Chapter 3


Relativistic propagation equation
for bosons

1
 Outline/Plan
1. Antiparticles and relativity 1. Antiparticules et relativité

2. Canonical quantization 2. Quantification canonique

3. Klein-Gordon equation 3. Equation de Klein-Gordon

1. KG equation derivation 1. Dérivation de l’équation de KG
2. Probabilistic interpretation 2. Interprétation probabiliste
3. Diffusion amplitude 3. Amplitude de diffusion

2
 1- Antiparticles and relativity
Observation of antiparticles :

3
 1- Antiparticles and relativity
Historically:
• Predication of the positron by Dirac (1928)
• Experimental signature by Anderson (1932)
• Theoretical difficulties : “negative energies”  holes theory
• Matter-antimatter asymmetry

Studying charge-exchange diagram with some basics of 4-vectors:

µ  
p = ( p = E= γ M , p= γ Mv )
0

p
n
=
E2 γ =1 and β v
1− β 2
t c
E1 π+ n
µ 2
p = p pµ = E − p = E 2 (1 − v 2 ) = M 2
2 2
p

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 1- Antiparticles and relativity
The charge exchange process is forbidden classically
µ
p’µ p= p'µ + q µ
qµ q 2 =( p µ − p 'µ ) 2 =2 M 2 − 2 p µ p 'µ
E1
  
1 − v .v
= 2M 1 −
2

pµ  − 2
− 2 
 (1 v )(1 v ' )
≤ 0 but q 2 =
m2 ?
• Between E1 and E2 a virtual particle state may be exchanged for

a time less than ∆t ≤
m
• “E1 – E2” : space-like interval between the 2 events
2
( )
q = q0 − q = q02 1 − V 2 with V : pion velocity
2 2

 2
( )
⇒ (∆t) -(∆x) = (∆t) 2 1 − V 2 < 0
2
 1- Antiparticles and relativity
Off-shell virtual particle exchange :
p’µ
qµ
E1 E E=√(p2+M2) : nucleon mass shell

pµ
p
E=√(p2+m2) : pion mass shell
M p’

m
q : off-shell
p

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 1- Antiparticles and relativity
By reversing time order (E2 observed before E1) the π+ should have
been absorbed before emission (causality violation)

p
n E1 before E2
t E2
E1 π+
n

p
n p
n p
t E1 E1 after E2
E1 t
π+ E2
p π− E2
p
n
n

⇒emission of π+ antiparticle : π- 7
 2- Canonical quantization
Introduction :
• Schrödinger equation describes the evolution of a non-
relativistic wavefunction using the canonical quantization :
 
x→x
 
p → −i∇
E → i ∂∂t

applied to the energy definition :

2
p 
= E + V (x)
2m
∂ψ   − 2  
⇒ i (=
x, t )  ∆ + V ψ ( x , t )
∂t  2m 
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 2- Canonical quantization
4D covariant generalization:

• Reminder : covariant formalism

µ
( 
) ( 
x ≡ x =ct , x and xµ ≡ x =ct , − x
0 0
)
∂  ∂  µ ∂  ∂ 
∂µ ≡ = µ  , ∇  and ∂ ≡ =  , −∇ 
∂x  c∂t  ∂xµ  c∂t 

• 4-dimensional canonical quantization :

 ∂ 
p ≡ (=
p E , p ) → i=
µ  µ
0
∂  i , −i∇ 
 c∂t 

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 2- Canonical quantization
Q : how to derive a relativistic evolution equation?

A : Following the same prescription than in the Schrödinger case

but with the relativistic energy definition :

=
E 2 p 2c 2 + m 2c 4

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 3-1 K-G equation derivation
Preliminary remark : why not starting from

2 2
=E p c + m 2c 4 ?

• Time-space asymmetry
• Difficult development of the square root
• But : only positive-energy solutions…

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 3-1 K-G equation derivation

Derivation : canonical quantization applied

µ 2
p = p pµ = p0 − p = m 2c 2
2 2

⇓
∂ 2
− 2∂ µ ∂ µψ =
( x) m 2c 2ψ ( x) with ∂ µ ∂ µ=
≡ 2 2 − ∆
c ∂t
Finally :
 mc 2 2

+ 2 ψ ( x) =
0
  
Klein-Gordon equation
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 3-1 K-G equation derivation
Remarks (I) :

• The photon (boson) is solution of KG’s propagation equation

(with m=0)
• KG allows to describe all (anti-)particles within the same
formalism

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 3-1 K-G equation derivation
Remarks (II) :
• Negative energy solutions? Consider a plane wave
  ip µ xµ / 
i ( p . x −ε t )/ 
ψ ( x) Be
= = Be
 m 2c 2  2 2
  + 2 
ψ = 0 ⇒ ε 2
= p c + m 2 4
c
  
2 2
ε= ± E p with E p = p c + m 2c 4

ε
-mc2 mc2

• Interpretation of that spectrum?

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 3-2 Probabilistic interpretation
Reminder :
• In the non-relativistic case the probabilistic interpretation of
wavefunctions reads (continuity equation) :
∂ρ  
+ ∇.J = 0 where
∂t
 ρ = ψψ *

  −i *   −i *   *
  
(
 J =ℜ  m ψ ∇ψ  =2m ψ ∇ψ −ψ∇ψ )
with the integral normalization condition :
 2
∫ d x ψ ( x, t ) = N= ct
3

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 3-2 Probabilistic interpretation
In the relativistic case the same procedure can be followed :

∂ µ ∂ µψ ( x) + m 2c 2ψ ( x) =0
ψ *∂ µ ∂ µψ ( x) + m 2c 2ψ *ψ ( x) =0
⇒ µ
ψ ∂ ∂ µψ *
( x ) + m 2 2
c ψψ *
( x) =0
⇒ ψ *∂ µ ∂ µψ −ψ∂ µ ∂ µψ * =0

⇔= µ
∂ J µ 0 with
= Jµ
i
2m
(ψ * µ
∂ ψ − ψ ∂ ψ )
µ *

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 3-2 Probabilistic interpretation
Integral charge conservation condition :

∫ xρ ( x=) N= ct
3
d

where
i  * ∂ ∂ *
=ρ ( x) 2 
ψ ψ −ψ ψ 
2mc  ∂t ∂t 

and ρ ≤ or ≥ 0

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 3-2 Probabilistic interpretation
Interpretation? The number of particles is not conserved (possible
annihilations) but some charges may be conserved : multiplying ρ
by the electric charge in the case of a plane wave for instance:
  Ep
ψ ± ( x) = ⇒ ρ± =
i ( p . x  E pt )/ 
±e
2
B± e 2
B±
mc
ρ± represents the charge density which may be of both signs!

A negative energy particle represents an anti-particle moving in

reverse time order!

π+ (E<0) π- ((-E)>0)

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 3-3 Diffusion amplitude
Reminder : transition amplitude (covariant expression) from initial
(i) to final (f) state on the action of a perturbation potential V.
T fi = −i ∫ d 4 x ψ *f ( x)V ( x)ψ i ( x)

For a charged particle moving in an (e.g. electromagnetic) potential

µ µ µ µ µ µ
Aµ : p → p + eA ie i∂ → i∂ + eA

The KG equation reads therefore :

( µ )
∂ µ
∂ + m 2
ψ ( x ) =−Vψ ( x ) where V =−ie (µ
∂ A µ
+ A µ
∂ µ) + o ( e 2
)

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 3-3 Diffusion amplitude
Amplitude computation :
T fi = −i ∫ d 4 x ψ *f ( x)V ( x)ψ i ( x)

T fi = 4 *
f (
−i ∫ d x ψ ( x) −ie ( ∂ µ A + A ∂ µ ) ψ i ( x)
µ µ
) Jµfi

= −i ∫ d 4 x ( −ie ) ψ *f Aµ ∂ µψ i − ∂ µψ *f Aµψ i  ψi ψf

= −i ∫ d 4 x Aµ ( −ie ) ψ *f ∂ µψ i − ∂ µψ *fψ i  Aµ
= −i ∫ d 4 x Aµ J µfi

(∂ ∂ ) A
µ
ν µ
With Aµ linked to its source through ν ( x) =J ( 2 )
(see later)

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 3-3 Diffusion amplitude
Starting with Feynman diagrams :
 −1  µ
−i ∫ d x Aµ J (1) =
T fi = 4 µ
− i ∫ d x J µ (2)  2  J (1)
4

q 
Jµ(1)

pa pb

Aµ

p1 p2

Jµ(2)

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