UNIT 3

topic 1 : Introduction to dams and water reservoir

DAMS
• Dam, structure built across a stream, a river, or an
estuary to retain water. Dams are built to provide
water for human consumption, for irrigating arid
and semiarid lands, or for use in industrial
processes. They are used to increase the amount of
water available for generating hydroelectric power,
to reduce peak discharge of floodwater created by
large storms or heavy snowmelt, or to increase the
depth of water in a river in order to improve
navigation and allow barges and ships to travel
more easily. Dams can also provide a lake for
recreational activities such as swimming, boating,
and fishing. Many dams are built for more than
one purpose; for example, water in a
single reservoir can be used for fishing, to generate
hydroelectric power, and to support an irrigation
system. Water-control structures of this type are
often designated multipurpose dams.
• Auxiliary works that can help a dam function
properly include spillways, movable gates,
and valves that control the release of surplus water
downstream from the dam. Dams can also include
intake structures that deliver water to a power
station or to canals, tunnels, or pipelines designed
to convey the water stored by the dam to far-
distant places. Other auxiliary works are systems
for evacuating or flushing out silt that accumulates
in the reservoir, locks for permitting the passage of
ships through or around the dam site, and fish
ladders (graduated steps) and other devices to
assist fish seeking to swim past or around a dam.
• In terms of engineering, dams fall into several distinct
classes defined by structural type and by building
material. The decision as to which type of dam to build
largely depends on the foundation conditions in the
valley, the construction materials available, the
accessibility of the site to transportation networks, and
the experiences of the engineers, financiers, and
promoters responsible for the project. In modern dam
engineering, the choice of materials is usually
between concrete, earthfill, and rockfill.
• Concrete is used to build massive gravity dams,
thin arch dams, and buttress dams.

World's largest dams

By height
date of height
name type1 river country
completion (metres)
1Key: A, arch; B, buttress; E, earth fill; G, gravity; M, multi-arch; R, rock fill.
2VaiontDam was the scene of a massive landslide and flood in 1963 and no longer
operates.
3Diversion tunnels closed and reservoir filling begun December 2002.
4Impounds settling reservoir for fine tailings in oil sands operation near Fort
McMurray, Alberta.
5Most of this reservoir is a natural lake.
Source: International Water Power and Dam Construction Yearbook (1996).
Nurek E 1980 Vakhsh Tajikistan 300
Grande
G 1961 Dixence Switzerland 285
Dixence
Inguri A 1980 Inguri Georgia 272
Vaiont2 A 1961 Vaiont Italy 262
Chicoasen ER 1980 Grijalva Mexico 261
 reservoir
• RESERVOIRS
Reservoirs are artificial lakes created by the construction of
dams across rivers. They are also called storages. These are
developed to retain excess water during periods of high flow for
use during periods of drought or demand.

• PURPOSE
Reservoirs mainly serve the purposes of water conservation and
flood control. A conservation storage reservoir is meant to save
excess water carried down by a river during the wet season
when the demand is less and release it during the dry season
when the river flow is less than the demand. The storage may
serve any of the following requirements:

1) Domestic water supply,

2) Industrial water supply,
3) . Municipal water supply,
4) Irrigation,
5) Hydroelectric power,
6) Navigation,
7) Rccreation, and
8) Fish and wild life conservation,

CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS

classified as :
a) Single purpose conservation reservoir,
b) Single purpose flood reservoir,
i) Retarding reservoir,
ii) Detention basin, and
c) Multipurpose reservoir.
These may briefly be described as follows:

• Single Purpose Conservation Reservoir

Such reservoirs serve only one puiposc which could be for
supplying water for domestic and industrial needs of a town, or
for irrigating a specific area, or for generating hydroelectric power,
and so on. In all these cases the requirement of water may be
assessed for different parts of the year with as much accuracy as
possible, based on which the capacity of reservoir may be
estimated, Wen making an estimate of water required, the growth
in demand over time must he considered.

• Single Purpose Flood Control Reservoir

Such a reservoir helps to reduce, in the downstream reaches, the
peak discharge of a flood by absorbing a part of the flood volume,
while the flood is rising and release the same quantity, while the
flood is falling. It reduces the flood levels and hence the
consequent damages downstream The capacity of a single
purpose flood control reservoir, thus depends on the maximum
flood hydrograph and the safe flood conveying capacity of the
river downstream
• Multipurpose Reservoir
A multipurpose reservoir is provided for two or more uses, say flood
control, irrigation, hydropower generation, etc. For instance, a
reservoir constructed on a tributary of a major river may be designed
to protect downstream areas against flood damage, increase flow
during low-water season for purposes of irrigation, and to create
sufficient head at the dam site to generate hydropower. The
reservoir may be operated with a view to :
a) reserve a certain minimum storage at all times for flood control,
b) supply a constant discharge during summer irrigation period
,c) supply a larger constant discharge during winter irrigation period,
'and
d) obtain maximum firm power.

Reservoir Planning the reservoir operation is carried out by

preparing a number of "Reservoir working tables", by adopting
many tentative schedules for a number of years with observed
discharge data and depending upon the hydrological data aid
frequency cycle of high floods in the basin.

Topic 2 : Design concept of surface and sub drainage

system
• Surface drainage diverts excess water from the soil surface
directly to streams, thereby reducing the amount of water
that will move into and possibly through the soil. Surface
drainage is accomplished by land forming, grading, or
smoothing to remove small depressions where water collects
and to provide a uniform slope for the removal of surface
water.

• A Surface drainage system shapes and molds the land

into a watershed that can convey the runoff into an
organized drainage system comprising of trench drains,
catch basins, and storm sewers
Components of Surface Drainage System

The negative effects of poor surface drainage on agricultural

productivity can be summarized as follows:

• Inundation of crops, resulting in deficient growth.

• Lack of oxygen in the root zone, hampering germination and the
uptake of nutrients.
• Insufficient accessibility of the land for mechanized farming
operations.
• Low soil temperature in spring time (applicable to temperate
regions).

Land Forming
• Land forming is broader term than land grading in surface
drainage, which is defined as ‘the process of changing the
natural topography so as to control the movement of water
onto or from the land surface’. It includes one or a
combination of practices such as land leveling for irrigation;
land grading or shaping for irrigation, drainage and water
conservation; and shallow field ditches which can be crossed
with farm machinery (Schwab et al., 2005).
• Land forming also includes grading work for erosion
control, for instance, contour benching or earthwork for
parallel terracing. Land smoothing is generally referred
to as the final operation of removing the minor
differences in elevations that result from the operation
of scrapers or other large earth-moving equipment. Note
that the terms ‘land grading’, ‘land shaping’, and ‘land
leveling’ are synonymous
Design Consideration for Land Grading

• Although land leveling is the term generally associated with

surface irrigation, land grading is synonymous but somewhat
more descriptive. For most conditions, a sloping plane surface
rather than a level surface is desired. Slopes, cuts, and fills are
influenced by soil, topography, climate, crops to be grown, and
the method of irrigation or drainage.
• Establishment of a uniform design slope is more important
for surface irrigation than for drainage. Having a variable
slope for drainage is not usually objectionable, provided
flow velocities are not erosive. Thus, the topography
places a severe limitation on the length and degree of
slope as well as the location of the slope change. The
required accuracy of leveling depends largely on its
effects on crop production.
Purpose and Benefits of Subsurface
Drainage
• Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water from the
root zone. It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried
pipe drains (FAO, 1985). Subsurface drainage is an
important conservation practice. Poorly drained lands are
usually topographically situated so that when drained, they
may be farmed with little or no erosion hazard. Many soils
having poor natural drainage are, when properly drained,
rated among the most productive soils in the world.
Types of Subsurface Drainage Systems

If one has decided to install a subsurface drainage system, one has

to make a subsequent choice between well drainage, open
drains, pipe drains, and mole drains.

• A combined system of surface and subsurface drainage

may be more appropriate in certain field situations.
Salient examples are as follows:

1. A soil profile with a layer of low permeability below the

root zone, but good permeability at drain depth: This is a
soil profile that can be found in alluvial soils throughout the
world. After a heavy rain, a perched water table forms in the
root zone, which cannot be lowered rapidly enough without
some form of surface drainage. Subsurface drainage
subsequently lowers the water table to a normal depth. An
alternative solution could be to break up the impeding layer
by subsoiling, especially if the impeding layer is less than
about 0.3 m thick.

2. Areas with deep frost penetration and snow cover during

winter: When the snow melts and the topsoil thaws, but soil
at some depth is still frozen, a perched water table will form
and will damage a crop of winter grain. The same measures
as in the previous example are required here;

3. Irrigated land in arid and semi-arid regions, where the

cropping pattern includes rice in rotation with ‘dry-foot’
crops (e.g., as in the Nile Delta in Egypt): Subsurface
drainage is needed for salinity control of the dry-foot crops,
whereas surface drainage is needed to evacuate the standing
water from the rice fields (e.g., before harvest).
4 .Areas with occasional high-intensity rainfall that causes water
ponding on the land surface, even if a subsurface drainage system is
present: The ponded water could be removed by the subsurface
drainage, but this may either take too long time or require very
narrow drain spacings. Under such circumstances, it would be more
efficient to remove the ponded water by surface drainage.

Different types of layout of subdrainage system

 Topic 3: Water conservation
Water conservation is a broad category that covers simple ways
to save water at home to complex, long term measures taken to
preserve water on a larger scale. 70% of the earth's surface is
covered with water, though it is not entirely useful to humans.
97% of saltwater covering oceans is not drinkable for humans
and the remaining 3% is mostly frozen in glaciers. Water
conservation is the practice of an efficient usage of water by
reducing unnecessary wastage of the same. The importance of
water conservation becomes even more necessary as there is a
limited source of freshwater that is beneficial for all human
beings for a Healthy lifestyle. The freshwater available for use is
unevenly distributed. Human activities are polluting the water
sources threatening the survival of living beings. So, water
conservation focuses on the concept of “save water and save a
life”.
• The Need for Water Conservation
It comes as no surprise that water is one of the most essential
elements for the survival of any lifeform on the surface of Earth.
The presence of water is what makes Earth different from any
other planet. The need to maintain the constant flow of water
comes from its vitality for the survival of all flora and fauna on
the Earth. Just because a portion of the human population has
easy access to water resources, we keep forgetting why saving
water is important. Saving water is not only a necessity for
humans, our careless waste of water is also affecting the animals
and plants around us. There are serious consequences of water
depletion .

• Ways to Conserve Water

Water conservation is essential and can be done by everyone. We
can all contribute to saving water. Very small-scale changes can be
made to preserve water. Even the people who aren’t facing water
shortages should find ways to save water at home . Several
techniques can be implemented for the conservation of water that
has been discussed below:-

• Careful Use of Water: Keep the taps turned off when not in use.
Usage of efficient home appliances like washing machines and
dishwashers can save a lot of water. Even without the appliances,
make sure you don’t overuse water while washing dishes or
clothes .
• Don’t Wash Down Garbage: Make sure to not wash down small
bits of trash that use a large amount of water to flush down the
drain. Always put them in the bin .
• Don’t Run The Faucet to Clean Vegetables: Fill a container with
water to wash fruits and vegetables. Keeping them under the
faucet while water runs down will lead to unnecessary wastage
of water .
• Check for Leaks: Leaks can cause a significant amount of water
loss if left unchecked. So, check the faucet, taps, and pipes for
leaks regularly. While turning the tap off make sure to turn it all
the way or it may keep dripping .
• Water the Plants Smartly: While watering your plants keep in
mind the temperature and time of the day, so water doesn’t
evaporate quickly. Reuse water from cleaning and laundry to
water the plants
• Reduce Bathing Water Amount: While bathing or taking a
shower make sure to not let the water run down for a longer
period or unnecessarily.
• The best way to conserve water is to recycle and reuse it.
• Try limiting your shower time to 10 to 15 minutes because
humans carelessly consume gallons of water for luxuriously long
showers. So Reducing the shower time would prevent excessive
wastage of water .
 • Water Conservation Facts
With 16% of the world population, India only has 4% of the total
available freshwater . Agriculture only accounts for 80% of India’s
total water consumption . The biggest water rejuvenation plan
launched by the Indian government is “Namami Gange” for the
Ganges river basin . Rain accounts for 85% of the available water
while the rest 15% is from melting snow . The water prerequisite
of India is 1100 billion cubic meters per year.
Topic 4: Quality of water sources and their treatments
requirements

• The quality of water sources depends on the land area that

drains to a common waterway, also known as a
watershed1. The quality can be affected by land use, local
ecologies, and other watershed conditions12, as well as
by nutrient sources, microbial pollution, industrial effluents,
and atmospheric inputs3. Drinking water quality must meet U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency regulations and can vary
depending on the source water and the treatment it receives .
• Water quality refers to the chemical, physical,
and biological characteristics of water based on
the standards of its usage.[1][2] It is most frequently
used by reference to a set of standards against
which compliance, generally achieved
through treatment of the water, can be assessed.
The most common standards used to monitor and
assess water quality convey the health
of ecosystems, safety of human contact, extent
of water pollution and condition of drinking water.
Water quality has a significant impact on water
supply
Civil engineering technology has provided access to
clean water through various methods,

• Including desalination,
• Irrigation technology for agriculture,
• Wastewater treatment, and
• The creation of small decentralized distillation
units.
Desalination: Civil engineering technology has
developed new processes and technologies to produce
clean, drinkable water by treating saline water through
a process called desalination. This process removes
salt, minerals and other contaminants from seawater,
brackish water, and other water sources, making it
suitable for human consumption.
Agriculture Irrigation Technology: Civil
engineering technology has developed irrigation
systems that use water efficiently, reducing water
wastage during agricultural activities. These
systems also help farmers to optimize crop yields
and maintain soil quality.
Wastewater Treatment: Civil engineering technology
has developed wastewater treatment plants that treat
and clean polluted water, removing contaminants and
making it safe for reuse or discharge into water bodies.
This technology has contributed to the reduction of
water pollution, and increased access to clean water.

Small Decentralized Distillation Units: These

units are developed by civil engineering
technology for use in homes, schools, and
communities that lack access to clean water.
They use the distillation process to remove
impurities from water, making it safe for
Water Purification Tablets: Civil engineering
technology has developed water purification tablets
that are used to disinfect water, killing bacteria and
viruses, and making it safe for consumption. This
technology is used in emergency situations and in
areas where access to clean water is limited.

Topic 5 : basics of water supply system

• Water supply system, infrastructure for the collection,
transmission, treatment, storage, and distribution
of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry,
and irrigation, as well as for such public needs
as firefighting and street flushing. Of all municipal services,
provision of potable water is perhaps the most vital. People
depend on water for drinking, cooking, washing, carrying
away wastes, and other domestic needs. Water supply
systems must also meet requirements for public,
commercial, and industrial activities. In all cases, the water
must fulfill both quality and quantity requirements.
The basic components of a water supply system include12:
1) Source of water
The place from where water is obtained is called the source of water. The source
must be reliable and have a minimum number of impurities. It should have more
charge than that of demand. The source may be surface or sub-surface.

2) Intake
•An intake collects the water from the source and feeds it to the transmission line.
•An intake should allow continuous abstraction of design flow from the source.
•The type of intake used in the water scheme depends upon the type of source
•The basic function of intake are:-
•To ensure required water and reduce sediment entry.
•To check trash and debris entry along with water entering and prevent the entry of ice.
•To collect water from the source and feed it to the transmission line.

3) Pump
•A pump is a lifting device commonly required to lift water from a source which is operated
with the help of energy.
•It is essential when the area to be supplied is located at a higher elevation than that of the
source of supply.

4) Collection chamber
•If the water demand does not meet by a single source, it may be required. This prevents the
backflow of water from one source to another.
•It is used to collect water from more than one source.
•It settles course materials contained in river or spring water.

5) Transmissions Mains
•For the conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant, different types of
conduct are used like open channels, aqueducts, pipelines, etc. is known as transmission
mains.
•Water from the transmission main is not given to users.

6) Treatment / Purification
The raw water contains various types of impurities to remove those impurities which is
harmful to human and other living beings health water treatment is done.
The objective of water treatment is to provide and maintain water that is hygienically safe,
palatable, and aesthetically attractive in an economic manner.

7) Distribution System
•After the treatment of water, it is distributed to the targeted community for domestic,
industrial, commercial, and public uses by the means of a pipe network is known as the
distribution system.
•It is designed for peak flow.
•The method of the distribution system is guided by the road network of the city.
Basic Drinking Water Quality Standard Parameters (WHO Guidelines):

I.Turbidity
II.Colour
III.pH
IV.Taste and odour
V.Hardness
VI.Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

1. Turbidity:
Turbidity is caused by suspended material that absorbs and disperses light.
These Colloidal and finely dispersed turbidity-causing materials are not arranged
under quiescent It is difficult to overcome by circumstances and sedimentation.

2. Colour:
There are many surface water colours, mainly due to the decomposition of
organisms, metallic Salts, or coloured clay. This colour is considered as a “clear
colour” because it is seen inside. The presence of a suspended substance, while
the “true colour” is obtained only by dissolution Inorganic and Organic Matters.

3. pH Value:
PH Value indicates the hydrogen-ion concentration of a solution. In the form of
acids and the bases in the solution dissociate to produce hydrogen ions [H +]
And hydroxyl ions [OH-] Respectively, pH is used to indicate the intensity of
an acidic or alkaline state. Remedy.
Alkalinity is the measure of acid-neutralizing capacity in dissolving substances.
Is equal to the amount of strong acid required to dilute the solution from water
and initial pH at around 4.5. Many materials can contribute to the alkalinity of
water.

4.Taste and Odour:

If every water tap on the property has a taste or smell, it is likely the main
water supply. If it occurs only in a few taps, the problem is of the fixtures or
pipes that supply those specifics. tap.
If after a few minutes of running water, the problem goes away, then the
problem is somewhere in your home plumbing system.

5. Hardness:
Hardness is defined as a measure of resistance to localized plastic
deformation induced by mechanical indentation or friction.
In general, different materials differ in their hardness; For example, hard metals
such as titanium and beryllium are harder than soft metals such as sodium and
metal tin, or wood and common plastics.

6. Total Suspended solids (TSS):

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is defined as a dry-weight of suspended
particles that do not dissolve, in a sample of water that can be
analyzed by a filter trapped by a filter.
It is a water quality parameter that is used to assess the quality of wastewater
after treatment in any type of water or waterbody, for example, ocean water, or
a wastewater treatment plant
 Chemical and microbiological quality parameters in water
Chemical Water Quality Parameters
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
DO connotes the amount of oxygen dissolved in water. Low dissolved oxygen can incite due to
organic pollution, eutrophication, and other factors like the algal blooms. These can inturn result in
the deterioration of water quality and low DO can also cause death of fish. A minimum DO of 4
ppm is necessary for the survival of fish.

Nutrients
Nutrients include nitrogen and phosphorus that are important for the plant growth. However, excessive
nutrient levels, often due to human activities like agriculture or wastewater discharge, can lead to
eutrophication. This process can cause harmful algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and disruptions in the
balance of aquatic ecosystems.

Heavy Metals
Heavy metals include lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic. These metals can easily enter the water
bodies via industrial discharges and mining activities. These metals are toxic in nature. They can get
accumulated and can lead to serious risks to human health and aquatic life.

Organic and Inorganic Contaminants

Different Organic and inorganic contaminants may deteriorate water quality. These contaminants
include Industrial pollutants, pharmaceuticals, etc. Identification of these contaminants is crucial
for ensuring the water quality.
Biological Water Quality Parameters

Biological parameters of water quality involve the assessment of various living organisms
and their activities in water bodies. These parameters provide crucial information about
the health and ecological condition of aquatic ecosystems. Monitoring and analyzing
biological parameters help in evaluating the impacts of pollution, habitat degradation,
and other stressors on aquatic organisms. Some important biological parameters of water
quality include:

Microorganisms
Microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, are important to water ecosystems. Some bacteria
can indicate faecal contamination and the presence of pathogens, while others are beneficial in
water treatment processes. Monitoring microbial populations helps in assessing water quality and
the effectiveness of treatment methods.

Fish and Macrophytes

Fish and aquatic plants are sensitive to water quality. Monitoring fish populations and
macrophyte communities helps in assessing the impacts of pollution, habitat
degradation, and changes in nutrient levels on these organisms and their ecosystems.

Aquatic Macroinvertebrates
These include molluscs, worms, crustaceans, etc. These are used as bioindicators of water quality. These
organisms have different tolerances to pollution and habitat degradation, and their presence, absence, or
abundance can provide insights into the overall ecological condition of water bodies.