidation
• natural antioxidants
• synthetic antioxidants
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CHAPTER 5
NATURAL ANTIOXIDANTS IN
POULTRY PRODUCTS
A. K. BISWAS1,*, M. K. CHATLI2, and GAURI JAIRATH3
1
Division of Post-Harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Avian Research
Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Department of Livestock Products Technology, GADVASU,
Ludhiana 141 004, Punjab, India
Department of Livestock Products Technology, LUVAS,
3
CONTENTS
Abstract ....................................................................................................166
5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................166
5.2 Lipid Oxidation ...............................................................................167
5.3 Sources of Natural Antioxidants .....................................................171
5.4 Mode of Application of Antioxidants .............................................190
5.5 Synergistic Effect of Natural Antioxidants .....................................193
5.6 Measurement of Efficacy of AOA ..................................................193
5.7 Conclusions .....................................................................................195
Keywords .................................................................................................195
References ................................................................................................196
166 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Poultry products are rich source of proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals,
out of which lipids are considered to be the integral components of these food
products. Being an integral component, the fatty acid compositions of cell
membranes’ phospholipid fractions are especially important in determining the
Natural Antioxidants in Poultry Products 167
stability of foods and act as a site for oxidative process initiation. Further, the
fatty acids mostly exist in unsaturated state which makes them more prone to
oxidation. Lipid oxidation is influenced by the composition of phospholipids,
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), metal ions, oxygen, heme pigments,
and addition of salt and processing approaches. It is one of the major factors
affecting the quality of animal foods; however, in cured meat, due to forma-
tion of stable pink color by ferrous form of pigment, there is less oxidation as
compared to cooked uncured meat. This oxidation is initiated when PUFA react
with molecular oxygen via free radical chain mechanism form peroxides and
accomplished with discoloration and production of malodorous compounds.
These compounds not only give rancid odors but significantly affect human
health. Color and flavor are the first stimuli for the consumers to purchase
meat and meat products, and in this regard, lipid oxidation is the main limiting
factor (Gray et al., 1996). Further, the low oxidative stability of fresh meat,
precooked and restructured meat products is a problem for all those involved
in the meat production chain, including the primary producers, processors,
distributors, and retailers, and a major challenge for meat scientists. The
scientific literature pertaining to propensity of lipid oxidation in animal foods
including poultry products and other biological systems is vast and suggests
various remedies to combat this problem; however, before adopting the solu-
tion there is a need to understand the concept of lipid oxidation.
Lipid oxidation is often the decisive factor in determining the useful storage
life of food products, even when their fat content is as low as 0.5–1%. Oxida-
tive rancidity is initiated by the so called “reactive oxygen species” (ROS)
(Evans & Halliwell, 2001). The ROS in-turn combines various free radicals
which not only include oxygen-centered free radicals but also non-radical
derivatives of oxygen. Free radicals contain one or more unpaired electrons
and are capable of independent existence. Lipid oxidation in muscle foods is
initiated in the highly unsaturated phospholipid fraction of subcellular bio-
membranes; unsaturated portions of fatty acid esters react with molecular
oxygen to form peroxides, hydroperoxides, and carbonyl compounds. The
lipid hydroperoxides formed during the propagation of the per-oxidation
processes are unstable and are reductively cleaved in the presence of trace
elements to give a range of new free radicals and non-radical compounds
including aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and acids that cause the off-odor,
off-color, change in nutritive value, and safety of muscle foods. Besides
168 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
The first step in lipid oxidation is the removal of hydrogen ion from a methy-
lene carbon of a fatty acid (RH). It becomes easier as the number of double
bonds in the fatty acid increases, which is why PUFA are particularly suscep-
tible to oxidation. The initiation step can be catalyzed by OH– or by certain
iron–oxygen complexes (e.g., ferryl or perferryl radicals).
The fatty acyl radical (R–) reacts rapidly with O2 to form a peroxyl radical
(ROO–):
R– + O2 ROO– (5.2)
The rate-constant (K2) for this reaction is 3 × l08 M-1 S-1. Because ROO– is
more highly oxidized than the fatty acyl radical or the fatty acid itself, it will
preferentially oxidize other unsaturated fatty acids and propagate the chain
reaction:
The rate-constant (K3) for this step is relatively low (1 × 101 M-1S-1). Lipid
hydroperoxides (ROOH) formed in the propagation reaction are both prod-
ucts of oxidation and substrates for further reaction with Fe++ and Cu+ to
yield ROO– and alkoxyl radicals (RO–). The ferrous (Fe++) reductively
cleaves ROOH (3) as follows:
Natural Antioxidants in Poultry Products 169
Oxygen (O2) also reduces ferric iron to ferrous and cupric copper to
cuprous in vivo, allowing a redox cycle in which the transition metal ion is
used several times:
O2 + Fe+++ Fe++ + O2
O2 + Cu++ Cu+ + O2
Other strong reductants such as ascorbic acid (AA) and parquet also
reduce Fe+++ to Fe++. Both ROO– and RO– can initiate further reactions (3)
and the following:
The RO– can also undergo β-scission and degrade to alkyl radicals
(R– CH2-) and a range of aldehydes (R–CHO) depending on the particular
hydroperoxide present.
Some confusion prevails about the nature of the initiation process in lipid
oxidation, but spontaneous lipid radical formation or direct reaction of unsat-
urated fatty acids with molecular oxygen is thermodynamically unfavor-
able. Most researchers believe that the presence of transition metals, notably
iron, is pivotal in the generation of species capable of abstracting a proton
from an unsaturated fatty acid. During handling, processing, cooking, and
storage, iron is released from high molecular weight sources (e.g., hemo-
globin, myoglobin, ferritin, hemosiderin) may directly cause oxidation or
made available to low molecular weight compounds such as amino acids,
nucleotides, and phosphates with which it is believed to form chelates. These
chelates are thought to be responsible for the catalysis of lipid oxidation in
biological tissues. However, the relative contributions of the different forms
of iron have not been clearly defined. Much of the information pertaining to
lipid oxidation in meat deals with hydroperoxide dependent lipid oxidation.
Pure lipid hydroperoxides are fairly stable at physiological temperatures,
but in the presence of transition metal complexes, especially iron salts, their
decomposition is greatly accelerated.
Natural Antioxidants in Poultry Products 171
flavonoids
Rice Hull extract Phenolic compounds 0.1%, w/w in turkey breast (Lee & Ahn, 2005)
Sage Oil Carnosol, rosmanol, rosemadiol, 3% in chicken meat (Mariutti et al., 2008)
carnosic acid
Sesame oil Sesamol Phenolic compounds 500–2000 µg/ml
Dry soya sprouts 30 g/kg in chicken patties (Romero et al., 2008)
Animal sources
Bone protein – – 2%
hydrolysates
Milk proteins Casein phosphopeptides – 2 % in muscle foods (Sakanaka et al., 2005)
– Data not recorded.
173
174 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
AA is a chelating agent that binds metal ions; it also scavenges free radicals
and acts as a reducing agent. At high levels (> 1000 mg/kg), AA inhibits
oxidation; however, at low levels (< 100 mg/kg) it can catalyze oxidation
and warmed over flavor (WOF) development (Ahn & Nam, 2004). In the
presence of AA, iron stimulates oxidation in muscle membranes, presum-
ably through the involvement of hydroxyl radicals. Sepe et al. (2005) found
that sodium ascorbate and sodium erythorbate more effectively maintained
red color and maintained myoglobin in the reduced state in cooked ground
meat patties than AA and ascorbyl palmitate. The solubility of ascorbate
affects its ability to prevent discoloration (Mancini et al., 2006). The lack of
effectiveness of the hydrophobic antioxidant may be a result of localization
of components responsible for bone discoloration within the aqueous phase.
AA and phosphates appear to work synergistically to inhibit lipid oxidation.
AA and tocopherol reduction of lipid oxidation in meat can be enhanced by
adding sesamol, especially as storage time increases (Ismail et al., 2008).
Natural Antioxidants in Poultry Products 177
Dried bamboo leaves, yellow or brown colored powder, are commonly used
as antioxidant in various food systems. The antioxidative property is mainly
due to flavones, lactones, and phenolic acids. It can either inhibit lipid auto-
oxidation chain reaction, or chelate transition metal ions, and can be used as
primary or secondary antioxidant. Moreover, bamboo leaf powder can help
in eliminating the nitrites in cured meat. It inhibits the synthesis of N-nitro-
samine, and has anti-bacterial, bacteriostatic, deodorizing, aroma enhancing,
etc. functions (Zhang et al., 2007). It is commonly used in oil-containing
food, meat products, fishery products, expanded foods, etc.
The AOA of these plant extracts in meat system has been investigated parallel
to pure quercetin, rutin, and caffeic acid. It is found that cloudberry extract
and quercetin are the most potent; caffeic acid intermediate and pure reutin
have the lowest AOA (Reya et al., 2005). Hexanal production was inhib-
ited by the high level of beetroot, but TBARS production was not, perhaps
because the red color of beetroot extract interfered with the determination of
the pink thiobarbituric acid chromogen.
5.3.1.8 CARAWAY
It is rich source of carvone and limonene. Caraway has been used as antioxi-
dant in chicken meat stored under frozen conditions (El-Alim et al., 1999).
5.3.1.9 CAROTENOIDS
Carotenoids are yellow, orange, and red lipid-soluble pigments that occur
widely in plants, fruits, and vegetables. They are 40-carbon isoprenoids
with varying structures, and can be classified as carotenes and xanthophylls.
Certain carotenoids are also referred to as pro-vitamins such as β-carotene,
α-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin. Carotenoids are antioxidant nutrients that
act mainly as secondary antioxidants in foods by quenching singlet oxygen.
They may also prevent oxidation by trapping free radicals in the absence of
singlet oxygen. Carotenoids are a good synergist with tocopherols. Beta-
carotene, lutein, lycopene, and isozeaxanthin are typical carotenoids that
effectively retard oxidation in foods. Astaxanthin has AOA that is ten times
greater than that of β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and canthaxanthin, and
is often used in fish products. In a high-oxygen concentration, β-carotene
may exhibit a pro-oxidant, rather than an antioxidant effect in food products.
Carotenoids are natural constituents of foods and have generally recognized
as safe (GRAS) status. No permissible limits on their addition level have
been stipulated.
5.3.1.10 CHERRY
5.3.1.11 CLOVE
It has been observed that 1 and 2% clove oil have very good antioxidant and
antimicrobial effects in chicken frankfurters (Mytle et al., 2006); 0.2 and 0.5
% clove oleoresin in chicken meat marination (Carlos & Harrison, 1999);
clove powder as phyto-preservative and antimicrobial in chicken nuggets
(Kumar & Tanwar, 2011). Hao et al. (1998) applied eugenol to meat slices
or cooked chicken and it was proved that eugenol inhibited the growth of
Aeromonas hydrophila and Listeria monocytogenes.
Curry leaf (Murray koenigii) is native from East-Asian countries and mostly
used as a color ingredient in variety of products. The extract contains
monoterpene hydrocarbons and monoterpene-derived alcohols which have
recently been recognized for their efficacy in providing significant AOA
to the human foods (Ningappa et al., 2008). However, AOA of curry leaf
extracts may vary depending on extraction methods, purity, types, and quan-
tity of active compounds present according to climate, soil composition,
plant organ, age, and stage in the vegetative cycle. Antioxidant effects of
180 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
curry leaf powder and extract have been investigated for their use in chicken
mince and patties (Biswas et al., 2006). It has been reported that use of curry
leaf powder could reduce production of malondialdehyde content in raw and
precooked chicken meat patties.
Lutein is the main active compound from extracts of dark green leafy vege-
tables. It is an oxygenated carotenoid (xanthophylls) abundantly present
and is one of the most important dietary antioxidants for eye health. Lutein
significantly reduces the risk of age-related macular degeneration, athero-
sclerosis, and UV damage (O’Connell et al., 2008). AOA of lutein is based
on its singlet oxygen quenching ability.
It possesses high total phenolics and flavonoids content, and also a little
amount of vit. C. Although reduction power is not good, 1, 1 diphenyl-2-pic-
rylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity was comparable to BHA,
and could be used as a cheap natural antioxidant source for meat and meat
products (Romero et al., 2008).
Natural Antioxidants in Poultry Products 181
5.3.1.19 GARLIC
5.3.1.20 GINGER
The AOA of ginger relies on 6-gingerol and its derivatives. Ginger extract at
2.5% has been found effective as tenderizing, antioxidant, and antimicrobial
in smoked spent hen meat (Naveena & Mendiratta, 2001) and 2, 4, and 6%
ginger paste as an antioxidant in spent hen meat balls (Rongsensusang et al.,
2005).
182 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
5.3.1.21 GRAPES
Grapes are used in various forms as seed extract, dietary fiber, pomace, grape
wine, etc. Grape seed extract (GSE) is already marketed as an ingredient
to the dietary supplementation industry, the quality and price of which are
based on its phenolic content. Phenolics in GSE exist as proanthocyanidins
in the form of oligomers and polymers of polyhydroxy flavan-3-ols such as
catechin and epicatechin (Weber et al., 2007). Antioxidant effect of GSE was
evaluated on cooked turkey patties and cooled stored turkey meat (Lau &
King, 2003). Grape pomace, a concentrate of grape seeds, stems, and peel, is
a rich source of flavonoids including monomeric phenolic compounds such
as catechins, epicatechin, and epicatechin-3-O-gallate and dimeric, trimeric,
and tetrameric procyanidins. It is used as dietary supplement to increase
antioxidant capacity in breast and thigh meat of broiler chickens (Ayerdi et
al., 2009).
Grape antioxidant dietary fiber (GADF) was effectively used at 0.5, 1,
1.5, and 2% concentration in raw and cooked chicken breast hamburger.
GADF addition resulted in reduction in lightness and yellowness and an
increase in redness in raw and chicken hamburgers without affecting the
acceptability of the products (Ayerdi et al., 2009).
Grape wine has resveratrol, a strong antioxidant and a free-radical scav-
enger. It has superior AOA over quercetin, rutin, and carnosine. Antioxida-
tive effectiveness has been reported as BHA > resveratrol > PG > tripoly-
phosphate > vanillin > phenol > BHT > α-tocopherol (Bekhit et al., 2003).
5.3.1.23 HONEY
Honey alters the water activity, thereby indirectly affecting oxidation rate.
Moreover, it facilitates the Maillard reaction during the cooking process
and thus the development of an antioxidative effect. Honey (15% wt/
wt) was reported to retard lipid oxidation in turkey and chicken meat.
However, it is also reported that incorporation of honey has imparted
a slightly darker color with lower lightness values but had no effect of
redness and yellowness values (McKibben & Engeseth, 2002; Hashim et
al., 1999).
5.3.1.24 MARJORAM
5.3.1.25 MINT
5.3.1.27 ONION
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is much valued for its flavoring components and
has high quercetin content (284–486 mg/kg). Quercetin, a flavonoid belongs
to a group of plant phenolics, known to control rancidity in cooked ground
turkey, cooked ground lamb, and oven-cooked turkey breast (Younathan et
al., 1980; Karastogiannidou, 1999; Tang & Cronin, 2007). It may be possible
to further enhance the antioxidant role of quercetin by using a juice from a
high quercetin-yielding onion variety.
5.3.1.28 OREGANO
5.3.1.29 POMEGRANATE
5.3.1.33 ROSEMARY
The AOA of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) extracts has been known
for the last 30 years and is due to presence of phenolic compounds, carnosol,
carnosic acid, rosmanol, isorosmanol, rosmariquinone, rosmaridiphenol,
and rosmary-diphenol. The phenolic substances react with lipid or hydroxyl
radicals and convert them into stable products. Rosemary extracts can also
chelate metal ions, such as Fe2+, resulting in a reduced rate of formation of
activated oxygen (Formanek et al., 2003). It is four times more effective than
BHA and equal to BHT as antioxidants but less than TBHQ. It also improved
the color stability of cooked turkey rolls. Rosemary extract has also been
used in the combination of various other antioxidants (McBride et al., 2007)
to have synergistic effect. However, some of the compounds in rosemary
(verbenone, borneol, and camphor) can impart an undesirable rosemary odor
to foods, even at low concentrations.
A great deal of research on the antioxidant properties of rosemary extract
in different food systems has been carried out, which clearly demonstrated
the effectiveness of its bioactives compounds with greater acceptability by
the consumers. Moreover, several authors reported that some compounds
such as phenolic di-terpenoids present in rosemary extracts have antibacte-
rial activity (Cuvelier et al., 1994).
Natural Antioxidants in Poultry Products 187
5.3.1.34 SAGE
5.3.1.35 SEABUCKTHORN
5.3.1.38 THYME
5.3.1.39 TOMATO
5.3.2.2 CARNOSINE
5.3.2.3 CHITOSAN
Milk and milk components have been frequently used in the enhancement
of nutritional and technological properties of a wide variety of foods. A
feasible application of peptides or hydrolysates as antioxidants is being
explored especially in muscle foods. The phosphorylated caseinophospho-
peptides (CPP) have the ability to scavenge free peroxyl radicals as well
as to chelate transition metals such as iron, copper, and zinc (Kim et al.,
2007). This is positively correlated with the amounts of histidine, lysine,
proline, and tyrosine. Incorporation of casein calcium peptides (2%) inhib-
ited about 70% of lipid oxidation and prevents formation of an off-color in
meat products. Rossini et al. (2009) suggested that casein peptides (20 mg/
ml) effectively inhibited lipid per-oxidation in ground meat homogenates
and mechanically deboned meat. As cooking increases the catalytic activity
of iron, the stronger chelating activity of enriched CPP may make them
more effective antioxidants in cooked muscle foods (Diaz & Decker, 2004).
Whey hydrolysates may also act as potential antioxidants in meat prod-
ucts. Pena-Ramos and Xiong (2003) evaluated the AOA of selected whey
hydrolysates in cooked pork patties. The results indicated that at an appli-
cation level of 2%, the whey protein isolates and their hydrolytic products
not only reduced the cooking loss but also suppressed lipid oxidation in
cooked pork patties during refrigerated storage. Notably, hydrolysis with
protamex improved the capability of whey protein to inhibit early-stage
lipid oxidation (formation of hydroperoxides or conjugated dienes) as well
as to retard propagation of the oxidation process. Therefore, milk proteins
can be superlatively used as nutrient, color enhancer as well as antioxidant
in processed muscle foods.
5.4.3 SPRAYING
The antioxidants directly or their active principle are sprayed over the surface
of the meat. Direct addition of a natural rosemary extract on to the meat
surface by spraying 2 ml pure extract diluted in 150 ml n-pentane, according
to a ratio of 2 ml solution to 50 g meat, gave rise to a significant decrease
of color loss and lipid oxidation spraying of vit. E directly on turkey meat
resulted in a lower myoglobin oxidation.
192 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
It is another method that does not involve direct addition of the active agents
to the product. Antimicrobial agents in active packaging have been reported
(Appendini & Hotchkiss, 2002), but studies on antioxidant active packaging
are rarer. Nerín et al. (2006) described the promising results of a new anti-
oxidant active packaging system; a plastic film with an embodied rosemary
extract was able to inhibit both myoglobin and lipid oxidation in red meat,
leading to enhanced display life of meat. The mechanism of antioxidant
active pack is currently under investigation. Generally postulated hypoth-
esis states that mechanism involves inactivation of free radicals either by
migration of antioxidant molecules from the active film to the meat or by
scavenging of those oxidant molecules from the meat onto the active film.
Pezo et al. (2008) has demonstrated that active films react with headspace
free radicals. This allows to envisaging antioxidant active packaging with
oregano as a promising tool for increasing the display life of lamb and other
meats in retail sale. However, the legal regulatory status of active packs is so
far not clear and needs to be specifically addressed.
5.4.5 MARINATION
5.4.6 ENROBING
and odor and able to distinguish them for different meat species. Amongst
the chemical methods, total AOA is measured by ferric reducing antioxidant
power (FRAP) assay. FRAP assay uses antioxidants as reductants in a redox-
linked colorimetric method, employing an easily reduced oxidant system
present in stoichiometric excess. At low pH, reduction of ferric tripyridyl-
triazine (Fe III–TPTZ) complex to ferrous form (which has an intense blue
color) can be monitored by measuring the change in absorption at 593 nm.
The reaction is non-specific, in that any half reaction that has lower redox
potential, under reaction conditions, than that of ferric ferrous half reac-
tion, will drive the ferrous (Fe III to Fe II) ion formation. The change in
absorbance is, therefore, directly related to the combined or “total” reducing
power of the electron donating antioxidants present in the reaction mixture.
The ability to scavenge DPPH radical by added antioxidant can be measure
at 517 nm wavelength to know efficacy of antioxidant compound. DPPH
can make stable free radicals in aqueous or ethanol solution. However,
fresh DPPH solution should be prepared before every measurement. Super-
oxide anion radical scavenging assay is based on the reduction of nitro blue
tetrazolium (NBT) in the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NADH) and phenazonium methosulfate (PMS) under aerobic condition
at room temperature under the dark. Oxygen radical absorption capacity
(ORAC) assay is the measure of the oxidative degradation of the fluores-
cent molecule (either beta-phycoerythrin or fluorescein) after being mixed
with free radical generators such as azo-initiator compounds. Azo-initiators
are considered to produce the per-oxiradical by heating, which damages the
fluorescent molecule, resulting in the loss of fluorescence. Antioxidants are
considered to protect the fluorescent molecule from the oxidative degenera-
tion. The degree of protection is quantified using a fluorometer. Fluorescein
is currently used most as a fluorescent probe. Equipment that can automati-
cally measure and calculate the capacity is commercially available. ABTS
method is based on the ability of antioxidants to quench the long-lived
ABTS radical cation, a blue/green chromophore with characteristic absorp-
tion at 734 nm, in comparison to that of standard antioxidants. ABTS was
dissolved in water to a 7 mM concentration. ABTS radical cation (ABTS+)
was produced by reacting ABTS stock solution with 2.45 mM potassium
persulfate (final concentration) and allowed the mixture to stand in the dark
at room temperature for 16 h before use. As ABTS and potassium persul-
fate react sterio-chiometrically at a ratio of 1:0.5 (mol mol-1), this results
in complete oxidation of ABTS. Oxidation of ABTS commenced immedi-
ately, but the absorbance was not maximal and stable until 6 h had elapsed.
Natural Antioxidants in Poultry Products 195
The radical was stable in this form for more than two days, when stored in
the dark at room temperature. Prior to use, the stock solution was diluted
with ethanol to an absorbance of 0.70 at t0 (t = 0 min) and equilibrated at
30 °C exactly 6 min after initial mixing. The TBARS is used to determine
primary oxidation products in terms of mg malonaldehyde per kg of meat
sample while linoleic acid accelerated by azo-initiators (LAOX) is used to
determine oxidation of an aqueous dispersion of linoleic acid accelerated by
azo-initiators.
5.7 CONCLUSIONS
KEYWORDS
• natural antioxidant
• lipid oxidation
• chicken meat
• turkey
• broiler
• poultry
• phenolics
• flavonoids
196 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
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CHAPTER 6
CONTENTS
Abstract ....................................................................................................204
6.1 Introduction .....................................................................................204
6.2 Analytical Methods for Quantifying Products of
Lipid Oxidation ...............................................................................208
6.3 Measuring the Consequences of Lipid Oxidation...........................250
6.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................253
6.5 Attachments ....................................................................................255
Keywords .................................................................................................256
References ................................................................................................257
204 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
The most appropriate analytical method for measuring and managing lipid
oxidation in meat, poultry, and seafood products is based on the type of
information sought, the precision needed, and the intended use of the data. In
most cases, by including a sensory evaluation the significance of the analyt-
ical data is enhanced. However, in all cases the early incorporation of an
antioxidant(s) is a strict prerequisite for managing oxidation of value-added
meat products.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
1. Estimate the oxidative stability (shelf life) of raw meat materials and
finished products.
2. Determine the most effective, and type and usage rate for, oxidation
inhibitors.
3. Determine critical “stress” points effecting oxidative stability in the
distribution chain.
4. Measure the effect of formulation changes on oxidative stability of
value-added meat products.
5. Evaluate and improve upon good oxidation management practices
(GOMPs).
H
A
~- A
FIGURE 6.1 Overview of the sequence of chemical events associated with the autoxidation
of lipids.
206 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Given that all other processing variables are equal, the presence (not neces-
sarily the concentration) of unsaturated fatty acids drives lipid oxidation.
Figure 6.2 shows a comparison of fatty acid profiles for beef, chicken, and
salmon, as the fatty acid profile favors PUFAs the susceptibility to oxida-
tion increases and shelf-life decreases. Throughout this chapter data will be
presented showing the rate of oxidation in value-added meat products also
depends on product form, processing methods, packaging techniques, and
storage conditions.
0
18:0, Sterle Acid 18:1 Oleic Acid 18:2, Linoleic Acid 18:3 , Linolenic Acid
Types of Fatty Acids
Various analytical methods are available for measuring the extent of lipid
oxidation. Regardless of the method selected, the more criteria, listed below,
that are met, the more valuable the information will be.
The larger the coefficient K (greater than 1), the greater the yield of fat
containing products from lipid oxidation in the sample.
1
Fraction of lipid extracted = (6.2)
(1 + Vs ) / (( Vm × n K )) n
208 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
The equation shows that the lipid fraction (containing products of lipid
oxidation) extracted from the raw meat homogenate increases with serial
extractions, the amount of solvent(s) is minimized when the K is large.
For meat applications, serial extractions are not always practical. There-
fore, the meat sample is finely ground under controlled conditions (to mini-
mize further oxidation during preparation) to have the same efficiency as
serial extractions:
1. The secondary oxidation products extracted should not react with the
solvent system.
2. The secondary oxidation products extracted should be easily recov-
ered; low temperature roto-vaporization under vacuum is often used.
3. The solvent should have low toxicity.
6.2.1 PEROXIDES
Peroxides are the initial products formed during lipid oxidation (Fig. 6.1).
The peroxides formed are odorless and tasteless. Nonetheless they are
widely used as an indicator of the current status of lipid oxidation. As will be
discussed later in this chapter, peroxide values (PVs) can be mathematically
combined with para-anisidine values (p-AVs) for a more comprehensive
approach for determining the oxidative status of meat and meat by-prod-
ucts. Three different methods may be used to determine the PVs on solvent
extracted lipids from meat.
RH + O2 ROOH
(lipid) (lipid hydroperoxide)
(mL Na 2S2 O3 ) × (N Na 2S2 O 4) × 0.127 meq. × 1000 Meq O 2 (from hydro peroxides)
= (6.3)
wt. (g) of sample (solvent extracted fat or oil) Kg oil
The data in Figure 6.3 show that PVs can be used to assess the oxida-
tive quality of freshly rendered lard. PV data provide information about the
storage stability of the rendered lard and the effectiveness of natural oxida-
tion inhibitors.
Interpretation of PV data in Figure 6.3 can be used to improve or imple-
ment GOMPs by incorporating natural oxidation in combination with a
nitrogen (N2) sparge and/or blanket as well as decreasing the turn over time
of the stored lard.
From our experience, the level of quantification (LOQ) has been ± 2 meq
kg-1 fat or oil. The LOQ for the titrimetric measurement of PVs is based on
the precision inherent in the method, the amount of the sample collected for
fat extraction, and the efficiency of the fat extraction procedure. Advances
210 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
120
100
(atm)
.., 80 ~Reference
ll
t!
0" 60
-•-Reference (N2
sparge/blanket)
"
E .....,._ Reference +Nat Ox Inhib
(atm)
40
- • - Reference +Nat Ox Inhib
(N2 sparge/blanket)
20
0
0 2
FIGURE 6.3 Assessing oxidative status using peroxide values (PV). Data help provide
information about the storage conditions required to achieve maximum shelf life. Data
modified from internal study.
k× q 1mv
Potential difference = 2
= −6 = 1,000,000 mv cm –1 (6.4)
d 10 cm
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 211
where k is a constant,
mv = millivolt,
q is magnitude of the interfacial electrical potential developed between the
meat sample and electrode,
d 2 is square of the interfacial distance between the meat and electrode.
E = Eo −
0.059
log10
[ reduced ] (6.5)
n [oxidized ]
Application of the Nernst equation relates the electrical potential to
aqueous concentrations of a solution under controlled conditions (Karddash-
Strochkova & Tur’ yan, 2001). The analytical instrumentation is similar
to the method for measuring PVs with potassium iodide–starch reagents.
Although both are based on titration, the potentiometric method uses a
change in an electrical signal whereas the iodometric method depends on a
visual color change to determine the concentration of the hydroperoxides in
the extracted fat (Table 6.1).
Rxn. in aqueous system 2S4O6 –2 + H2O2 – 2e– <–> 2H2O + 2e– + 2S2O3–2
RT
o
K eq = Ecell =
nF
× ln K eq ( ) (6.6a); solving for K (rxn driven strongly to the right)
ne E o + ne E o
Eq. point = = 0.200; vol. to eq. pt. = M 1 × V1 = M 2 × V2 (6.6c)
ne + ne
REDOX Potentiometry
titration ofH202 by soudium thiosulfate
0.40 1:::::::::===-------------
Volts 0.30
0.20 t:=::=:::::~!!!!!!!l'~~=========
0.10
0.00
FIGURE 6.4 Potentiometric titration, at the equivalence point (vertical grey line) the
amount of hydroperoxide is equivalent to the amount of sodium thiosulfate.
Aλ = l × ∈ × C (6.7)
214 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
The Beers Lambert law, illustrated in Figure 6.5, states the absorbance
(A) of light at a given wavelength (λ) is related to the concentration of a
chemical compound.
Solu tion
Wavelength
selector
Detector Co lo r versio n of
figure 5.
Blac k and w hi te
versio n of
figure 5.
Wavelength Selector
The difference between the inc ident light and transmitted light indicates abosrbance
FIGURE 6.5 Beer’s law relates the concentration of the analyte of interest to the degree
of absorbance at a specified wavelength. The underlying principles for the components in
Equation 6.7 are presented in Table 6.2 and Figure 6.6.
TABLE 6.2 The Principle for Quantitative Spectroscopy is Based on the Relationships of
Absorbance (A), Path Length of Plane Polarized Light (l), and a Compound’s Extinction
Coefficient (ϵ). Modified from Data in Food Analysis: Theory and Practice, pp. 63–71.
2
Principle Dependent Independent R Slope Y
variable y variable x m Intercept
Strong absorbing analyte A (ϵ) Absorbance Analyte A 100% 0.25 0
Weak absorbing analyte B (ε) Absorbance Analyte B 100% 0.06 0
Path length v. absorbance (l) Absorbance Path length 100% 1.24 0
(dimension of
cuvette)
Absorbance v. concentration (C) Absorbance [analyte] 100% 0.25 0
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 215
c:::
~
..."'
0
1.0
"'
~
<(
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Analyte Concentration
FIGURE 6.6 Concentration and the extinction coefficient (ϵ) of an analyte is a key principle
in quantifying the various compounds using spectrophotometric techniques. The linear
relationship between the components in Equation 6.7 is the basis of spectroscopic techniques.
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FIGURE 6.7 Flow diagram for spectrophotometric determination of hydroperoxides.
Adapted from Research and Reviews, Special Circular 183-02, Ohio State University.
LSL USL
LSL
Process Data
0
~--Within
--Overall I
Target * Potential ('.\1tlin) Capabilty
USL
~"'
9.5
Cp 1.27
Sample Mean 8.7
CPL 2.32
SampleN 31
StDev(Within) 1.2481 ~ CPU
Cpk
0.21
0.21
StDev(Ov erall) 1.23774
Overall Capabiity
FIGURE 6.8 Peroxide value data in the graph show significant amount of product produced
exceeds the specified limit (abbreviated USL). Data from internal spray dry data.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 217
&
AH
3
g
~ dilute to 2Sml with
reagent grade
sprectro-pure
0.500 ~xlracled fal isooctane
]
I }
) mlofcontaining 2.0%extracted
fat+ 1 ml of 2.) g. p-ani sidine
per lite r of glac ial aceti c acid.
Dilution factor for extracted fat
sample = 1.2
¢"'
10 ml quartz cuvette
~
Para methoxJ analine NH 2
(p-anisi ine)
glycerol or glycerol
+
>==!
phosphate - OOC(CH2) :: CH2 - - H
H-
glycerol or glycero l ~
phosphate- OOC(CH2):: CH2- -
NH 2
H
H H
H H-
25 × 1.2 × ( A1 – A2 – A3 )
p-AV = (6.8)
m
218 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Therefore,
∈ = √∈2
TABLE 6.3 TOTOX Data Were Collected to Determine the Error of Uncertainty (the Error
Propagated when Two Measurements are Combined). Calculating the Error of Uncertainty
Assumes the Errors will be Small and the Data Are Normally Distributed. Data from Internal
Study.
TOTOX data
Variable N Mean Std. dev.
2 × PV 7 3.4 1.7
pAV 7 6.5 0.5
Solving for the error of propagation (ϵ) when two factors (PV and p-AV)
are incorporated into Equation 6.10.
The TOTOX value with the calculated error = 14 ± 6.6. If lower values
for the error or uncertainty are needed, measurement methods, processing
procedure, and/or product specifications need to be reviewed.
The application of p-AV, PV, and TOTOX data is shown in Figure 6.10.
Because lard rendering is a lengthy process involving sustained high
processing temperatures, analytical techniques that measure the more vola-
tile secondary oxidation products (2-alkenals, 2, 4 alkadienals for TBARS)
would be lost during processing. In this situation, p-AV data express the
concentration of less volatile secondary oxidation products (less saturated,
higher molecular weight fragments).
220 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
300
~ PV Reference
§ 250
.,i ---PV- Reference+ Nat. Ox.
;§ 200 Inhib.
.....
0 ...,._pAV Reference
-.:: 150
E 100 ---pAV Reference+ Nat. Ox.
~
gj Inhib.
~ 50 ---TOTOX Reference
0
.....,. TOTOX Reference+ Nat
0 (fresh) 2
Ox. Inhib.
Weeks Storage at !30°F (54.4°C) , Atmospheric Conditions
FIGURE 6.10 Data show an improvement in the storage stability of lard with natural
oxidation inhibitors (abbreviated as Nat Ox Inhib). PV or p-AV values alone would minimize
the importance of the added natural oxidation inhibitors.
TABLE 6.4 Acceptable Values for TBARS Varies from Product to Product. Adapted from
Handbook for Meat Chemists, Edward Koniecko.
Average acceptable TBARS values for selected meat products
TBARS expressed as mg MDA 1000 g–1 of meat
Meat product Avg. TBARS
Beef bologna 0.222
Fresh Italian sausage 0.195
Smoked sausage 0.273
Beef weiner 0.197
Hard salami 0.429
Chicken roll 1.100
Boiled ham 0.105
Pepperoni 0.343
Fresh sausage patties 0.280
Bacon, sliced vacuum packaged 0.052
222 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
0.8
~ 0.7
E 06
,.rll o:5
Jf 0.4
;3 0.3
::E 0.2
~ 0.1
0 ~---------.----------.----------.--------~
0.3 mm grind, 0.3mm grind, Sample held Sample held
single grind double grind +3°C, 72 hours +22°C, 72 hours
FIGURE 6.11 Sample preparation can cause TBARS to vary within samples from the same
treatment of between treatments. Adapted from Handbook for Meat Chemists, E.S. Koniecko,
(1979). Non-meat ingredients commonly used in formulating value-added meat products can
be a source of variation in the values for TBARS.
., 0.5
c..
§ 0.4
VJ
-,. 0.3
Jf
<( 0.2
~0.1
E
FIGURE 6.12 Non-meat ingredients commonly used in formulations for value added meats
can increase or decrease TBARS values. Adapted from Handbook for Meat Chemists, E.S.
Koniecko (1979).
FIGURE 6.13 Formulation for a chicken sausage 76% meat ingredients and 24% non-meat
ingredients.
further processed into value-added products will need have lower values for
TBARS than that of finished products.
(/)
0.80
~
co
0.60 • TBARS based on
E- formula wt.
0.40
• TBARS based on
0.20 cooked meat wt.
0.00
T=O T+30
Days Stored at 40°F (4 °C) in Vacuum P ackages
FIGURE 6.14 Understanding the difference in TBARS for different types of value added
meat products requires knowledge about the formulation (high levels of non-meat ingredients
or lower level of nonmeat ingredients) to understand the significance of the data.
100
lw 85
90
80 IUwWIIWII 1 0~
/ 1
/
"' C§ ~70
<I\
,...........
~:2-~60
f!l J! 50 r./
----.L
cJ)
,... ~ §
---
---
40 35
::>
25
---- --
30
20
..::;;..-- r- --
~
8
10
0 ~-------- -
1.8 6 10
Months Frozen at -2o•F (-29. C)
FIGURE 6.15 TBA values for frozen salmon mince show that the maximum storage time
prior to thawing and further processing needs to be at some point in time prior to reaching the
maximum TBA value of 70. Data modified from the pink salmon study conducted by Alaska
Fishery Development Foundation, University of Alaska and Kalsec®, Inc. ca 1995.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 225
Two methods are used for analyzing 2-TBARSs in meat products that
are widely used in the meat industry (Fig. 6.16). The distillation method
involves partitioning secondary oxidation products in the meat sample into
the appropriate solvent then separating these compounds by distillation.
The direct method determines the concentration of secondary oxidation
products directly without partitioning the secondary oxidation products or
TB ARS
I I Distillation Methods I
with
TBARS fo r Beef TBARS for Poultry
I I I
t
I Add TBA reagent incubate in
530nm from calibrated boi ling fo r 40 min ..
spectrophotometer with band
!
width < 5nm . Determine cone,
us ing Beer Lambert Law Conduct "spike and
recovery" with a
small aliquot of
Pipette an aliquot o r Cool, then pipette into cuvette,
standardized soln. of
distillate from meat read absorbance at 530 nm in
MDA-bis acetaL
homogenate into test calibrated spectrophotomer,
tube w ith TBA band width < 5nm. Calculate
rea ~en t. cone. Using Beer Lambert Law
~
IPipette an aliquot of di stillate from meat
homogenate into test tube with TBA reagent.
I
~ ~
Incubate in boiling water for 35 min., cool then pi pette
sample into cuvette. Read absorbance at 530nm fro m
calibrated spectrophotometer with spectral band width
< Snm. Determine cone, use Beer Lambert Law.
FIGURE 6.16 Methods and techniques for the analysis of TBARS (thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances).
226 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
distillation. The distillation method is most widely used because the assay
is relatively inexpensive, values are related to off-flavor, off-aromas, and
color degradation and the data are familiar to the meat industry. Since the
sample preparation and analysis differ for both methods, it is important to
confirm which method is used.. TBARS data in this chapter are from the
distillation method, this method is commonly used because the assay is rela-
tively easy and inexpensive. The direct method for TBARS is problematic
for samples containing carbohydrates and proteins, the distillation method
uses the distillate which avoids this problem.
Data in the Figures 6.17(a) and 6.17(b) below show the application of the
distillation method to evaluate the comparative shelf life between a natural
and synthetic antioxidant for raw frozen pork sausages. TBARS values
increase at different rates between treatments during frozen storage.
...
_.,_ BHAIBHT
0.50 ~~=--~~;;;;r r"''-=--~
0.00 ,._--,.---;r-----~----,
T=O 2 4 6 8
Weeks Stored in +5°F ( -l5°C) to + 10°F ( -l2°C) Freezer
FIGURE 6.17(a) Data for TBARS show differences between treatments during storage
time. Data from internal storage stability study.
FIGURE 6.17(b) The interrelationship between lipid oxidation and raw meat pigment
color is inverse. As meat lipids oxidize, meat color also oxidizes. Data from internal storage
stability study.
Values for TBARS of raw frozen pork sausage links can be transformed
into a linear model to compare slope (rate of oxidation) and “y intercept.”
The Figure 6.17(c) shows pork sausages without an oxidation inhibitor
(R2 = 90.9%) are initially more oxidized (“y” intercept) and oxidize most
rapidly during storage, pork sausages with a natural oxidation inhibitor
(R2 = 75.7%) are initially less oxidized and the rate of oxidation is inhib-
ited with effectiveness comparative to BHA/BHT (R2 = 93.2%). Predictive
application of the linear model is reserved for interpolation, extrapolation of
the values for TBARs beyond eight weeks, in the data below, is risky. Note
linear transformation does not alter the overall results.
The TBARS method provides valuable information about the shelf-life
meat products and can be used to improve formulations, alter packaging
materials, and review raw material specifications. However, good informa-
tion can be compromised if used incorrectly. For example, using TBARS
data to measure oxidation during a storage stability study under acceler-
ated conditions can provide information in a relatively short period of time.
However, using TBARS data from an accelerated shelf-life test to predict
shelf life under different conditions carries a great deal of risk. The sche-
matic representation in Figure 6.18 shows one possible error associated with
predicting shelf life.
228 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
3.5 Variable
- - Control
a.>
c.. 3.0 - Nat. Ox. lnhib.
E - BHA/BHT
"'"'t>b 2.5
--
..:.:
<(
0
2.0
~ 1.5
100
E
Vl
co: 1.0
<(
CQ
1- 0.5
q
D
@=
0.0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Storage In +SF (-15C) to+ 10F (-12C) Freezer
linear model
FIGURE 6.17(c) Transforming TBARS data into a linear model can provide information
about the trend between and within the treatments. Creating a linear model has limitations and
should be used only when appropriate.
3.0
2.8
2.6
...........
/
" 2.4 /
Q.2.2
p .o maximum valn e tor I"HARS ./
..
./
r/l "' 1.8
~ 1 1.6 ~
.·.le/
-- ---
ill .(( 1.4
I- Q 1.2 -data.f~~cclerarecLshel!.JifP < Mlrl V 'IJ);Ji'
•'~ e\~
• . fron> eJ<u y·
2 1.0 . / ated sne\thf- -
~0.8 e
"0.6 ./
0.4
0.2
0.0
2 4 6 7 8 9 10 ll
"Weeks" Storage Time
FIGURE 6.18 The schematic generalized representation showing one possible type of error
in using valid data to predict shelf life by extrapolating data from accelerated shelf life studies.
meat color and flavor) of these products. High oxygen (80%) modified
atmosphere packaging (HOX MAPackaging) was developed to maintain the
freshness by maintaining levels of oxygenated myoglobin pigments during
lengthy distribution and storage at retailers.
PHOTOGRAPHS 6.2(a), (b), and (c), left to right. For minimally processed HOX
MAPackaged products, raw meat color and lipid oxidation are inversely related. As meat
color degrades to brown, lipid oxidation (as measured by TBARS) increases. Photographs
and colorimetry data from internal study.
During the color life of HOX MAPackaged 80% lean ground beef, head-
space gases as well color were monitored. The data in Figure 6.18 show
the change in the concentration of oxygen (O2) is associated with color
degradation.
~ 80%
~ ~70%
~ !ij 60%
~~50%
~ e,_. 40% ~Oxygen (02)
~g
] ., .,I': 30% • Carbon Dioxide (C02)
:I:§ 20%
B Io%
0%
T=O T+IO days
Days Stored in 34°F (I 0 C) Cooler
FIGURE 6.19(a) At cold temperatures oxygen in the headspace gas is readily absorbed by
the raw meat. The oxygen absorbed participates in several biochemical reactions including
oxygenation of myoglobin and oxidation of lipids.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 231
TABLE 6.5 Reflectance Spectroscopy is Used to Monitor the Raw Meat Color Stability
During Storage. Raw Meat Color and Lipid Oxidation in Raw Meats are Interrelated, as Meat
Color Changes from Red (Relatively High a*/b* in Combination with Higher L* Values)
to Brown (Relatively Low a*/b* in Combination with Low L* Values) Lipid Oxidation
Increases. Data from Internal Fresh Beef Storage Stability Study.
CIE L*a*b* reflectance colorimetry
Sample description L* a* b* a*/b* C* Hue angle a* × b*
Fresh meat color (red) 57.42 24.40 13.48 1.81 27.88 28.93 328.91
Oxidized meat color 52.94 12.76 7.51 1.70 14.81 30.49 95.83
(redish brown)
FIGURE 6.19(b) Reflectance colorimetry has three main components, a light source, an
object (i.e. meat surface) and a sensor. The sensor detects changes in redness (a*, a* ÷ b*
or a* ÷ b*), color saturation C* = chroma = 2 (a* + b* , hue angle or color (in the CIE color
sphere. For diffuse reflectance spectroscopy the intensity of light at a particular wavelength is
detected (Modified from Hunt, M.; King, A. Meat Color Guideline Measurements; American
Meat Science Association: Savoy, Illinois, 2012.)
Oxygenation
Reduced Myoglobin, Mbg Oxymyoglobin, Oxymbg
(purple) (red)
Deoxygenation
Reduction Oxidation
(electron gain) (electron loss)
FIGURE 6.20 The three main types of raw meat pigments are in equilibrium during storage.
The equilibrium shifts away from red meat pigments to brown meat pigments as the meat and
lipid oxidize. (Modified from American Meat Science Association, Meat Color Measurement
Guidelines. www.meatscience.org.)
OxyMbg, 61%
FIGURE 6.21(a) Distribution of fresh meat pigments favors the red oxymyoglobin
(OxyMbg) pigments.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 233
FIGURE 6.21(b) Colorimetry data show a shift in the concentration of brown metmyoglobin
(Mbg) during storage.
FIGURE 6.22 Interests of nutrition conscious consumers toward meat products with
lower levels of ω-6 fatty acids and less saturated fatty acids has shifted the demand for less
conventional products. Data sourced from USDA food composition table.
As the data in the chapter show, meat with improved “health indices”
is also more susceptible to lipid oxidation and, consequently, shorter shelf
lives. Therefore, it is critical to determine and confirm the oxidative stability
of more healthful meat products. For example, HOX MAPackaged grass fed
ground beef has been in particular demand by consumers because the meat
is higher in ω-3 fatty acids, value, and convenience.
Before proceeding to the methods used the comparative shelf-life study
for HOX MAPackaged ground beef formulated from grass fed beef (high
ω-3 fatty acid content) versus grain fed beef (low ω-3 fatty acid content),
the anatomical features of α-linolenic is reviewed in Figure 6.23. Fats and
oils can be described in terms of their chemical, physical, and sensory prop-
erties. The diagram of the anatomy of a α-linolenic acid describes several
physical characteristics that determine nutritional value and oxidative
stability.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 235
2 4 0
5
FIGURE 6.23 Alpha linolenic (ω-3 fatty acid) fatty acid. This fatty acid is 4–5 times higher
in grass fed beef than grain fed beef, and is highly susceptible to oxidation. Modified from
ChemDraw® software CambridgeSoft®/Perkin-Elmer®.
1. The alpha carbon is associated with the carboxyl end of the molecule.
2. The approximate reactive site (allylic carbon) where peroxidation
and scission begin with the abstraction of the carbon atom.
3. The approximate reactive site (bis-allylic carbon) where peroxida-
tion and scission are most likely to occur during initial phases of
oxidation.
4. Hydrocarbon backbone (cis-Cn H2n) of the fatty acid
5. Unsaturated portion of the fatty acid (cis-Cn Hn-2)
6. ω-6 carbon
7. ω-3 carbon
To preserve the status of meat products in the consumer’s daily diet, some
meat processors offer conventional products reformulated with grass fed.
The data in Table 6.6 compare the fatty acid profiles between grass fed/grass
finished (95% lean) and grain fed (90% lean) beef forequarter and show
grass fed beef has a higher ω-3 fatty acid content. Small changes in levels
of unsaturated fatty acids significantly impact the oxidative stability (Wood
et al., 2003). Using analytical methods, oxidative stability can be monitored
when there are changes in the fatty acid composition in the meat formula.
Indices based on the fatty acid composition in raw beef, pork, poultry, and
finfish are shown. Indices that are positively correlated to nutritional value
also present shelf-life challenges.
Indices of nutritional value (bottom of Table 6.6) are IT, AI, and ratio of
desirable fatty acids (DFA) to the undesirable fatty acids (OFA) that elevates
low density lipoproteins (LDL).
236 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
DFA
=
desirable fatty acids
=
∑ (PUFA + C18 : 0) (6.13)
OFA undesirable fatty acids ∑ (SFA − C18 : 0)
PUFA ω − 3
(6.14)
ω − 6 PUFA
where C:14, C:16, C:18 are carbon notations for the fatty acids,
PUFA is polyunsaturated fatty acids,
MUFA is monounsaturated fatty acids,
SAT is saturated fatty acids.
The nutritional indices (Garaffo et al., 2011) were calculated and are
presented in Table 6.6. The data show grass fed beef DFA/OFA (Moawad
et al., 2013) is more favorable than grain fed beef because of the higher
levels of unsaturated fatty acids. The table also shows PUFA ω-3/PUFA ω-6
TABLE 6.6 Data Show the Fatty Acid (FA) Profile that is Nutritionally Valuable (Percent
C:183, IT, AI, DFA/OFA) are also Fatty Acids that Reduce Oxidative Stability (APE, BAPE,
IV). Data from Internal Study.
Fatty acid analysis (FAME)
Calculated derivative values for oxidative stability and nutritional value
Fatty acid carbon notation
% FA (normalized) C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 Total
Grass fed 6.3% 39.5% 23.4% 27.5% 2.00% 1.4% 100%
Grain fed 11.1% 43.2% 9.60% 33.9% 2.00% 0.30% 100%
FA distribution (millimoles)
Grass fed 0.27 1.54 0.82 0.98 0.07 0.05 3.73
Grain fed 0.49 1.68 0.34 1.20 0.07 0.05 3.83
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 237
ratios are more favorable for grass fed beef. Similarly, IT and AI data (not
shown) are more desirable for grass fed beef. Beef in the form of HOX
MAPacked ground fresh beef offers consumers nutritional value, quality,
and convenience they seek. However, HOX MAPackages have a finite shelf
life because, during distribution and storage, meat becomes less red and
lipid oxidation products increase. The relationship between TBARS and
sensory (raw meat color) between raw HOX (80% oxygen, 20% carbon dioxide) MAPack-
aged ground boneless forequarter meat from grain fed versus grass fed/
grass finished beef.
Color (CIE L*a*b*) and TBARS were used for both grass fed and grain
fed MAPackaged raw, lean ground beef shelf-life study. Using both methods
provided information about what consumers value most—color or flavor.
The colorimetric data in the Figure 6.24 show grass fed beef; particularly
grass fed beef with the incorporation of rosemary natural oxidation inhibitor
is more color stable than grain fed beef.
However, the TBARS data (Fig. 6.25) show the necessity of early addi-
tion of an oxidation inhibitor (TBARS value at the “y” intercept for grass
fed beef without an oxidation inhibitor at T = 0). The data also show it is the
reactivity of the fatty acids not the fat content that is responsible for driving
oxidation. Information from both methods provides the information needed
to identify and address pre-emptively shelf-life challenges during the devel-
opment of products from grass fed beef, for example, raw HOX MAPack-
aged ground beef.
238 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Co lor Stability of Grass Fed vs. Grain Fed MAPackage (HOX) Lean Ground Beef
95% Cl for the Mean
30
i'l
25
I I. l. I. I · ! I
:I .
0"' •
* 20 •
"'
u
·c:
• • I• •
t
w
15
• I• •
E
:§
u
0 • Oxidized
I
10
FIGURE 6.24 Color stability of HOX MAPackages of ground beef from “grass fed” and
“grain fed” was studied. MAPackages of ground beef from grass fed cattle were more color
stable than MAPackages of ground beef from grain fed cattle.
FIGURE 6.25 When TBARS are paired with colorimetry (Fig. 24), the susceptibility to
oxidation reflects the changes in the composition of grass fed beef, in particular α linolenic.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 239
ORP can be an important method for measuring the general oxidative status
of meat products. The ORP method does not measure specific products of
oxidation. It can be used for evaluating oxidation inhibitors (Fig. 6.26).
Meat homogenate
(buffered)
FIGURE 6.26 Oxidation reduction potentials (ORPs) can be used to broadly measure the
oxidative status of meat products. Negative values for ORPs indicate reducing (favorable)
environment. Diagram by Tom Jones.
The ORP method is a direct measurement of the all the oxidized and
non-oxidized compounds in the meat sample (Vahabzadeh, 1986). The elec-
trical potential measured is related to the concentration of oxidized and non-
oxidized species through the Nernst equation.
0.059
E = Eo + log10 [ oxidized and nonoxidized species ] (6.15)
n
where E is the reading taken at the potentiometer in mV,
Eo is reference electrode in mV,
0.059 is a constant calculated by mathematically combining the universal
gas constant, temperature (K), Faraday’s constant,
n is the number of electrons (unknown) involved in the oxidation reduction
process, since meat systems have dilute ionic concentrations (or activities)
n can be ignored.
240 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ll~
~ t-- -10
.5 ~
-a!
·.=c .00 -30
" ....
c;c.
c. ~ -50
§o
.g-o ·~.= -70
" c
co: .~ -90
§~
·.g 0
-g
><.c
fi -11o
Ot:,
-130
-150
FIGURE 6.27 Oxidation reduction potentials are more negative (reducing conditions)
when an antioxidant is added.
Colorimetry was also conducted, the data in the Figure 6.28 show the
oxidation inhibitor with the most negative ORP value over time, also has a
positive effect on raw meat color stability.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 241
FIGURE 6.28 Colorimetry data (C*, Chroma) shows the addition of an antioxidant
improves the stability of raw meat pigments during storage. Negative oxidation reduction
potentials relates to higher color stability.
The ORP method for determining the oxidative status of meat products
is precise to within 5%; however, the following factors can reduce precision
and repeatability:
Aldehyde B
/ L..l-n-te_rn_a_l_s_tan-dar_d_l_ll_L_,
height (h in mm)
Detector Signal
/ LI_A
_l_de_h.;..
yd_e_A_ _.
Retention
in em
Injection
Width at 0.5h mm
GC
MS
FIGURE 6.30 GCMS is the combination of gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy
(GCMS). When used in combination, one or several types of compounds from lipid oxidation
can be measured.
Using the read-out from the recorder, the concentration of the marker
compounds can be calculated using the following steps.
TABLE 6.7 Concentration (Usually ppm) can be Calculated Based on the Known Quantity
of an Internal Standard. The Amount of Individual Compounds from Oxidation (e.g.,
Hexanal, Propanal, Nonenal, etc.) may be Calculated or Grouped Together to Calculate Total
Aldehydes).
Internal std. Aldehyde A Aldehyde B Total aldehydes
Peak h, mm 29.0 15.0 20.0
Peak w at 0.5h, mm 3.50 2.50 3.00
2
Peak area, mm 101.5 37.5 60.0 97.5
Peak area ratio 1.00 0.37 0.59 0.96
Concentration (μL) 1.00 0.37 0.59 0.96
Charged particles are accelerated and directed through the mass spec-
trometer by controlling and varying (referred to as scanning potentiometry)
the applied voltage. The electron bombardment produces singly charged
particles; therefore, the path of a charged particle will depend only on mass
or mass charge ratio (m/z). The mass analyzer segregates the charge parti-
cles based on m/z and the detector records the abundance (frequency) of
each m/z.
There is not just one single pathway for fatty acid oxidation, the types
and concentration of secondary oxidation products produced are differed
and concentrations of each can vary. In addition, the type of meat (beef,
pork, poultry, and fish) and processing conditions (cooking method, drying,
aging, fermenting, etc.) will also affect the profile of secondary oxidation
products produced from oxidation.
When samples of oxidized beef were analyzed by GCMS, hexanal,
2-hexanal, 2-nonenal, 2-heptenal, 2-octenal, nonanal, and decanal were
identified (Flores et al., 2013). These “marker compounds” increase over
time to provide information about the rates and extent of lipid oxidation
during shelf-life studies.
The mass spectrograph data in Figure 6.31 show several compounds that
were detected in oxidized ground chicken and the internal standard shown is
a part of the calibration procedure.
The GCMS method was used to monitor the oxidative stability of raw
frozen restructured beef steaks through the distribution chain. The data
from the study would provide information about the stages in distribution
(processing, storage, cooking) would have the most the greatest impact on
lipid oxidation. Restructured steaks are made by comminuting underutilized
beef cuts (chuck, round, sirloin, etc.), then formed into steak or cutlet shapes.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 245
<1l
c
<1l
X
Q)
I
Relati ve
Abso rbance
-
r-i
Time(min)
FIGURE 6.31 GCMS was used to measure multiple secondary oxidation products or
“marker” compounds. These compounds were monitored during storage stability tests to
determine maximum acceptable shelf life of cooked chicken patties.
What effect on would the method for the unique method for commi-
nuting meat and the use of non-barrier packaging during storage and distri-
bution have on shelf life little restructured beef steaks and is the amount of
the natural oxidation inhibitor adequately protect the product?
The GCMS method was used to determine the oxidative stability of
restructured beef steaks during storage for the following reasons.
• BeefForequarter, 85% In
:-~ Processor Grade NaC l Salt
• Sodium Polyphosphates
l.: Com Syrup Solids (20 D .E-)
• Nat. Ox. Inhib.
• Chilled, Soft Water
FIGURE 6.32 Restructured beef is formula is 10.4% nonmeat ingredients. The GCMS
method provided the sensitivity for measuring oxidative stability in value added raw meat.
In addition, the polyphosphates and corn syrup solids could interfere if TBARS method was
used. Formulation developed internally for a study.
2. Cooked to 165 °F (74 °C) at 325 °F (163 °C) and held three hours
in a135 °F (57 °C)warming oven according to hazardous analysis
critical control point (HACCP) procedures (product abuse #1).
3. Cooked to 165 °F (74 °C), stored at 35—38 °F (2 °C–3 °C) for 48
hours then reheated (product abuse #2).
The GCMS data in Figure 6.33 identify that cooking and reheating stage
in the distribution process greatly accelerates oxidation in the steaks.
25
'§" §..15
~ "' 10 +--.~------.--..,-----
• w/o Ox. Inhib.
• w/ Ox. Inhib.
5
0
TimeO Stored in +20°F Cooked and held Cooked, held at
frzer. , 20 das. in warming oven 35°F for 48 hrs.,
reheated
FIGURE 6.33 Data show reheating precooked restructured steaks accelerates oxidation
more than freezer storage or cooking and holding in a warming oven. The data also indicate
the type and levels of the oxidation inhibitor met product requirements.
Bee:ty/Brothy
9
BeefY/Brothy
9
FIGURE 6.34(c) Steaks cooked and evaluated after 15 days in +20°F (–7°C) freezer
(storage abuse during distribution). Sensory evaluation conducted internally with trained
panel.
The change in color of the steaks between time zero and after 16 days
storage in the freezer is likely due to the presence of NaCl salt in the formu-
lation. Sodium chloride in the meat has two functions—solubilizes myofibril
protein for binding the chunks of raw meat together and enhances meaty
flavors.
Based on analytical data, the critical stage in the distribution chain is
reheating of the precooked steak (e.g., reheating left overs), the incorpora-
tion of a natural oxidation inhibitor effectively inhibits oxidation at all stages
of commerce (Fig. 6.35).
Raw meat color of the restructure steaks was also evaluated during frozen
storage.
250 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ro
'iii
0
24
22
20
I
*ro
c 18
(;)
E 16
·g 14
I I I I I
I
0
u 12
10 I I
FIGURE 6.35 Colorimetry data (a*) complement GCMS and sensory data. Raw meat color
of frozen restructured steaks in non-barrier packaging decreases over time. The data suggest
when raw meat color is a critical consumer attribute, barrier packaging may be required.
during frozen storage for the control (R2 = 100.0%), natural oxidation inhib-
itor (R2 = 100.0%) with the rate of loss (slope) for WHC was similar for
all treatments. The data suggest that inhibiting oxidation of meat proteins
will require further study, perhaps a blend of oxidation inhibitors or modi-
fied atmosphere packaging techniques or the quality of raw meat can be
considered.
1.7
~
-roa;
E 1.6
u
2!
~
u
>-
6 1. 5
.£
u
"'o_ 1.4
u"'
bJ)
c
u
0 1.3
I
~ 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
s"' Days in - 1OF (-23 C) Freezer
WHC rnethod described by Hung, S.C.
FIGURE 6.36 Meat protein functionality (WHC) decreases during frozen storage. As WHC
decreases in the raw meat, the amount of moisture retained in the meat after cooking also
decreases. The lack of moisture in the cooked steak is associated with undesirable changes in
texture and palatability. Data from study conducted internally.
Variable
0 0.13
0
u
~ 0.12
£:!
u
~ 0.11
x
LU
0.10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Weeks O f Storage
FIGURE 6.37 Some seasonings contain ingredients (e.g., paprika, antioxidants, seasonings)
that are susceptible to oxidation during storage and prior to use.
• Target
FIGURE 6.38 The analysis confirms the addition of the oxidation inhibitor missed the
targeted level and frozen storage inhibits oxidation.
6.4 CONCLUSION
The methods and their application for processed meat products are described
in the chapter to emphasize there is no such thing as a routine analysis.
The information presented reviews the importance of understanding which
method provides the information appropriate for a given situation, the
importance of following good technique, the relationship between sensory
and analytical data; and the effect of ingredients have on analytical data.
As the reliance on analytical data for making good decisions increases, so
will the need for more analytical precision and reduced analytical time. For
example, advantages by modifying an existing analytical method (described
in Section 6.2.1) using electrochemical technology are illustrated in Figures
6.39(a) and 6.39(b).
Figure 6.39(b) shows an improved precision (i.e., a standard deviation
of five) by technical modification decreases the number of samples (thereby
the time for analysis) collected for analysis without sacrificing the quality of
the information.
The scope of the chapter includes description of methods that can also
be used to measure shelf life, improve processing efficiency (e.g., WHC of
meat); and, improve the quality of formulations for value-added meat prod-
ucts (e.g., color stability of paprika in Italian sausage seasoning).
254 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Alpha 0.05
0.6 '
-<• '
~-----~------r- StDev 10
I
(;:;
~
Alternative Not=
0
"- '
0.4 ~---
''
'
'0
,------rI
,-----T----
0.2
I 1
I
''
I
0.0 '
-6 -4 -2 0 4 6
Detection Difference For Reference Analytical Method
0.2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Detection Difference For Modified Analytical Method
FIGURE 6.39(b) With a standard deviation of 10 for this “modified” analytical method, 8
samples instead of 32 provides the quality of information needed.
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 255
6.5 ATTACHMENTS
Attachment 1. Statistical basis for the inferences made for data in Figure
6.40. Making inferences about peroxide values collected to describe the
effectiveness in managing oxidation requires samples be randomly selected
and the data are normally distributed. Figures 6.40 and 6.41 show the data
collected are normally distributed.
Peroxide Values of a Meat Ingredient
12.0-r------------------------------,
~
c£\ /\
10.5 - ;\
9.0 ::\. !) I \
7.5
~ \:j ""' p
10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
ObseiVation
!-===========================! UCL~3.235
10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31
Observation
FIGURE 6.40 PV data taken from samples collected at different times during production
show acceptable variation. This data can be used to determine if the peroxide values fit the
normal distributed curve.
:~ rt==~=t==~=i==t=4==t=~==t==~~:~-r.- r~~t=i==t=~: N
AD
31
0.535
so ~--t--:--t--r--t--r-1--+--1--+· -:- -r--t--t--1--t--: P- Value 0.157
70 --+--:--+--t-i--t-1--+--i-- r- - ~T--t-i--t-4--+--l-
1
~ ~ lti~U~l~~:-r-rT-rT-rT_r_r_T-rT
!=:=~;:fifl~~l~t~l~ttl
rrT-r -~--·
10 11 12 13
Peroxide Values
FIGURE 6.41 The probability plot shows the data fits a normal distribution. Therefore, the
data can be used to make inferences about how well the analytical method for peroxide values
or their specification provide the degree of control for managing oxidation.
256 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
KEYWORDS
• absorbance
• aldehyde
• antioxidants
• analyte
• autoxidation
• Beer’s law
• carbon dioxide
• carotenoid
• chelation or chelators
• chroma
• colorimeter
• cured meats
• decanal
• electrochemistry
• fatty acid(s) flavor threshold
• formulations
• ground beef
• ground turkey headspace
• hexanal
• heptanal
• hue
• iodometric titration
• Maillard
• meat protein
• metmyoglobin
• myoglobin
• mince
• natural oxidation
• inhibitors
• nernst equation
• nitrogen
Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 257
• nonanal
• nutritional indices
• octenal
• oxidative stability
• oxygen
• oxymyoglobin
• pepperoni
• propanal
• redox
• reflectance spectroscopy
• restructured steaks
• rendered pork fat
• sausage
• sensory
• sparge
• titrant titrimetry
• vacuum packages
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Methods and Their Applications for Measuring 259
APPLICATION OF NATURAL
ANTIOXIDANTS IN DAIRY FOODS
NEELAM UPADHYAY1,*, VEENA N.2, SANKET BORAD1,
ASHISH KUMAR SINGH1, SUMIT ARORA1, and MINAXI3
1
Dairy Technology Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute,
Karnal 132001, Haryana, India
2
Dairy Chemistry Division, College of Dairy Science and Technology,
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University,
Ludhiana 141001, Punjab, India
3
Agricultural Structures and Environmental Control Division, ICAR-
Central Institute of Post- Harvest Engineering and Technology,
Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
CONTENTS
Abstract .................................................................................................... 262
7.1 Introduction of Milk and Dairy Products ........................................ 262
7.2 Naturally Occurring Oxidants and Antioxidants in Milk and
Dairy Products ................................................................................ 264
7.3 Oxidation in Dairy Products ........................................................... 267
7.4 Quality and Safety Issues of Oxidation .......................................... 271
7.5 Methods of Measurement of Oxidation .......................................... 271
7.6 Characteristics, Types, and Mechanism of action of Antioxidants ...272
7.7 Application of Synthetic Antioxidants and Their Effects ............... 276
7.8 Need of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Products ............................ 277
7.9 Application of Natural Antioxidants in Various Dairy Products .... 278
7.10 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 287
Keywords ................................................................................................. 288
References ................................................................................................ 288
262 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
Milk, a nature’s perfect food containing high quality of almost all nutri-
ents (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals), is a polyphasic
secretion of the mammary glands. It is considered to be one of the indis-
pensable ingredients for the preparation of functional foods due to the pres-
ence of myriad bioactive components. Although, besides containing some
antioxidants (like lactoferrin, α-tocopherol, etc.), milk also contains few
oxidants (like polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of triglycerides, phospho-
lipids, cholesterol ester, riboflavin, ferri-porphyrin, etc.) that may lead to
development of off-flavors in milk and milk products. Some of the oxidation
products especially of lipid oxidation are toxic and reactive. Thus, several
studies have been conducted on the addition of antioxidants, both synthetic
and natural, in milk and milk products. However, natural antioxidants are
gaining wide acceptance as synthetic antioxidants are associated with poten-
tial health hazards. Also, natural antioxidants have positive health implica-
tions and enhance functionality. Several studies have been conducted on the
applications of the natural antioxidants in milk and several dairy products.
These antioxidants can be added either in the form of the essential oil or
in the form of extract (of polar and non-polar solvents) from skins, seeds,
peels, pomace, bark, or leaf of the natural source. This chapter highlights the
applications of these natural antioxidants in dairy foods.
Milk and milk products contribute a very significant proportion in our daily
diet. Milk, considered to be closest to the nature’s perfect food, is an excel-
lent source of calcium, a good source of minerals and high-quality proteins,
the only source of lactose, and a source of lipids, the most valuable compo-
nent, which also forms the basis of milk pricing (Upadhyay et al., 2014).
The milk proteins are a good source of essential amino acids and have a high
biological value. The majority of nitrogen in milk is distributed in casein
(around 80%) which is present as colloidal dispersions called as casein
micelles; and whey proteins (around 20%) which are present as true solu-
tion. However, in addition to these proteins, milk also contains two other
groups of proteins or protein-like materials, the proteose-peptone fraction
and the non-protein nitrogen (NPN) fraction (Fox & McSweeney, 1998).
As per the protein quality ranking, casein and whey proteins are reported to
have protein efficiency ratio, biological value, net protein utilization, and
Application of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Foods 263
protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) as 2.5, 3.2; 77,
104; 76, 92; and 1.00, 1.00, respectively, while these values for milk are 2.5,
91, 82, and 1.00, respectively. As can be noticed, the PDCAAS for casein,
whey protein and milk is 1.00 which is highest for a protein (Puranik & Rao,
1996; Sarwar, 1997; United States Dairy Export Council, 1999; Hoffman
& Falvo, 2004). The biological function of casein is to carry calcium and
phosphate. It forms a gel or clot in the stomach which leads to continuous
but slow release of amino acids into the blood stream (Boirie et al., 1997;
Hoffman & Falvo, 2004). Some bioactive peptides are also released from
casein on digestion that have physiological significance like, antithrombotic
peptides, antihypertensive peptides, opioid peptides, immune modulatory
peptides, antimicrobial peptides, casein phosphopeptides, glycomacropep-
tides, and so forth. Unlike casein, the plasma appearance of amino acids is
fast, high, and transient upon ingestion of whey proteins (Boirie et al., 1997;
Hoffman & Falvo, 2004). Whey proteins are rich source of branched chain
amino acids (BCAAs) that are metabolized directly into the muscle tissue
leading to replenishment of the exhausted levels followed by repairing and
rebuilding of lean muscle tissue. These are, thus important for athletes and
alike. Whey proteins are also rich and balanced source of sulfur-containing
amino acid cysteine that help boost body’s antioxidant levels as cysteine,
along with glycine and glutamic acid is a precursor of glutathione which is
the potent intracellular antioxidant and it gets oxidized to glutathione disul-
fide (GSSG) (oxidized glutathione) leading to removal of reactive oxygen
species (ROS), thus regulating the level of ROS in the cells (Haug et al.,
2007; Smithers, 2008).
The milk lipids, similar to the milk proteins, are important dietary
components for supplying nutrients as contain certain bioactive components
like short chain fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), branched chain
fatty acids, and so forth, and are present as emulsified droplets in globules
coated with membrane. Butyric acid (4:0) is reported to be a modulator
of gene function (German, 1999), besides inhibiting colon and mammary
tumors (Parodi, 2003). Caprylic (8:0) and capric (10:0) acids are reported
to have antiviral activities; however, caprylic acid is also reported to delay
tumor growth (Thormar et al., 1994). Sun et al. (2002) reported that lauric
acid (12:0) may have antiviral and antibacterial function, while Schuster
et al. (1980) reported that it may act as an anticaries and antiplaque agent.
An interesting observation was reported by Henry et al. (2002) that capric
and lauric acid inhibit cyclooxygenase, that is, COX-I and COX-II. Milk
fat naturally contains CLA which is shown to be anticarcinogenic and anti-
atherogenic and it has effects on body composition and fat metabolism
264 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
(Ip et al., 1999; Pariza et al., 1999; Truitt et al., 1999; Benjamin & Spener,
2009). Phytanic acid, a branched chain fatty acid presents in milk fat, has
been shown to increase insulin-independent glucose uptake by cells and to
decrease liver triglyceride accumulation in some mouse models (Hein et al.,
2002; Hellgren, 2010; Palmquist, 2010). Besides fat and protein, milk is
naturally a good source of lactose and contains ~5% w/w. Lactose, present
as true solution, promotes the absorption of calcium like other sugars and
it is a ready source of energy, providing 30% of the caloric value of bovine
milk. Also, it accounts for 50% of the osmotic pressure of milk, which is
isotonic with blood and hence is essentially constant (Fox & McSweeney,
2009). The minor components present in milk include minerals (calcium,
selenium, iodine, magnesium, and zinc) and vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin
E, riboflavin, folate, and vitamin 12) whose nutritional significance is well
established.
Milk and other dairy products have been undoubtedly considered as
nature’s perfect functional foods owing to the presence of wide myriad of
bioactive components. Milk has been advocated by the food formulators for
the development of novel dairy foods because of its richness in nutrients
and bioactives and molecules that assist in development of excellent sensory
characteristics. Since time immemorial milk and milk nutrients have been
utilized for the commercial manufacture of numerous products like cream,
butter, butter oil, cheese, condensed milk, dried milks, and indigenous dairy
products that contain components only from milk. Besides this, certain other
food products are prepared from milk where milk components form the
major ingredients like kheer, khoa/mawa, rabri, khurchan, kulfi, shrikhand,
ice cream, and so forth. Probably, it is the only raw material that has been
exploited to such a great extent, not only for the manufacture of value added
food products, but also to harness the valuable ingredients for food and phar-
maceutical sector.
subsequent storage. Thus, the knowledge of the principal oxidants and anti-
oxidants occurring in the foodstuff is indispensable for understanding the
oxidative reactions that may occur in the food components and their implica-
tion on food quality and safety. Moreover, it is must to have the information
pertaining to enzymatic and non-enzymatic catalysts of oxidation.
The various oxidants present in the dairy products include PUFA attached
to triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol esters, riboflavin, proteins, and
so forth. Phospholipids are considered to be pro-oxidant because of the pres-
ence of monounsaturated and PUFA group attached to diglyceride or sphin-
gosine in it (Table 7.1). However, Chen and Nawar (1991) reported that
phospholipids can act as either pro-oxidant or antioxidant in dairy products
depending on the pH and ratio of water to phospholipid species in it. Simi-
larly, the thiol groups (-SH) in milk are reported to act as pro-oxidant or anti-
oxidant depending upon the conditions. Yee and Shipe (1982) observed in a
model system, free thiol groups in the presence of copper promoted oxidation
of emulsified methyl linoleate, while it acted as antioxidant component in
the presence of haem. Milk and milk products may contain metallic compo-
nents (such as transition metal ions- cupric, ferric, and haem proteins) that
normally act as pro-oxidant by catalyzing the decomposition of preformed
hydroperoxides to initiate the new oxidation chain reactions (Labuza, 1971;
Korycka-Dahl & Richardson, 1980; Pokorny, 1987). The ferri-porphyrin
proteins, together with their juxtaposition with lipids in the milk fat globule
membrane (MFGM) have powerful pro-oxidative properties (Kendrick &
Watts, 1969; O’Connor & O’Brien, 2006). Juxtaposition of copper-protein
complex with the phospholipids of the MFGM is also an important factor
in development of oxidized flavor in liquid milk (Samuelsson, 1966). The
water-soluble vitamin, that is, riboflavin, is a potent photosensitizer and
is associated with photo-oxidation of milk. Besides riboflavin, porphyrins
and chlorophylls are also reported to be involved in the photo-oxidation
of certain milk products like cheese (Wold et al., 2005). It is reported that
concentrations of ascorbic acid above those in normal milk (~20 mg/L)
could provide antioxidant protection; however, at the normal concentra-
tions in milk, ascorbic acid acts as a pro-oxidant (O’Connor & O’Brien,
2006). Caseins are more effective as antioxidant than whey proteins. The
antioxidant activity of casein may be attributed to the hydrophobic nature
of the same (Taylor & Richardson, 1980; Eriksson, 1982) and orientation
of potential antioxidant side-chains of constituent amino acids at the lipid
interface. Among the whey proteins, lactoferrin has also been reported to
inhibit peroxidation induced by Fe2+ by chelating it (Gutteridge et al., 1981;
Allen & Wrieden, 1982).
266 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Photosensitizers are the substances that absorb light and become excited to
one or more higher energy-rich state(s). They promote the photo-oxidation of
diverse substrates, when foods are exposed to visible light (Dalsgaard et al.,
2007). Photosensitizers are reported to have two excited states: singlet and
triplet. The triplet-excited state has a longer lifetime and initiates the oxida-
tion. Photo-oxidation by a photosensitizer can proceeds through two types of
reactions, that is, either type I or type II. In type I reaction, the excited sensi-
tizer (Sen*) undergoes internal reactions that ultimately results in the oxida-
tive alteration of a second molecule primarily by free radical mechanism on
the exposure of the primary substrate to UV radiation. In type I reactions,
transfer of hydrogen atoms or electrons occurs via interaction of the triplet
excited state of the sensitizer with the target, while in the type II reactions,
the excited triplet sensitizer reacts with ground state oxygen to produce 1O2
by energy transfer. 1O2 is a strong oxidant because of its higher reactivity and
has the potential to damage proteins, lipids, and so forth (Airado-Rodríguez
et al., 2011). The two reactions can occur simultaneously, in a competitive
mode (Spikes, 1988) and the same has been observed in milk (Lee & Min,
2009). However, at low oxygen concentrations, type I reactions are most
common. After photodegradation, riboflavin is reported to break down to
lumiflavin (under alkaline condition) or lumichrome (under acidic condi-
tions) (Ahmad et al., 2006) and probably formylmethylflavin. Among these,
lumichrome is reported to be a strong photosensitizer (Parks & Allen, 1977).
Riboflavin has three absorption bands. The band with maxima between 430
and 460 nm is the main band responsible for the photo-oxidation of food,
especially milk and dairy products (O’Connor & O’Brien, 2006). Wold et al.
(2006) reported the presence of five photosensitizers in butter other than ribo-
flavin: protoporphyrin, hematoporphyrin, a chlorophyll a-like molecule, and
two unidentified tetrapyrroles. Chlorophyll and porphyrin molecules absorb
light in the UV and violet region with absorption peaks of ~410 nm (the
soret band) along with the absorption of light in the red above 600 nm, and
therefore, they may be responsible for the formation of off-flavors in dairy
products when exposed to light having wavelengths longer than 500 nm
(Wold et al., 2006). Chlorophyllic compounds have also been suggested to
contribute prominently to the major part of photo-oxidation in cow’s milk
(Airado-Rodríguez et al., 2011).
Proteins are very complex molecules organized in large structures and
oxidation of proteins may have severe consequences on product quality,
their functionality and nutritional qualities like loss of essential amino acids.
Structurally, protein oxidation may lead to a number of modifications either
on its side chains or on the backbone, including amino acid changes, protein
270 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Antioxidants are the substances that inhibit, retard, or interfere with the
formation of free radicals in fat-rich foods, thus terminating the oxidative
reaction in its initial stage. From a practical standpoint, it means that when
an antioxidant system is properly selected and correctly applied to meet
the needs of a particular food item, will help to maintain the original fresh-
ness, flavor, and odor of the product for a longer period of time than would
otherwise be possible. In the food industry, a substance having the technical
function of delaying the oxidation of nutrients, such as lipids, sugars, and
Application of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Foods 273
b) Termination reaction
[ROO•AH] non-radical product
A• + A• AA
A• + R• RA
A• + ROO• ROOA
reported to be lost during frying because of its steam volatility (Gordon &
Kourimska, 1995).
ascorbic acid, and tocopherol shall be added to any food. However, in ghee
and butter, BHA may be added in a concentration not exceeding 0.02%. It is
interesting to note that the addition of these artificial chemicals is restricted
by the FDA because of food safety concerns, not to mention emerging trends
for consumer preferences toward more “green” food processing applica-
tions (Yue et al., 2008). BHA has been revealed to be carcinogenic in animal
experiments. Similarly, at high doses, BHT is reported to cause internal and
external hemorrhaging, leading to death in some strains of mice and guinea
pigs (Ito et al., 1986). Natural antioxidants are, thus, generally recognized as
safe when used in accordance with food manufacturing practices and there-
fore not limited in most foods (CFR, 2001). The addition of α-tocopherol,
ascorbic acid, and ascorbyl palmitate to milk is permitted and no legal limit
exists for the use of the same. However, the presence of these must be noted
on the label and the same must not be used in higher concentrations as it may
lead to pro-oxidative effects (Frankel, 1998).
Dairy products contain lipids rich in PUFA and their esters are easily oxidized
by molecular oxygen over time. Deleterious changes in dairy products
Application of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Foods 279
Ghee, the most famous traditional dairy product in India, Egypt, and many
countries in Middle East, undergoes oxidative degradation during storage,
resulting in alteration of major quality parameters affecting its suitability for
consumption. Development of rancidity reduces the shelf life of the product,
Application of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Foods 281
extracted using ethanol (80 %), ethyl acetate, and n-hexane and the oxida-
tive stability of ghee during storage under thermal oxidative conditions was
reported. Ethanol extract showed slightly better antioxidant characteristics
compared with ethyl acetate and hexane extracts. It could be due to the
reason that extracts obtained from higher-polarity solvents were more effec-
tive radical scavengers than those obtained using lower-polarity solvents.
Extracts obtained from PS exhibited strong antioxidant capacity in all assays,
followed by PP and OP extracts (El-Shourbagy & El-Zahar, 2014).
In a subsequent study, Asha et al. (2015) evaluated the antioxidant activi-
ties of BHA and orange peel powder extract in ghee stored at different storage
temperatures during the storage period of 21 days. Ghee incorporated with
orange peel extract (OPE) showed stronger activity in quenching DPPH
radicals and least development of peroxide value, free fatty acid content and
TBA than ghee incorporated with BHA and control. The study revealed that
orange peel could be a good natural source of antioxidants which could be
used in fat rich food products like ghee to retard oxidative deterioration.
Yogurt is among the most common dairy products consumed around the
world (Saint-Eve et al., 2006). Yoghurt with added antioxidants from natural
sources appears to be a convenient food format to satisfy consumer interest
in terms of beneficial effects of starter cultures, and health benefits of
added antioxidants over original yoghurt nutrients. For this reason, several
attempts to produce yoghurts fortified with natural antioxidant-rich extracts
have been studied, including supplementation with polyphenol-rich wine
extract (Howard et al., 2000), Hibiscus sabdariffa extract (Lwalokun &
Shittu, 2007), pycnogenol from French marine bark extract (Ruggeri et al.,
2008), green bell pepper juice (Halah & Mehanna, 2011), quince scalding
water (Trigueros et al., 2011), apple polyphenols (Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2012), grape and grape callus extracts (Karaaslan et al., 2011), tea infusions
(Najgebauer-Lejko et al., 2011), grape seed extracts (Chouchouli et al.,
2013), berry polyphenols (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2013) and pomegranate
peel extracts (PPE) (El-Said et al., 2014).
Chouchouli et al. (2013) evaluated the potential of using grape seed
extracts from two Greek wine grape varieties for the production of anti-
oxidant-rich full-fat and non-fat yoghurts. Fortified yoghurts contained
more polyphenols and exhibited higher antiradical and antioxidant activity
than controls, even after 3–4 weeks of cold storage. The degradation of
Application of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Foods 283
7.9.4 CHEESE
The essential oils obtained from aromatic plants are natural products. Many
essential oils have demonstrated antioxidant properties; specifically, the
essential oils of oregano, rosemary, laurel, and other plants have been
studied as potential natural antioxidants (Kulisic et al., 2004; Olmedo et
al., 2008; Olmedo et al., 2009; Olmedo et al., 2012; Asensio et al., 2011).
284 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Gad and Abd El-Salam (2010) monitored the effect of addition of different
concentration of rosemary extract (RE) to skim milk during processing for
production of soft cheese. The antioxidant activity of the blends of skim milk
and REs was improved by heat treatment. The addition of calcium chloride
and pasteurization further significantly increased the phenol content and the
antioxidant activity of skim milk, whereas addition of sodium chloride and
homogenization of the skim milk-REs did not affect antioxidant activity.
Skim milk with high rosemary concentration was reported to have high
antioxidant activity.
In a subsequent study, ultra-filtered (UF)-soft cheese was prepared from
UF milk retentate (1.5% fat) and supplemented with 1–5% RE and cold
stored for 30 days (El-Din et al., 2010). The TPC and antioxidant capacity
were evaluated using DPPH and FRAP methods in retentate before and after
pasteurization and salting along with the resultant cheese. Fortification of
retentate with RE increased its phenolic content and consequently, its anti-
oxidant activity. Pasteurization increased the TPC and antioxidant activity.
It was observed that addition of 3% NaCl reduced slightly the radical scav-
enging activity (RSA), TPC, and FRAP values. Moreover, it was noticed
that UF-soft cheese fortified with 1% RE retained more TPC and antioxidant
activity; also, increasing the concentration of RE to 5% had more acceptable
flavor, body and texture, and antioxidant activity until 30 days. Furthermore,
the rate of decrease in TPC, RSA (%), and FRAP values in cheese samples
containing RE after 30 days of storage were less as compared to control
cheese (without RE) (El-Din et al., 2010).
A functional cheese product containing polyphenolic compounds
was developed, and the polyphenolic retention efficiency and antioxi-
dant property of the product was evaluated by Han et al. (2011). Single
phenolic compounds, including catechin, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG),
tannic acid, homovanillic acid, hesperetin and flavones, and natural crude
compounds, such as grape extract, green tea extract, and dehydrated cran-
berry powder, were added as functional ingredients to the prepared cheese.
Cheese curds with polyphenolic compounds at a concentration of 0.5 mg/
mL showed effective free radical-scavenging activity and showed high
retention coefficient ranging between 0.74 and 0.87. The nutritional value
of cheese product was reported to be improved by adding bioactive phenolic
compounds to the cheese curd.
Olmedo et al. (2013) evaluated the preservative effect of oregano and
rosemary essential oils on the oxidative and fermentative stabilities of
flavored cheese prepared with cream cheese base. The addition of oregano
and rosemary essential oils was reported to improve the oxidative and
Application of Natural Antioxidants in Dairy Foods 285
fermentative stability along with preventing the lipid oxidation and the
development of rancid and fermented flavors in the said cheese. As conse-
quence, these essential oils prolonged the shelf life of the product.
7.10 CONCLUSION
Milk and milk products are considered to be complete food due to the
presence of almost all the macro and micronutrients; and thus are also
regarded as an indispensable part of the diet. However, due to the presence
of several oxidants, they are prone to oxidation in spite of the presence
of naturally occurring antioxidants. Hence, addition of antioxidants into
the dairy products is gaining importance these days. The most widely used
synthetic antioxidants in food (BHT and BHA) are very effective in their
role as antioxidants but their use in food products has been failing off due
to their instability, as well as due to the suspected action as promoters of
carcinogenesis. Consequently, there has been considerable interest in the
use of natural antioxidants on account of safety and acceptability. Most
of the naturally occurring antioxidants not only do keep the food stable
against oxidation but can also be effective in controlling microbial growth.
However, better understanding of the role of natural antioxidants on food
stability and human health is required; and toxicological studies are mainly
carried out to establish the no-effect level for an acceptable daily intake for
humans as the origin of the antioxidant from a natural source does not prove
its assumed safety.
288 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
KEYWORDS
• milk
• oxidants
• synthetic antioxidants
• natural antioxidants
• extracts
• essential oil
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CHAPTER 8
CONTENTS
Abstract ....................................................................................................300
8.1 Introduction .....................................................................................300
8.2 Antioxidant Dietary Fiber ...............................................................301
8.3 Polyphenols and Dietary Fiber Quality ..........................................302
8.4 Dietary Fiber Processing and Quality .............................................303
8.5 Sources of Antioxidant Dietary Fiber .............................................304
8.6 Application in Meat Products .........................................................326
8.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................329
Keywords .................................................................................................329
References ................................................................................................329
300 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
The findings about association between healthy diet and consumer well-
being have escalated the demands for the foods especially meat products
supplying additional healthy nutrients such as dietary fiber (DF) and natural
antioxidants. There are several reports in the literature linking the regular
intake of DF and antioxidants help in preventing various diets related non-
communicable diseases as well as degenerative problems. Researchers are
also responding very well to the consumer’s demands through the screening
of various sources of antioxidant dietary fiber (ADF) such as fruits, vegeta-
bles, seeds and their by-products as well as other miscellaneous plant mate-
rials. These ADF ingredients are being added in different meat products and
their effects on various qualities are monitored.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
texture, and nutritional value (Mielnick et al., 2006). This oxidation is a highly
complex process involving numerous reactions which produce a variety of
chemical and physical changes (Sánchez-Alonso et al., 2008). The nutritional
quality of meat and meat products is often being challenged due to absence
of DF in them. However, this can be overcome by addition of DF rich ingre-
dients while processing of meat products. There are several DF ingredients
which are also gifted with many phytochemicals like polyphenols. Phenolic
compounds present in fruits have been demonstrated to possess antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties and the ability to prevent
a variety of chronic diseases (Boyer & Liu, 2004). Adding these ingredients
to meat products, which has almost negligible amount of DF, can be helpful
in enhancing their nutritional and functional values, quality, and storage
stability. Moreover, intake of natural antioxidant through these fiber rich meat
products can help fighting stress of modern day hectic lifestyle. This chapter
broadly deals with antioxidant dietary fiber (ADF), sources and effects of
their incorporation on quality of meat products.
DFs are plentiful in plant products like fruits, vegetables, and grains. They
are very well known as a beneficial component of healthy diet and their
consumption is being linked with reductions in risks associated with cardio-
vascular disease, cancer, and diabetes (Cho & Dreher, 2001). DF has hetero-
geneous chemical structures and conventionally classified according to their
solubility in water as soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and insoluble dietary fiber
(IDF). In cereal bran, the IDF is largely predominant while fruit DFs are rich
in SDF (Gorinstein et al., 2001; Grigelmo-Miguel & Martı́n-Belloso, 1998;
Prosky et al., 1988). It is important to consume the DF in a balanced propor-
tion, that is, the water-soluble fraction should represent between 30 and 50%
of the total dietary fiber (TDF) (Eastwood, 1987; Spiller, 1986).
Interests in applying fruit processing wastes as functional food ingredi-
ents is consistently increasing as they are rich source of DF, and several bene-
ficial bioactive compounds (Balasundram et al., 2006) such as polyphenols.
Such association of DF and polyphenols led to the proposal of the concept of
ADF by Saura-Calixto (1998) with the criteria that 1 g of ADF should have
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging capacity
equivalent to at least 50 mg vitamin E and DF content should be higher than
50% dry matter from the natural constituents of the material. Antioxidant DF
is thus defined as a natural product that combines the beneficial effects of
302 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
The by-products from cereals as well as fruits and vegetables are subjected
different processing steps and conditions to prepare the DF or ADF. The
extent and intensity of these processing steps and conditions may affect
various properties and activity of this bioactive ingredient. The treatment
like extent and intensity of blanching and drying, nature of solvent used
should be taken into consideration while processing of ADF.
DF production typically involves pre-treatment methods, such as
blanching or chemical treatments depending on the type of raw material,
prior to drying, to inactivate enzymes responsible for degradation of many
active compounds (Wolfe & Liu, 2003). However, number of sensitive
compounds may degrade during blanching, depending on the type (steam-
or water-blanching) and conditions (Zhang & Hamauzu, 2004). Loss of SDF
and solubilization of structural polymers such as protopectin may happen
while blanching of high fiber products (Maté et al., 1998). Drying can
result in oxidation, thermal degradation and other events such as collapse of
304 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Almost all the plant materials contain ample amount of DF. These mate-
rials are also enriched with various secondary metabolites acting as defense
systems which are either present in free form or associated with DF. The
plant materials as a source of ADF can be numerous; however, in the present
chapter only those sources are mentioned which have been investigated as a
source of antioxidant and DF. These sources are categorized here into four
groups (Fig. 8.1).
Antioxidant Dietary Fiber: An Approach to Develop Healthy 305
Dietary Fiber
v
by-products by-products by-products
{~
Grape by-products Brassica plants Cereals Burdock root
Apple by-products Asparagus Mexican chea seed Hibiscus
Mango peel Carrot peel Cocoa husk Seaweed
Citrus by-products Amaranth and
quinoa
A~ai palm
Cactus pear
Guava
Bael pulp residue
Pineapple shell
Date by-products
Apples are well known and widespread fruit of the genus Malus belonging
to the family Rosaceae and play significant part in our diet. They are impor-
tant source of bioavailable polyphenolic compounds such as flavonols,
monomeric and oligomeric flavanols, dihydrochalcones, anthocyanidins,
p-hydroxycinnamic, and p-hydroxybenzoic acids (Escarpa & Gonzalez,
1998). The phenolic contents in apple are variable among different varieties,
and between the peel and the flesh; apple peels contain a higher concentra-
tion of phenolic compounds (Escarpa & Gonzalez, 1998; Vrhovsek et al.,
2004).
Apple pomace is a by-product of the apple juice processing, which is a
rich source of polyphenols, minerals, and DF (Boyer & Liu, 2004; Fernando
et al., 2005; Schieber et al., 2001; Sudha et al., 2007). Disposal of apple
pomace may present an added cost to beverage industry. Fernando et al.
(2005) evaluated some functional properties of apple pomace and reported
that fiber concentrates from apple pomace can be considered as a potential
source for fiber enrichment. According to Lu and Foo (2000), polyphenols
present in apple pomace could be a cheap and readily available source of
dietary antioxidants. The antioxidant capacity of apple pomace is related to
its phenolic profile. Procyanidins have long been recognized as the major
contributors to antioxidant activity of apples (Chinnici et al., 2004; Tsao
et al., 2005) and derivatives (Oszmianski et al., 2008), and the capacity
depends on their polymerization degree and substituents (Lotito et al., 2000).
Additionally, the antioxidant activity of hydroxycinnamic and benzoic acids
and flavonols has been ascertained (Kim et al., 2002; Tsao et al., 2005).
Apple pomace procured from fruit juice industry, contained 10.8% moisture,
0.5% ash, and 51.1% of DF. The total phenol content in apple pomace was
308 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
7.16 mg/g (Sudha et al., 2007). Apple extracts have been shown to have
potent antioxidant activity and anti-proliferative activity against human
cancer cells (Boyer & Liu, 2004; Leontowicz et al., 2002).
Apple pomaces were subjected to evaluation as potential sources of anti-
oxidant phytochemicals on the basis of their total content of phenolics (from
4.22 to 8.67 mg/g), total flavonoids (from 0.45 to 1.19 mg/g) and total flavan-
3-ols (from 2.27 to 9.51 mg/g), and in vitro antiradical activities (Ćetković
et al., 2008). Some individual phenolic compounds including caffeic and
chlorogenic acids (+)-catechin, and (-)-epicatechin, rutin, quercetin glyco-
sides, and phloridzin were identified and quantified by high performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC). The antiradical activity of apple pomaces
was tested by measuring their ability to scavenge DPPH and hydroxyl
radicals. Eleven different cider apple pomaces (six single-cultivar and five
from the cider-making industry) were analyzed for low molecular phenolic
profiles and antioxidant capacity (García et al., 2009). The Folin index ranged
between 2.3 and 15.1 g gallic acid per kg of dry matter. Major phenols were
flavanols, dihydrochalcones (phloridzin and phloretin-20-xyloglucoside),
flavonols, and cinnamic acids (chlorogenic and caffeic acids). The group of
single-cultivar pomaces had higher contents of chlorogenic acid (-)-epicat-
echin, procyanidin B2, and dihydrochalcones, whereas the industrial samples
presented higher amounts of up to four unknown compounds, with absorption
maxima between 256 and 284nm. The antioxidant capacity of apple pomace,
as determined by the DPPH and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
assays, was between 4.4 and 16.0 g ascorbic acid per kg of dry matter.
Methanolic and acetonic extracts of apple pomace were evaluated for
phenolic profiles, antioxidant properties, and antiviral effects against herpes
simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and 2 (HSV-2) (Suárez et al., 2010). Acetone
extraction yielded the higher amounts of phenolic compounds. The extrac-
tion method influenced the phenolic composition although antioxidant
activity correlated weakly with phenols concentration. Among the poly-
phenols analyzed, quercetin glycosides were the most important family,
followed by dihydrochalcones. It was observed that apple pomace extracts
were able to inhibit both HSV-1 and HSV-2 replication in Vero cells by more
than 50%, at non-cytotoxic concentrations. Selectivity indexes (SI) ranged
from 9.5 to 12.2.
Apple skin is rich in many health-enhancing phytonutrients including
flavonoids and phenolic acids (Boyer & Liu, 2004). Apple skin has three to
six folds more flavonoids than apple flesh and has unique flavonoids, such as
quercetin glycosides, not found in the flesh (Wolfe et al., 2003; Wolfe & Liu,
2003). Apple fruit skin is rich source of DF and phenolics. The blanched,
Antioxidant Dietary Fiber: An Approach to Develop Healthy 309
dehydrated, and ground apple skin powder contained ~41% TDF and
oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC) of 52 mg Trolox equivalents/g
dry weight (Rupasinghe et al., 2008).
The amount of residue obtained from the citrus fruits after juice and essen-
tial oil extraction accounts for 50% of the original whole fruit mass (Cohn &
Cohn, 1997). They consist of peels (albedo and flavedo), which are almost
one-fourth of the whole fruit mass, seeds, and fruit pulp (Braddock, 1999).
Citrus peel has been reported to be a good source of pectin and DF in general,
with an equilibrated proportion of soluble and insoluble fractions (Baker,
1994; Larrauri et al., 1994). Approaches to the development of products with
increased dietary benefits from citrus peel have placed emphasis not only
on the recovery of carbohydrates and pectin (Baker, 1994) but also on the
production of potentially important secondary metabolites, such as polyphe-
nols (Manthey & Grohmann, 1996). These fiber-associated polyphenols are
known to exert important health promoting effects (Middleton & Kadas-
wami, 1994). Thus, citrus fruit by-products could be interesting not only for
310 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
its important fiber content but also because of its antioxidant capacity (Kang
et al., 2006; Rehman, 2006). They have a high fiber and vitamin contents
as well as other associated bioactive compounds such as flavonoids and
terpenes possessing antioxidant properties (Lario et al., 2004). According to
Saura-Calixto (1998) DF from citrus residues has good functional properties
and low caloric content. Moreover, the residues contain more natural anti-
oxidants than do the flesh or juice (Larrauri et al., 1996b).
Limonoids, the major cause of bitterness in citrus juice, have been
reported to possess substantial antioxidant and anti-cancer activities. The
anti-carcinogenic activity of limonoids has been tested successfully in labo-
ratory animals (Lam et al., 1989; Miller et al., 1989). They appear in many
forms, including nomilin, obacunone, ichangin, and limonin. Limonin and
nomilin are the most prevalent forms of the citrus limonoids. Among the
classes of phytochemicals with anti-cancer properties designated by the
National Cancer Institute of USA, carotenoids, coumarins, flavonoids, gluca-
rates, monoterpenes, and phenolic acids are present in citrus fruits (Nagy &
Attaway, 1992). They were reported in the highest concentration in citrus
peel and were mainly composed of ferulic, sinapic, coumaric, and caffeic
acids as well as hesperidin and naringin, among others (Peleg et al., 1991;
Nagy & Attaway, 1992). Citrus flavonoids have been extensively investi-
gated because of their health-promoting properties (Middleton & Kandas-
wami, 1994). Nogata et al. (1996) reported that albedo tissue extracts from
lemon, inhibited both cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase activities more than
those in orange, which could be related to the prevention of thrombosis,
atherosclerosis, and carcinogenesis.
The chemical components of citrus fiber (pectin, lignin, cellulose, and
hemicellulose), together with other compounds, such as flavonoids, were
analyzed in nine different industrial sources (Marín et al., 2007). Final fiber
composition was found to be more dependent on the industrial process than
on the type of citrus. The chemical changes gone by citrus fiber showed
losses of functional values; that is, SDF and ascorbic acid content decreased
when waste products were transformed into fibers. The water holding and
lipid holding capacities of analyzed citrus fibers suggested a non-linear
behavior of these properties.
High DF powders from Valencia orange and Persa lime peels were prepared
and their composition and antioxidant capacity were studied (Larrauri et al.,
1996b). Fibers from both peels had high TDF content (61–69%) with an
appreciable amount of soluble fiber (19–22%). The concentration of anti-
oxidant (AA50) required to achieve a 50% inhibition of oxidation of linoleic
acid at 40 °C was measured using the ferric-thiocyanate method. Lime peel
Antioxidant Dietary Fiber: An Approach to Develop Healthy 311
fiber (AA50) had half the value of DL-α tocopherol and 23 times lower than
orange peel fiber; the AA50 of commercial butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
was half the value of lime fiber. The HPLC analyses of the polyphenols
extracted from orange and lime peels fibers showed the presence of caffeic
and FAs, as well as naringin, hesperidin, and myricetin in both fruit fibers.
The different antioxidant power of these fibers could be in part explained
by the presence of ellagic acid, quercetin and kaempferol in lime peel fiber
which are strong antioxidant polyphenols.
Lemon (Citrus limon cv Fino) possesses the highest antioxidant potential
among citrus fruits and it is the most suitable fiber for dietary prevention of
cardiovascular and other diseases (Gorinstein et al., 2001). Lario et al. (2004)
used lemon juice industry by-products to obtain high DF powder. The effect
of processing variables (direct drying, and washing previous to drying) on
functional properties, fiber content and type, microbial quality and physi-
cochemical properties of the fiber were evaluated. The fiber had good func-
tional and microbial qualities as well as favorable physicochemical char-
acteristics to be used in food formulations. It was observed that processing
conditions affected fiber composition and properties. Water holding capacity
was enhanced by washing and slightly decreased by the reduction in fiber
particle size. Oil holding capacity was not affected by those factors. Acid
detergent and neutral detergent fibers were highest in powder from washed
lemon residue. Washing prevented fiber browning during drying as reflected
in color parameters. Washing water rinsed green components.
High DF powders from Persian and Mexican lime peels were prepared
and their fiber composition and antioxidant capacities were determined
(Ubando-Rivera et al., 2005). The TDF contents of both varieties were high;
70.4 and 66.7%, respectively. Both lime peel varieties had an appropriate
ratio of soluble/insoluble fractions. The water-holding capacities of fiber
concentrates were high (6.96–12.8 g/g) which was related to the SDF which
was higher in the DF concentrate of Mexican lime. Fiber concentrates of
Persian lime peel had greater polyphenol contents than those of Mexican
lime peel. The polyphenols associated with the DF in both lime peel vari-
eties showed a good antioxidant activity. It was suggested that from a nutri-
tional standpoint, DF lime concentrates may be suitable as food additives.
much attention has been paid to its antioxidant capacity and its possible role
as a functional food or food ingredient (Pozo-Insfran et al., 2006; Ribeiro et
al., 2010; Schreckinger et al., 2010). Anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and
other flavonoids were found to be the major phytochemicals in freeze-dried
açaí (Schauss et al., 2006) and some works have also been carried out on
antioxidant capacity of açaí pulp (de Souza et al., 2009; Rufino et al., 2009a;
Rufino et al., 2009b; Rufino et al., 2010). Rufino et al. (2011) reported the
concentrations of DF and antioxidant capacity in fruits (pulp and oil) of a
new açaí cultivar—“BRS-Pará.” The result showed that “BRS-Pará” açaí
fruit has a high content of DF (71% dry matter) and oil (20.82%) as well as
a high antioxidant capacity in both defatted matter and oil. These features
provide açaí “BRS-Pará” fruits with considerable potential for nutritional
and health applications.
8.5.1.7 GUAVA
Bael fruit pulp is endowed with many functional and bioactive compounds
such as DF, carotenoids, phenolics, alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, terpe-
noids, and other antioxidants (Suvimol & Pranee, 2008). Major antioxidants
in bael fruit are phenolics, flavonoids, carotenoids, and vitamin C (Morton,
1987; Roy & Khurdiya, 1995). Quantitative analyses have indicated that
the bael fruit is rich in carbohydrates and fibers and also a good source of
protein, vitamins, and minerals (Ramulu & Rao, 2003).
TPC (mg of GAE/100 g of decoction) in crude aqueous extract of bael
fruit powder was reported as 336.1 (Gheisari et al., 2011). According to
Suvimol and Pranee (2008), bael fruit pulps had TPC of 87.34 mg GAE/g
dry weight while Jain et al. (2011) reported the total polyphenols (mgGAE/g)
314 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
in bael fruit extract as 95.33. Abdullakasim et al. (2007) reported that the
bael fruit drink possess high quantities of total phenolic compounds (37.6–
83.89 mg GAE/100 ml). The aqueous extract of the bael fruit pulp possesses
potent antioxidant effect (Kamalakkannan & Prince, 2003a; 2003b). The
hydro-alcoholic extract of bael pulp is also shown to possess nitric oxide
scavenging activities in vitro (Jagetia & Baliga, 2004). Suvimol and Pranee
(2008) found that bael fruit pulps had TDF, SDF, and IDF contents of 19.84,
11.22, and 8.62 g/100 g dry weight, respectively. According to these workers
the bael fruit is relatively rich in DF and it was in range of fruits which
are defined as high DF fruits. According to Parichha (2004) fresh bael pulp
without seed contains 31.8% TDF.
Pineapple is one of the most important fruits in the world, and most of its
production is used in processing. It is consumed as canned slices, chunks,
dice, or fruit salads and in the preparation of juices, concentrates, and jams
(Salvi & Rajput, 1995). By-products obtained from industrial processing
represent 25–35% of the fruit, and the shell is the major constituent. The
shell has been used to produce alcohol, citric acid, vinegar, bromelain, wine,
sugar syrup, wax, sterols, and cattle feed (Joseph & Mahadeviah, 1988;
Salvi & Rajput, 1995). The DF content and composition of pineapple flesh
has been reported (Bartolomé & Rupérez, 1995).
Properties of a high DF powder prepared from pineapple fruit shell were
evaluated and compared to those of several commercial fruit fibers (Larrauri
et al., 1997). TDF content (70.6%) was similar to some commercial DFs
from apple and citrus fruits; however, its sensory properties were better than
those from commercial fibers. The IDF fraction accounted 99% of the TDF.
Major neutral sugars in SDF and IDF were xylose and glucose, respectively.
Total uronic acids and KL were 5.1 and 11.2%, respectively. At the concen-
tration of 0.5 g of powdered sample/100 mL in the assay mixture, pineapple
fiber showed a higher antioxidant activity (86.7%) than orange peel fiber
(34.6%). Myricetin was the major identified polyphenol in pineapple fiber.
Dates of date palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera L.) are popular among the
population of the Middle Eastern countries. The fruit is composed of a fleshy
Antioxidant Dietary Fiber: An Approach to Develop Healthy 315
pericarp and seed which constitutes between 10 and 15% of date fruit weight
(Hussein et al., 1998). The date seeds considered as a waste product of many
date processing plants producing pitted dates, date syrup, and date confec-
tionery. Generally, seeds are used as an animal feed; however, could be a
valuable source of DF and phenolics.
Three native sun dried date varieties from Oman (Mabseeli, Um-sellah,
and Shahal) their syrups and by-products (press cake and seed) were examined
for their proximate composition, DF, total phenolics, and total antioxidant
activity (Al-Farsi et al., 2007). Carbohydrate was the predominant compo-
nent in all date varieties, syrups, and their by-products, followed by moisture,
along with small amounts of protein, fat, and ash. The DF content in seeds and
press cakes were found to be 77.75–80.15% fresh weight and 25.39–33.81%
fresh weight, respectively. Among dates, syrups, and their by-products, seeds
had the highest contents of total phenolics (3102–4430 mg of GAE/100 g
fresh weight) and antioxidant activity (580–929 µmol of Trolox equivalents/g
fresh weight). The researcher concluded that date by-products, particularly
seeds serve as a good source of natural antioxidants and could potentially be
considered as a functional food or functional food ingredient.
Al-Farsi and Lee (2008) conducted the work to optimize extraction condi-
tions of phenolics and DF from date seeds. The effects of solvent to sample
ratio, temperature, extraction time, number of extractions, and solvent type
on phenolic extraction efficiency were observed. Two stage extractions,
each stage lasting for 1 h duration at 45 °C with a solvent to sample ratio
of 60:1, was considered optimum. Acetone (50%), and butanone were the
most efficient solvents for extraction and purification, increasing the yield
and phenolic contents of seed concentrate to 18.10 and 36.26%, respec-
tively. The TDF of seeds increased after water and acetone extractions. Nine
phenolic acids were detected in seeds with p-hydroxybenzoic, protocate-
chuic, and m-coumaric acids found to be among the highest. Protocatechuic,
caffeic, and FAs were the major phenolic acids found in the concentrates. It
was suggested that date seed concentrates could potentially be economical
source of natural DF and antioxidants.
reduced risk of certain cancers such as lung cancer, colorectal cancer, breast
cancer, and prostate cancer (Ciska & Pathak, 2004; Higdon et al., 2007).
Brassica vegetables have been reported to contain high amount of DF and
various bioactive agents with high antioxidant activity. Phenolic compounds
and vitamin C are the major antioxidants of brassica vegetables (Podsedek,
2007). Lipid-soluble antioxidants (carotenoids and vitamin E) are respon-
sible for up to 20% of the brassica total antioxidant activity.
Cauliflower has a very high waste index (Kulkarni et al., 2001) and is
an excellent source of protein, cellulose, and hemicellulose (Wadhwa et al.,
2006). It is considered as a rich source of DF and possesses both antioxi-
dant and anticarcinogenic properties. The level of non-starch polysaccharide
(NPS) in the upper cauliflower stem remains similar to that of the floret and
both are rich in pectic polysaccharides, while the cauliflower lower stem
NPS is rich in cellulose and xylan (Femenia et al., 1998).
White cabbages (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) have been reported
to contain high amount of DF and bioactive agents with high antioxidant
activity as well as glucosinolates which are claimed to possess anticar-
cinogenic activity. About 40% of cabbage leaves, which are processed into
many products, including salads and ready-to-eat vegetables, are lost and
regarded as waste which contains high amount of DF and various phyto-
chemical compounds (Nilnakara et al., 2009). Processing of these residues
could therefore add much value to the products. The main constituents in
white cabbage are carbohydrates, comprising nearly 90% of the dry weight,
where approximately one-third is DF and two-thirds are low-molecular-
weight carbohydrates (Wennberg et al., 2004). Additionally, white cabbage
also possesses significant amounts of antioxidants such as ascorbic acid,
phenolic compounds, and tocopherols (Kim et al., 2004; Wennberg et al.,
2004; Singh et al., 2006).
The cabbage glucosinolates are the most interesting compounds. Gluco-
sinolates are a group of sulfur-containing plant secondary metabolites and
can be hydrolyzed by myrosinase to form different products, for example,
thiocyanates, isothiocyanates, epithionitrile, nitrile, and oxazolidine-thione
(Wennberg et al., 2006). The breakdown products (especially isothio-
cyanates) possess anticancer activity via modulation of phase II enzymes,
including glutathione S-transferase and quinine reductase. These enzymes
are reported to help inactivate cancer by blocking normal cells from DNA
damage (Verkerk et al., 2001). Production of DF powder from cabbage outer
leaves involves mechanical and thermal processes which may affect the
amount of glucosinolates. Several reports have indeed shown that glucosino-
lates in Brassica vegetables decreased upon blanching because of enzymatic
Antioxidant Dietary Fiber: An Approach to Develop Healthy 317
8.5.2.2 ASPARAGUS
Besides their culinary quality, green asparagus spears are known for their
composition of bioactive compounds. Eastern civilizations have been using
asparagus extracts as stimulants, laxatives, antitussives, diuretics, and so
forth, for hundreds of years. Asparagus has been reported as rich in the
quality and quantity of its antioxidants (Pellegrini et al., 2003; Vinson et
al., 1998). During industrial processing, around half of the total length of
each spear is discarded, which creates significant waste for producers. It is
expected that the by-products have similar composition to the edible part
of the spears and could be a promising source of phytochemicals and fiber
(Nindo et al., 2003).
The asparagus extracts possess number of biological activities, including
anti-tumor and antioxidant activities and participate in the prevention of
318 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
carrot peels as a starting raw material to produce ADF powder was inves-
tigated (Chantaro et al., 2008). The effects of blanching and hot air drying
(60–80 °C) on the drying kinetics and physicochemical properties of DF
powder were evaluated. The results showed that blanching had a significant
effect on the fiber contents and compositions, water retention and swelling
capacities of the fiber powder. In contrast, drying temperature in the selected
range did not affect the hydration properties. As far as antioxidant activity
is concerned, thermal degradation during both blanching and drying caused
a decrease in the contents of β-carotene and phenolic compounds, hence
leading to the loss of antioxidant activity of the final product.
8.5.3.1 CEREALS
Cereals and legumes containing wide range of phenolics are good sources of
natural antioxidants (Krings et al., 2000). It has been reported that phenolic
compounds are concentrated in the bran portion of cereal kernels and may
contribute to the total antioxidant activities, suggesting bran a potent source
of antioxidants (Onyeneho & Hettiarachy, 1992). However, it is not clear
at which extent both free and carbohydrate-bound compound are measured
by a given assay (Zhou et al., 2004). Wheat is one of the popular cereal
grains, and its bran represents not only a good source of DFs (Alabaster
et al., 1997), but also of phenolic acids (Baublis et al., 2000). Significant
levels of antioxidant activities have been detected in wheat (Yu et al., 2003;
Zielinski & Kozlowska, 2000), and wheat-based food products (Baublis et
al., 2000), suggesting that wheat may serve as an excellent dietary source of
natural antioxidants for disease prevention and health promotion. Yu et al.
(2002) reported a significant level of TPC, free radical scavenging capac-
ities, chelating activity, and inhibitory effect on lipid peroxidation of the
three-wheat grain extracts with significant differences among the varieties.
Antioxidant activity of wheat bran and flour extracts varies with cultivar and
location (Yu et al., 2002).
Wheat bran, a by-product generated in large amounts during wheat
processing, consists of 36.5–52.4% TDF (Vitaglione et al., 2008), which
makes it a good source of DF. Additionally, wheat and wheat bran has
shown strong antioxidative activities (Li et al., 2005). Several phenolic
acids, including vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, and, largely, FA have been
found in wheat bran extracts (Kähkönen et al., 1999). These compounds,
320 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
particularly FA, are not evenly distributed in the wheat; most are found in
the bran (Baublis et al., 2002). According to Onyeneho and Hettiarachchy
(1992) extract of wheat bran, having high concentration of phenolic acids
and have stronger antioxidant activity than other fractions of wheat. Wheat
bran has been reported to be able to inhibit lipid oxidation catalyzed by either
iron or peroxyl radicals (Baublis et al., 2000). Zhou et al. (2004) reported
that wheat grain, bran, and fractions had different antioxidant activities and
TPCs. Their study also showed that FA was a major contributor to the anti-
oxidant activity.
Antioxidant activity of bran extracts from five wheat varieties indigenous
to Pakistan, that is, Punjab-96, Bhakkar-2002, Uqab-2000, SH- 2002, and
Pasban-90, was evaluated (Iqbal et al., 2007). All the bran extracts exhibited
appreciable TPC (2.12–3.37 mg GAE/g bran), total flavonoid content (epicat-
echin equivalent 262–304 mg/g bran), chelating activity (EDTA equivalent
597–716 mg/g bran), DPPH radical scavenging activity (51–79%), ABTS
radical cation scavenging activity (Trolox equivalent 27–36 mmol/g), oxygen
radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) (97–123 mmol/g), and TA content
(30–38 mg/kg bran). Tocopherol (22–26 ppm) and tocotrienol content
(59–74 ppm) were determined by reversed phase HPLC (RP-HPLC). It was
observed that all the varieties exhibited appreciable antioxidant potential
and significant differences were observed among the varieties in different
systems of antioxidant activity evaluation.
Four different types of wheat bran were extracted and analyzed for
phenolic acids using the Folin–Ciocalteu method and HPLC (Kim et al.,
2006). The extracts and their hydrolysis products were also evaluated for
antioxidant activities. The TPC of the red wheat bran was found higher
than that of the bran from white wheat. The majority of the phenolic acids
existed in a bound form in wheat bran. These phenolic acids can be released
by hydrolyzing the bran under alkaline or acidic conditions; however, the
former was more efficient. Ferulic, vanillic, and syringic acids were the
major individual phenolic acids in the studied wheat bran. The major portion
of the total FA was from alkaline hydrolysis. The alkaline hydrolysable frac-
tions had greater antioxidant activities, while the acid hydrolysable frac-
tions showed lower activities in both the red and white bran. The antioxidant
activity of bran extract was stronger than that of free phenolic acids.
The impact of thermal processing on antioxidant activity of purple
wheat bran, heat-treated purple wheat bran was evaluated to assess potential
health benefits (Li et al., 2007). TPC and ORAC values of sample extracts
were significantly affected by various extracting solvents. The conditions
selected for heat treatment did not markedly change antioxidant activity
Antioxidant Dietary Fiber: An Approach to Develop Healthy 321
the peak values were reached on the fourth day in the case of amaranth and
on the sixth day in the case of quinoa. It was suggested that amaranth and
quinoa seeds and sprouts can be used in food, because it is a good source of
anthocyanins and total phenolics with high antioxidant activity.
It is a source of inulin and popular vegetable in Japan. Burdock root has been
extensively analyzed for its components due to their antioxidant properties
(Chow et al., 1997) as well as for its extractable components having antimi-
crobial activity (Duh, 1998; Lin et al., 1996). The simultaneous ultrasonic/
microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) of inulin and production of phenols
rich DF powder from burdock root was studied (Lou et al., 2009). The DF
powder prepared from the residue of burdock root after inulin extraction
was rich in phenols (302.62 mg GAE/100 g powder). It was seen that drying
temperature in the selected range did not significantly affect the hydration
properties.
8.5.4.2 HIBISCUS
study on roselle flower and beverage prepared from it, Sáyago-Ayerdi et al.
(2007) quantified the DF, associated polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity.
It was reported that roselle flower contained DF as the largest component
(33.9%) and was rich in phenolic compounds (6.13%).
8.5.4.3 SEAWEED
Prevention of lipid
and protein
oxidation
Improvement in
Antioxidant
quality and stability
Free radical
quenching
Color
Acceptability
Health value
The effect of grape antioxidant dietary fiber (GADF) addition (0, 2, and
4%) to minced fish muscle (MFM) on lipid stability during frozen storage (6
months) was studied (Sánchez-Alonso et al., 2007). GADF was character-
ized in terms of DF, total polyphenols and antioxidant capacity, and multi-
functional antioxidant assays were carried out on all the MFM samples. The
addition of red grape fiber considerably delayed lipid oxidation in minced
horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) muscle during the first 3 months
of frozen storage. In another study, white grape antioxidant dietary fiber
(WGDF) obtained from white grape (V. vinifera, var. Airén) pomace from
wine production was evaluated for antioxidant capacity in MFM during
frozen storage at three different levels viz., 0, 2, and 4% (Sánchez-Alonso et
al., 2008). WGDF was evaluated for DF (insoluble and soluble), total poly-
phenols and antioxidant capacity, and multifunctional antioxidant assays
were done on all the MFM samples. The addition of WGDF considerably
delayed lipid oxidation in minced horse mackerel muscle during the frozen
storage. Vacuum-packing the sample with 2% WGDF significantly enhanced
the antioxidant properties of WGDF.
Sánchez-Alonso and Borderías (2008) again investigated the effect of
adding GADF at same levels to horse mackerel minced muscle as a techno-
logical ingredient in MFM for over six months of frozen storage (−20 °C).
Protein solubility, water retention, color, mechanical properties, lipid oxida-
tion, and sensory analyses were carried out immediately after preparation
of samples, and during and after storage. Bound water after thawing and
cooking minced samples was proportional to the amount of GADF used.
Mechanical properties indicated softness and loss of cohesiveness depending
on the amount of GADF. There was inhibition of lipid oxidation during
frozen storage when GADF was added. Based on chemical, physical, and
sensory analyses it was suggested that GADF is a highly active technological
ingredient in frozen dark minced fish. Grape pomace concentrate (GPC) is
a natural source of phenolic compounds with high antioxidant capacity. The
effect of a diet containing GPC on lipid peroxidation levels via measuring
thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS) and antioxidant capacity
(ABTS method) of raw and cooked chicken breast meat patties stored in
chilled conditions (4 °C) for 0, 3, 6, 13, and 20 days, and frozen storage
(six months) was investigated (Sáyago-Ayerdi et al., 2009a). Chickens were
fed GPC at levels of 0, 30, and 60 mg/kg from three to six weeks of age.
Dietary GPC significantly exerted an inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation of
raw and cooked breast chicken patties compared with samples obtained from
birds fed the control diet at chilling and frozen storage. Radical scavenging
capacity was significantly increased at 20 days in cooked samples and
328 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
8.7 CONCLUSION
KEYWORDS
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CHAPTER 9
CONTENTS
Abstract ....................................................................................................344
9.1 Introduction .....................................................................................344
9.2 Lipid Oxidation ...............................................................................345
9.3 Antioxidants ....................................................................................354
9.4 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) .......................................364
9.5 Active Packaging ............................................................................367
9.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................373
Keywords .................................................................................................374
References ................................................................................................374
344 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
ABSTRACT
9.1 INTRODUCTION
There are many factors that affect the development of oxidative rancidity
in meat, some of them are intrinsic, such as species, muscle type, amount
and type of fat in the diet, enzymes, differences in fat content and fatty
acid composition, endogenous antioxidants (carnosine and related dipep-
tides), and others extrinsic such as storage conditions, O2 concentration, and
processing treatments (heat, mincing, irradiation, etc.).
346 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
Two factors greatly influence lipid oxidation in raw meat are fat content and
fatty acid composition. According to Min et al. (2008), the composition of
fat is more important than the amount of fat in meat, because the suscepti-
bility of muscle lipid to lipid peroxidation depends upon the degree of poly-
unsaturation in fatty acids. Unsaturated lipids are generally more susceptible
to lipid oxidation because hydrogen atoms can be more easily abstracted
from polyunsaturated fats than saturated fats (Kanner et al., 1987; Gong et
al., 2010). In fact, fats containing high proportions of linoleic or linolenic
acids are more prone to oxidation than oils high in oleic acid. Thus one nutri-
tional effect of oxidation is to reduce the essential fatty acid content of fats.
It is thought that the polyunsaturated fatty acids from polar phospholipids
rather than triglycerides are responsible for the initial development of lipid
oxidation in muscle foods (Renerre & Ladabie, 1993). During the course of
oxidation, the total unsaturated fatty acid content of lipids decreases with a
concurrent increase in the amount of primary and secondary oxidation prod-
ucts such as lipid hydroperoxides, aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons, and
alcohols. Therefore, rancidity in food occurs when unsaturated fatty acids
decompose into volatile compounds. Increasing levels of unsaturated fatty
acids in meat increase lipid oxidation rates (and rancidity) and thus decrease
shelf life of the muscle foods. The autoxidation rate greatly depends on the
rate of fatty acid or acylglycerol alkyl radical formation, and the radical
formation rate depends mainly on the types of fatty acid or acylglycerol.
Consequently, the susceptibility of meat to lipid peroxidation varies
among meats from different animal species and muscles from the same
animal (Min et al., 2008). There are numerous studies showing that both
the species and fat location significantly affects fatty acid composition of
the meat. Cava et al. (2003) found that muscles with higher proportions of
phospholipids also presented higher amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
In the same way, Domínguez et al. (2015) also observed that Psoas major
muscle (oxidative muscle) had significantly higher amounts of polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids than Longissimus dorsi (glycolytic muscle). Differences
in fatty acid composition between oxidative and glycolytic muscles might
be due to a higher number of cellular and sub-cellular membranes, and the
difference in the ratio of mitochondria to other membranes between oxida-
tive and glycolytic muscles. Therefore, the different polyunsaturated fatty
acid amounts making lipids from oxidative muscles more susceptible to
oxidative processes than those from the glycolytic muscles.
Control of Lipid Oxidation in Muscle Food 347
However, not only the meat composition affects lipid oxidation. Other
factors, such as processing and storage conditions have a great impact on
meat oxidation.
a) Irradiation
b) Cooking
c) High pressure
d) Mincing
A typical way of finding the meat is like minced meat. However, this treat-
ment has a great effect on rancidity development. It is well known that
compartmentation of cellular and extracellular reactants should be critical
in controlling rates of lipid oxidation. Therefore, mincing can cause signifi-
cant disruption of the cellular compartmentalization structure which facili-
tates the meeting of pro-oxidants with unsaturated fatty acids resulting in
the generation of free radicals and propagation of the oxidative reaction
(Buckley et al., 1995; Walsh & Kerry, 2002). According to Takama et al.
(1974), minced flesh was susceptible to rancidity due to the dispersed blood
pigments in the meat caused by the mechanical destruction of the tissue. In
addition, other study concluded that TBARS values increase most rapidly
with decreasing particle sizes, as the latter are related to greater cell disrup-
tion (Ladikos & Lougovois, 1990).
e) Light
a) Metals
Ferrous iron can also then react with H2O2 or preformed lipid hydroper-
oxides to produce hydroxyl or alkoxyl, and hydroxyl radicals, respectively:
b) Heme-proteins
c) Enzymes
The compound and its oxidation products must also be nontoxic, even at
doses much larger than those that normally would be ingested in food.
Antioxidants can be classified according to the mechanism of action into
two groups:
a) Reducing agents
b) Chelating agents
9.3 ANTIOXIDANTS
The use of molecules with antioxidant activity is the best solution for
preventing oxidative processes during storage and increasing the shelf life
of foods. Several molecules from different sources have been recognized
possessing this ability and used as antioxidants in foods, acting through
one or more of the mechanisms already described. We will comment the
most relevant compounds having this property, their characteristics, and
performances.
Control of Lipid Oxidation in Muscle Food 355
Due to the damage caused by oxidations in live tissues, animals and vege-
tables accumulate antioxidant molecules as a mechanism of defense against
these undesirable changes. Most of these antioxidants are supplied by the
feed in the animals.
Several natural antioxidants are frequent in animal and vegetable tissues
as such or as precursors. We will shortly review the most representative:
with peroxyl radicals than BHA, due to the different nature of the radicals
formed on H-abstraction.
Tocopherols are approved as food additives with different E numbers:
E306 (tocopherol), E307 (α-tocopherol), E308 (γ-tocopherol), and E309
(δ-tocopherol).
Flavonoids are pigments widely distributed in vegetables where typically
impart a yellow color. Chemically, they have a general structure consisting
in a 15-carbon atoms skeleton integrated by two phenyl rings (named A and
B) and a heterocyclic ring (named C). Such carbon structure can be abbre-
viated C6-C3-C6 (A-C-B rings). The different classes of flavonoids differ in
the degree of oxidation and pattern of substitution in the C ring, while indi-
vidual compounds within a same class differ in the pattern of substitution
in the A and B rings (Pietta, 2000). Flavonoids, according to their chem-
ical structure are divided into five different classes: Anthoxanthins (which
include two subgroups, flavones, and flavonols), flavonones, flavanonols,
flavans (which include flavan-3-ols, flavan-4-ols, and flavan-3, 4-diols), and
anthocyanidins. The capacity of flavonoids to act as antioxidants in vitro has
been demonstrated by several studies, and important structure-antioxidant
activity relationships have been established (Pietta, 2000). Flavonoids are
generally primary antioxidants which act as free radical acceptors, breaking
the oxidation chain. Flavonols can also chelate metal ions at the 3-hydroxy-
4-keto-group, and/or the 5-hydroxy-4-keto-group (in the case in that the A
ring was hydroxylated at the fifth position).
It is generally recognized that the degree of hydroxylation and the posi-
tion of the hydroxyl groups determine the antioxidant activity of the flavo-
noids (Shahidi et al., 1992). The hydroxylation in the B ring is the major
factor for antioxidant activity. The o-dihydroxylation in the B ring actively
contributes to the antioxidant activity, and all the flavonoids with 3’-4’-dihy-
droxy configuration have antioxidant activity in more or less extent. Two
flavones, robinetin and myricetin, have an additional hydroxyl group placed
at their fifth position, which confers to these two molecules an enhanced
antioxidant activity in relation to the corresponding molecules that do not
possess such 5’-hydroxyl group (fisetin and quercetin). On the contrary, two
other flavones, naringenin, and hesperetin, have only a hydroxyl group in
the B ring, and due to this particularity they show little antioxidant activity.
Besides the hydroxylation in the B ring, other structural characteristics
affecting the A ring determine the antioxidant activity such as the presence
of a carbonyl group at the fourth position and a free hydroxyl group at third
and/or fifth positions.
Control of Lipid Oxidation in Muscle Food 357
Quercetin (2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,7-trihydroxy-4H-chromen-4-one)
is the most abundant flavonoid in foods, and due to its antioxidant activity
and other beneficial properties has been object of special attention in the past
years (Alrawaiq & Abdullah, 2014). Although it has not been confirmed scien-
tifically as a specific therapeutic nor approved by any regulatory agency, it is
widely used as food supplement in the treatment of several health problems.
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives evaluated quer-
cetin for use in food in 1977 (Harwood et al., 2007), but limited data on its
toxicity were available at the time of the evaluation which precluded the estab-
lishing an acceptable daily intake (ADI). In Japan, quercetin is permitted as
a food additive since the 1996 year (Harwood et al., 2007). Other flavonoids
such as myricetin or robinetin have a recognized high antioxidant activity. All
those compounds could be in the future efficient food antioxidant additives
after approval by the health authorities, upon proof of their harmlessness.
Phenolic acids are substances containing a phenolic ring and a carbox-
ylic function, therefore having a C6-C1 skeleton. They can be mono-, di- or
tri-hydroxybenzoic acids depending on the number of positions hydroxyl-
ated in the phenolic ring. The antioxidant activity of the phenolic acids and
their corresponding esters is determined by the number of hydroxyl groups.
Some concrete phenolic acids such as cafeic, coumaric, ferulic, gallic, and
protocatechuic acid are known as molecules possessing a not negligible
antioxidant activity. They could be in the future successfully used for this
purpose in foods after further studies on their stability and safety.
9.3.1.3 CAROTENOIDS
Due to the doubts arose on the safety of the most common synthetic antioxi-
dants, the efforts of searching for new natural antioxidants usable in foods
have been redoubled. Together with the classical natural antioxidants already
described, other natural substances have been object of study and utilization
for this property in the recent past years.
Essential oils (EOs) are liquid mixtures of volatile compounds obtained
from plants, generally by steam distillation. Several EOs have shown a satis-
factory antioxidant capacity attributed in most cases to the presence in such
mixtures of molecules with antioxidant ability, mainly phenolic compounds
that act as antioxidants due to their high reactivity with the peroxyl radicals.
Phenolic compounds present in EOs are usually assigned to two structural
families according to their hydrocarbon skeleton: (a) terpenoids, formed
by an isoprene unit (hemiterpenoids) or by combination of two (monoter-
penoids), three (sesquiterpenoids), four (diterpenoids) or more isoprene
units, and (b) phenylpropanoids, formed by an aromatic phenyl group and
the three-carbon propene tail of cinnamic acid. Some common phenolic
compounds belonging to these two families (carvacrol or cymophenol, and
thymol, among terpenoids, and eugenol, guaiacol, syringaldehyde, umbel-
liferone, and coniferyl alcohol, among phenylpropanoids) are described as
principal components of several EOs.
EOs from Allium spp. have a chemical composition very different from
most of the other EOs. They are mainly composed of sulfur-containing vola-
tile compounds possessing antioxidant activity (Tsai et al., 2012) that has
been confirmed in different model systems (Banerjee et al., 2003; Iqbal &
Bhanger, 2007).
Being the EOs mixtures of various compounds, the antioxidant prop-
erties of a concrete EO should reflect the antioxidant activity of the most
active or the most abundant antioxidant compounds present in it. However,
it is necessary to take care with this approach, because complex interactions
depending on composition and experimental conditions take place, resulting
in synergistic or antagonistic behaviors among activities that notably affect
the whole antioxidant properties of the EOs (Kulisic et al., 2005).
Besides the botanical source, environmental factors (e.g., soil, climate,
etc.) may affect the actual composition, and therefore the antioxidant activity
of each EO.
In a recent work, Amorati et al. (2013) reviewed the antioxidant activity
of the EOs. For some selected EO, they summarized the data existing in
literature on their main components responsible for the antioxidant activity,
360 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
the tests followed for activity assessment, and the antioxidant activity in rela-
tion to reference antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), or
reference EO such as those from age or bush-basil. Some EO from oregano,
thyme, or clove has good antioxidant activity, comparable to that of BHT.
In general, however, the antioxidant activity of EOs is medium or low; on
the other hand, some concrete EOs have no antioxidant or even prooxidant
activity.
EOs are promising food antioxidants when their particular aroma
compatible with the organoleptic characteristics of the foods in which they
are applied. EO from oregano seems to be the most successful one. Goulas et
al. (2007) reported that this EO in combination with modified atmospheres
and salting extend the shelf life of sea bream. Oregano EO is also able to
protect the extra virgin olive oil from oxidation during storage (Asensio et
al., 2012) and to protect minced meat from auto-oxidation (Fasseas et al.,
2008). Very recent and encouraging applications of EOs were described in
active packaging and in edible coatings as we will treat later.
9.3.1.5 PEPTIDES
Despite the fact that all the amino acids naturally present in the proteins can
react with free radicals if these have high energy, the free amino acids are in
the practice not generally effective in the prevention of oxidation processes
in foods and biological systems (Samaranayaka & Li-Chan, 2011). Some
peptides, however, possess antioxidant capacity based on their chem-
ical structure determined by the presence of some concrete amino acidic
sequences. Most of the peptides derived from food proteins having antioxi-
dant activity show molecular weights from 0.5 to 1.8 kDa and often they
have hydrophobic amino acids (as Val or Leu) in the amino-terminal posi-
tion and they include the amino acids Pro, His, Tyr, Trp, Met, and Cys in
their sequences.
The mechanism of action of the antioxidant peptides is generally based
on the free radical scavenging; the tripeptides possessing Trp or Tyr in the
carbonyl-terminal position have a strong free radical scavenging activity
(Saito et al., 2003). In other cases, the action is based in the scavenging of
oxygen-containing compounds. Some peptides act as antioxidants though
the chelation of metal ions such as Cu or Fe. The peptides chelating Cu have
the amino acid His in their sequence, being the imidazole ring of this amino
acid responsible for the union with the Cu ion. Finally, it has been proven
that antioxidant peptides can show synergistic affects with some other
Control of Lipid Oxidation in Muscle Food 361
and palmitic acid which are absorbed into the bloodstream and metabolized
through the habitual routes for these two natural nutrients. It is an amphipa-
thic molecule, meaning one end is water-soluble and the other end is fat-
soluble. It is approved as food additive with the reference number E304.
Propyl, octyl, and dodecyl gallates: They are esters from the propanol,
octanol or dodecanol, respectively, with the gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxi-
benzoic acid). Propyl gallate (C10H12O5) is approved as food additive with
the reference number E310. It is obtained mainly by synthesis, although it
can be also obtained from a natural source (pods of the fruits of Caesal-
pinia spinosa). Octyl gallate (C15H22O5) and dodecyl gallate (C19H30O5) are
approved as food additives with the reference numbers E311 and E312,
respectively.
Ethoxyquin (6-ethoxy-1,2-dihydro-2,2,4-trimethylquinoline): It is a
quinoline-based antioxidant molecule (C14H19NO) approved as food addi-
tive with the reference number E324. In contrast with the other synthetic
antioxidants which are widely used, ethoxyquin is only commonly used as
preservative in pet foods and in spices to prevent color loss due to oxida-
tion of the natural carotenoid pigments. It is approved as food additive in
the United States; however, it is not approved for use within the European
Union nor is it permitted for use in foods in Australia, due to speculations on
its responsibility on multiple pet health problems.
With the exception of ethoxyquin, whose particular situation was already
commented, all these synthetic antioxidants have been proved and evaluated
by both the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the United States
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which in turn fixed the upper limit of
addition for each concrete compound.
ascorbyl palmitate (4). BHA and BHT have synergistic effects, and when
added together at a given total concentration they are more effective than
either antioxidant alone at the same level. In the described assay, BHA
and BHT added at a concentration of 0.01% each, show an AF value of
12, similar than that of DL-γ-tocopherol. In the same way, propyl gallate
increases the efficiency of BHA, but not that of BHT. Ascorbyl palmitate,
which alone shows a weak antioxidant efficiency, sustains the activity of the
DL-γ-tocopherol (Belitz et al., 2009).
Synergic effects can occur between antioxidants, but also between anti-
oxidants and another molecules present in foods that enhance the antioxi-
dant activity. These molecules called synergists are lecithin, amino acids,
citric, phosphoric, citraconic, and fumaric acids, and in general molecules
able to form complexes with the heavy metal ions. In this way, initiation of
heavy metal-catalyzed lipid autoxidation is prevented. A synergistic effect
of different nature is that exercised by phospholipids. The addition of dipal-
mitoylphosphatidylcholine (0.1–0.2%) to lard enhances the antioxidant
activity of α-tocopherol, BHT, BHA, and propyl gallate (Belitz et al., 2009).
Phosphatidylcholine, however, does not show this capacity.
When not packaged, foods during storage are usually surrounded by air;
the main gases in dry air at sea level are N2 (78%, v/v), O2 (20.99%), Argon
(0.94%), and CO2 (0.03%) (McMillin, 2008). MAP implies the presence of a
barrier, normally a plastic film, that impedes the permeation for gases, water
vapor included, that allows the maintaining of a constant environment of the
desired gas composition during the food storage. Barrier bags are first filled
with the product, previously placed in a tray, and then sealed after flushing
with the selected gas mixture.
Package protects the products against deterioration, which usually
include discoloration, development of off-flavor and off-odor, nutrient
losses, texture changes, pathogenicity, and other measurable traits (Skibsted
et al., 1994). In the case of fresh meat the main objective of packaging is the
increase of shelf life which implies the maintaining the water content, color,
microbial quality, lipid stability, and palatability (Renerre & Labadie, 1993;
Zhao et al., 1994).
Gas composition of the modified atmosphere affects the most impor-
tant meat attributes during storage which are mainly color, flavor, and
microbiology.
Control of Lipid Oxidation in Muscle Food 365
Regarding meat color, when the choice is made consumers prefer red
color above purple color, which in turn is preferred above brown color
(Carpenter et al., 2001). Meat color depends on the quantity and form of
the myoglobin pigment. The form of the myoglobin, and its color, depends
on the state of the iron placed in the porphyrin ring in the heme group (that
can be oxidized or reduced) and on the presence or absence of O2 occupying
the sixth coordination site of the iron. Purple color is due to the deoxy-
myoglobin that is the reduced form of myoglobin (Fe2+) in the absence of
O2 (with a vacant sixth coordination site in the iron). Red bright color is
due to the oxymyoglobin that is the reduced pigment (Fe2+) in which O2
occupies the ligand position. Oxymyoglobin is usually the form in contact
with the air. Oxymyoglobin is formed by O2 binding to the ferrous (Fe2+)
ion, which occurs at high O2 tension values. The penetration of oxygen
through the meat and therefore the oxymyoglobin layer thickness depends
upon temperature, O2 partial pressure, pH, and consumption of O2 by other
respiratory processes (Mancini & Hunt, 2005). Brown or gray color is due
to the metmyoglobin form that is the oxidized state of the myoglobin (Fe3+).
Metmyoglobin is formed when pigment is exposed for extended times to
light, heat, O2, microbial growth, or freezing, all these factors determining
the oxidation of the iron to a ferric (Fe3+) state. When deoxymyoglobin is
exposed to carbon monoxide, another pigment form, the carboxymyoglobin,
is formed. Carboxymyoglobin formation, with a stable bright-red color,
occurs when CO attaches to the vacant sixth position of deoxymyoglobin,
when the environment is devoid of oxygen. In the absence of CO, the three
other states of the myoglobin may coexist in varying proportions in the same
meat piece depending on redox conditions. The desired bright red-bloomed
color is achieved by the predominance of the oxymyoglobin pigment that
is easily generated when the O2 percentages in atmosphere are higher than
5.5%, and dominates at O2 percentages higher than 13%. Deoxymyoglobin
dominates in atmosphere conditions of less than 0.2% O2, while metmyo-
globin is the main pigment form at O2 levels of 0.2–13% (Siegel, 2001).
Metmyoglobin is easily formed in fresh meat in the range of 2.6–5.3% of O2
(Sebranek & Houser, 2006).
Flavor attributes are, together with the tenderness, the most important
factors that influence the consumers’ purchase habits. Compounds deter-
mining flavor and odor are usually originated from protein and lipid compo-
nents of meat (Spanier, 1992). Undesired off-flavors from proteins are
normally generated through the action of microorganisms producing amines,
ammonia, and other odor active compounds such as sulfur compounds,
from amino acids. In this sense, MAP gas composition influences the flavor
366 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
desiccants such as silica gel, calcium oxide and activated clays, and minerals
are typically tear-resistant permeable plastic sachets. In addition to mois-
ture-absorber sachets for humidity control in packaged dried foods, several
companies manufacture moisture-drip absorbent pads, sheets, and blankets
for liquid water control in high activity water foods such as meats, fish, fruit,
and vegetables (Dobrucka & Cierpiszewski, 2014).
Regarding the antioxidant releasing packaging materials, one of the main
benefits, as compared to the direct addition of antioxidants to food, is that
active materials may act as a source of antioxidants that are released to the
food at controlled rates, so that a predetermined concentration of the active
compound is maintained in the food, compensating the continuous using
up of antioxidants during storage (Mastromatteo et al., 2010). There are
basically two methodologies for producing antioxidant-packaging systems
(Gómez-Estaca et al., 2014):
Many different active packaging structures can be built with active mate-
rials prepared by extrusion processes, including coextruded, and laminated
multilayers. The design is dependent on the type of agent and the type of
polymer matrix, but primarily on the packaging requirements of the food
product. Due to environmental motivation there is increasing interest in the
use of biodegradable/compostable packaging and/or edible materials. This
tendency increases when materials come from industrial waste or renew-
able resources (Gómez-Guillén et al., 2007). Four types of plastics mate-
rials could be used for food packaging (Mecking, 2004; Reddy et al., 2012;
Peelman et al., 2013; Reddy et al., 2013):
TABLE 9.1 Meat and Meat Products Packed with Antioxidant Films.
Antioxidant source Meat product Reference
Oregano and pimento essential oils Fresh beef meat Oussalah et al. (2004)
Rosemary extract Fresh beef meat Nerín et al. (2006)
Rosemary and oregano EOs Fresh lamb meat Camo et al. (2008)
Thyme and oregano EOs Fresh lamb meat Karabagias et al. (2011)
Oregano Fresh beef meat Camo et al. (2011)
Rosemary extract Chicken meat patties Bolumar et al. (2011)
Thymol, carvacrol, and eugenol Fresh beef meat Park et al. (2012)
Green tea Pork sausages Siripatrawan and Noipha (2012)
Brewery and rosemary Fresh beef meat Barbosa-Pereira et al. (2014)
Oregano and green tea Fresh foal meat Lorenzo et al. (2014)
Citrus extract Cooked turkey meat Contini et al. (2014)
Carvacrol, eugenol, and thymol Fresh beef meat Tornuk et al. (2015)
Nisin, chitosan, potassium sorbate, Fresh chicken meat Soysal et al. (2015)
and zeolite
According to Park et al. (2012), the antioxidant films improved the effi-
cacy of vacuum packaging and stabilized raw beef patties against oxida-
tion. The antioxidant property of prepared film containing 3% eugenol
was similar to that of the film containing 0.3% eugenol, which suggests
that eugenol is a strong antioxidant and 0.3% concentration was sufficient
to completely retard lipid oxidation in beef patties. Contini et al. (2014)
also showed that antioxidant active packaging with citrus extract is effec-
tive in reducing the lipid oxidation of cooked turkey meat during storage
and in maintaining its sensory characteristics, particularly tenderness and
overall acceptability. In line with this, lowest lipid oxidation was observed
for samples packed with chitosan-incorporated bags, which might be
helpful to limit lipid oxidation of the drumsticks during the storage period
(Soysal et al., 2015). Barbosa-Pereira et al. (2014) observed a reduction in
lipid oxidation by up to 80% in beef wrapped in films coated with natural
extracts obtained from a brewery residual waste, while Tornuk et al. (2015)
suggested that the active nanocomposite packaging had potential to extend
shelf life of fresh beef by reducing E. coli O157:H7 numbers and retarding
the meat discoloration.
Finally, active packaging can be used in combination with other
processing treatments to extend food shelf life. High pressure processing
has shown to be an effective technology to improve safety of meat and meat
products (Marcos et al., 2008; Realini et al., 2011). However, high pres-
sure processing may accelerate meat oxidation (Ma et al., 2007; McArdle
et al., 2011, 2013). In line with this, Bolumar et al. (2011) observed that
the antioxidant compounds from the antioxidant active package (rosemary
extract) suppress the oxidation in both the surface part and the inner part
of chicken meat patties and prevent formation of secondary lipid oxidation
products. So, the antioxidant active packaging was able to delay the oxida-
tion induced by high pressure processing and consequently extend the shelf
life of chicken patties.
9.6 CONCLUSION
KEYWORDS
• active packaging
• natural antioxidant
• lipid oxidation
• modified atmosphere packaging
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INDEX
A effectiveness, 45
Açaí (Euterpe oleracea), 311–312 efficiency of, 363–364
Active oxygen method, 44 and free radicals, 43–44
Active packaging, 367–373 future prospects, 125–126
Advanced lipid oxidation end products health hazards, 277
(ALE), 271 market potential, 124–125
Air-drying process, 100 meat and meat products packed with
Alcalase®, 361 films, 372
Aldehydes, 27 mechanism of action, 97–98
Alfajayucan cultivars, 312 natural
Algal phlorotannins, 123 ascorbic acid, 357–358
Allahabad Safeda, 313 carotenoids, 358
Alpha linolenic fatty acid, 235 essential oils, 359–360
Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondri- peptides, 360–362
acus), 323 phenolic compounds, 355–357
Amaranthus cruentus, 323 primary, 352–353
American Association of Cereals Chem-
secondary, 353–354
ists Expert Committee, 302
from spices and herbs, 278
Andean native grain, 323
Anserine, 97 synthetic, 362–363
Anthocyanins, 99–100 Anti-radical power (ARP), 280
Antioxidant dietary fiber (ADF), 300 Apple polyphenols, 282
Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), 281
application in meat products, 326–328
Ascorbate peroxidase, 56
beneficial component of healthy diet,
Ascorbic acid. See Vitamin C
301 Ascorbyl palmitate, 362–363
constituents present in, 302 Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), 281
positive effects of incorporation of, 326 Asparagus, 317–318
sources of, 304–305 Atlantic herring fillets (Clupea harengus),
burdock root, 324 13
fruits and by-products, 305–315 Autoxidation, defined, 11
Hibiscus sabdariffa L., 324–325 Autoxidation of lipids
seaweed, 325–326 analytical methods
seed and by-products, 319–324 acceptable values for TBARS varies
vegetable by-products, 315–319 from product to product, 221
Antioxidants, 41–42 analysis of oxidation of raw meat
activity and total phenolic content pigments, 229–238
(TPC), 283 anisidine values, 217–218
classification of, 97–98 data for TBARS, 226
diversity of sources, 278 difference, 224
formulation for chicken sausage, 223
384 Natural Antioxidants: Applications in Foods of Animal Origin
carrot, 119 W
cruciferous vegetables, 120–121 Warmed-over-flavor (WOF) develop-
leafy green vegetables, 118–119 ment, 12
potato, 119 Water holding capacity (WHC), 250–251
prevention of diseases, 117–118 Water-soluble vitamin C, 45
role in maintenance of health, 117–118 Wheat bran, 319–321
tomatoes, 121–122 Whey proteins, 263
Vidarikand (Pueraria tuberosa), 281 White cabbages (Brassica oleracea var.
Virgin olive oil, 63–64 capitata), 316
Vitamin C White grape antioxidant dietary fiber
activity, 55–56 (WGDF), 327
antioxidants permitted in foodstuffs for White grape (V. vinifera, var. Airén), 327
infants and young children, 59 White wine grape pomace (WWGP),
306–307
categories of reactions, 59
concentrations in foods or plants, 55 X
in food preservation, 58–59
Xanthine oxidoreductase, 266
properties and low toxicity, 55–56
Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, 191
responsible for anaerobic loss of, 58–59
Xanthophylls, 66
in selected foods, 56–57
structure, 58 Y
Vitamin E. See Tocols (tocopherols and
tocotrienols) Yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) dark
Vitamin K1 muscle, 20
Yogurt, 282
food applications of, 54–55
importance of, 54 Z
role of, 54
Zeaxanthin, 67
significance of dietary, 55
structure of, 54
Volatile secondary oxidation products,
220