Lesson 4.

Circuit Diagram and Layout of an AM/FM Receiver Electronics 10 | Quarter 3

Radio wave acts as a carrier of information-bearing signals, and the information may be encoded directly
on the wave by periodically interrupting its transmission or impressed on it by the process of modulation.
When the radio waves reach the receiving antenna, it induces electromotive force (emf) in it, which is
very small in magnitude and feeds to the radio receiver. In the figure below, the radio waves that the
antenna receives are amplified by the radio frequency (RF) amplifier, then the process of demodulation
extracts signals from them. The signal amplifies by audio amplifiers and then fed to the speaker for
reproduction into sound waves.

Figure 1. Radio waves reception and conversion

RADIO RECEIVER. AM Radio Parts and Functions

Antenna. The antenna’s function in the radio tuner is to intercept and collect the radio signals coming
from the radio broadcasting or transmitting radio station. The antenna collects all the radio signals from
the transmitting radio station. The receiving antenna in transistor radio receivers is made of a coil of small
wires. These wires wound around the ferrite core. There are two wire windings around the ferrite core.
One winding is called the primary winding, while the other is called the secondary winding. In figure 2,
you will see the AM radio tuner Schematic Diagram.

Figure 2. Radio waves circuit diagram

Tuning Capacitor or Tuning Condenser. The tuning capacitor’s work is to select which of the collected
radio signals at the antenna should enter the radio tuner. Only one radio signal should enter the radio tuner,
and that radio signal is the one selected or tuned-in by the tuning capacitor. The tuning capacitor is
composed of metal plates that are separated by the insulators. Tuning capacitors are also called variable
capacitors. The capacitance or capacity of the tuning capacitor is varied or changed every time we turn its
knob to select which radio signal from the radio station should enter the radio tuner; the plates of the
adjustable tuning capacitor are called the rotor plates. The plates that are not adjustable is called the stator
plates.

Local Oscillator. The work of the local oscillator is to produce the oscillator signal which is called a local
oscillator signal. The local oscillator is in the radio receiver and is local to the radio receiver. There is also
an oscillator in the radio transmitting station, and this is called radiofrequency (RF) or radio carrier
frequency oscillator. The local oscillator is made of two small wires. These small wires are wound around
the adjustable ferrite core. One wire winding is called the primary winding, and the other is called the
secondary winding. The local oscillator is usually enclosed in a metal shield to prevent the local oscillator
signal from radiating to other circuits in the radio tuner. To identify it, the top portion of the local oscillator
is usually painted red color.

Mixer-Converter Transistor. As the name implies, its function is to mix the signals coming from the
antenna. It is tuned in by the tuning capacitor, and the signals come from the local oscillator. After mixing,
these two signals are converted to new signals known as the intermediate frequency (IF signal). The
standard frequency of the IF signals for amplitude modulation (AM) radio tuner is 455 kHz, (Kilohertz),
or 455,000 Hertz, (Hz). These are the same for all AM radio tuners. The process of mixing two different
signals to produce a new signal or signals is called the heterodyne process or heterodyning process. This
process is used in all radio receivers, and that is why all radio receivers are often called superheterodyne
radio receivers. Intermediate Frequency (IF) Section. The IF section of the radio tuner is like an electronic
gate. When the 455 kHz IF signal arrives, it automatically opens to permit this 4bb kHz IF signal to pass
through and enter the radio tuner. However, when other signals whose frequency is not 455 KHz attempt
to enter, the IF section automatically blocks this signal. The IF section prevents interfering signals to enter
the radio tuner when it is tuned to one radio station with this action. Typically, there are three intermediate
frequency transformers (IFTs) used in the IF section. Between the second IFT and third IFT is the second
IF amplifier transistor. However, although three IFTs were used and two IF amplifier transistors in the IF
section, their functions are the same; they prevent interference. The basic construction of the IF
transformers is the same. They are made of two small wires wound around the adjustable ferrite core and
enclosed in a metal shield. The adjustable ferrite cores are adjusted during the aligning process of the radio
tuner.
Intermediate Frequency (IF) Section. The IF section of the radio tuner is like an electronic gate. When
the 455 kHz IF signal arrives, it automatically opens to permit this 4bb kHz IF signal to pass through and
enter the radio tuner. However, when other signals whose frequency is not 455 KHz attempt to enter, the
IF section automatically blocks this signal. The IF section prevents interfering signals to enter the radio
tuner when it is tuned to one radio station with this action. Typically, there are three intermediate frequency
transformers (IFTs) used in the IF section. Between the second IFT and third IFT is the second IF amplifier
transistor. However, although three IFTs were used and two IF amplifier transistors in the IF section, their
functions are the same; they prevent interference. The basic construction of the IF transformers is the same.
They are made of two small wires wound around the adjustable ferrite core and enclosed in a metal shield.
The adjustable ferrite cores are adjusted during the aligning process of the radio tuner.
Detector. The detector is also called the demodulator. Its work is to detect and recover the audio information
from the radio signal received by the radio tuner. The radio signal that comes from the radio station contains
the audio information or audio signal. This audio information is the equivalent of the radio announcer’s
voice or the voices that comes from the record being played at the radio station. When the receiving antenna
receives the radio signal, it contains this audio information, and it is the detector that detects and recovers
this audio information. The separated and recovered audio information or signal is then fed to the audio
amplifier where it is amplified or strengthened sufficiently; the detector is usually made of a small crystal
diode. Below is the pictorial diagram of the receiver and its components.
 Figure 3. Pictorial diagram of a radio receiver circuit and components

How the Radio Signal Flows in the Radio Tuner

We have seen the pre-emphasis network (High pass filter), which is present before the FM modulator. It
is used to improve the SNR of high-frequency audio signals. Thus, in this FM receiver, the de-emphasis
network (Low pass filter) is included after the FM demodulator. This signal is passed to the audio
amplifier to increase the power level. Finally, we get the original sound signal from the loudspeaker.
Below is the block diagram of the FM signal receiver to overcome these drawbacks.

Figure 4. Block diagram of a FM signal receiver

Lesson 5. Steps in Tracking and Aligning AM/FM Receivers Electronics 10 | Quarter 3

Using AM or FM radio is not just about turning on the switch and tune in to your favorite frequency, but
one must know how to align the radio and the intermediate frequency circuits. Alignment is the process
of adjusting the intermediate frequency (IF) and radio frequency (RF) circuits for best reception
(sensitivity, selectivity, and absence of whistles) and accurate indication of the frequency/wavelength on
the tuning scale.

Alignment for an amplitude-modulated radio receiver consists of two types of adjustments of the different
tuned circuits present in the receiver. The first is to align the intermediate frequency (IF) transformers to
the receiver’s correct intermediate frequency (IF). It is termed intermediate frequency (IF) alignment.
The second is to align the input tuned circuits to match the scale/dial markings such that the wanted
station or frequency is producing the correct value of intermediate frequency (IF) when tuned on the dial
to the frequency marked on the dial. It is termed the radio frequency (RF) alignment. Radio frequency
(RF) alignment is also known as tracking. Preliminary arrangements should be made, and special
precautions are taken either for intermediate frequency (IF) alignment or the radio frequency (RF)
alignment.

Intermediate Frequency (IF) Alignment

Figure 5. Set up for IF alignment of AM radio receiver

The setup for the intermediate frequency (IF) alignment of a AM radio receiver is shown in the figure
above. A signal generator is used to test equipment that produces an electrical signal in the form of a
wave. This is used as a stimulus for the item being tested. A power output meter is used in addition to the
standard signal generator to measure the power output of the radio receiver.
Preliminary Steps for Intermediate Frequency (IF) Alignment

The following are arrangements to be made before alignment:

1. Automatic volume control (AVC)/automatic gain control (AGC) is to be made inoperative.

2. Volume and tone controls should be kept in maximum resistance position.
3. The loudspeaker is to be replaced by an alternative frequency (AF) power output meter with an
acceptable impedance range equal to that of the loudspeaker’s impedance.
4. Radio receiver should be tuned to the medium wave (MW) band.
5. Radio receiver should be tuned to the lowest frequency in the medium wave (MW) band.
6. A capacitor with a 0.1 μF capacitance is connected in series with the radio frequency (RF) lead when
the signal is injected.
7. The cores of intermediate frequency (IF) transformers are to be tuned using only nonmagnetic
screwdrivers or unique core tuning alignment tools.

Step-by-Step Intermediate Frequency (IF) Alignment Procedures

1. The signal generator is to be tuned to the Intermediate frequency (IF) of the radio receiver.
2. It should be kept in the internal modulation position. The modulation depth should be adjusted to 30%
or above.
3. Attenuator is to be adjusted to a minimum value.
4. The intermediate frequency (IF) signal is to be applied to the collector of the second intermediate
frequency (IF) amplifier through the 0.1 μF capacitance capacitor. The attenuator should be adjusted to
get a convenient reading in the power output meter. Then, the core of the second intermediate frequency
(IF) transformer should be adjusted to get a maximum reading in the power output meter.
5. The intermediate frequency (IF) signal should be shifted to the base of the second intermediate
frequency (IF) amplifier. An improvement in the output should be indicated by the power output meter
due to the gain of the power.
6. Same procedure is to be repeated at the collector and base of the first intermediate frequency (IF)
amplifier. The cores of the corresponding intermediate frequency (IF) transformers are to be adjusted for
maximum output in the power output meter.
7. Signal should be shifted now to the base of the frequency converter transistor. In this case, the
attenuator is to be kept in the minimum position. Now, adjustment of the core of the intermediate
frequency (IF) transformer in the collector of the frequency converter should be adjusted to get maximum
response.
8. Finally, the radio frequency (RF) probe must be kept short from the ferrite antenna. The power output
meter is to be disconnected, and the loudspeaker is to be connected. A reasonable 400 Hz note will be
heard from the speaker showing the receiver’s sensitivity for intermediate frequency (IF).
9. The intermediate frequency (IF) stages’ alignment should be repeated two to three times to finally
arrive at the correct setting.
10. Once arrived at the final setting, the cores are to be sealed to prevent tampering with the user’s cores.
FM Radio Receivers Alignment

Figure 6. Block diagram of FM Radio Receiver

Alignment of an FM receiver will differ somewhat from the procedures used for AM receivers. It
may surprise you to learn, however, that this alignment can be done with standard servicing
equipment having suitable ranges.
1. The discriminator will be lined up, a high-resistance DC voltmeter, preferably a vacuum tube
voltmeter, is connected across one diode load resistor.
2. To introduce a signal, connect the service signal generator to the grid-chassis of the limiter tube. The
signal generator should be set exactly to the IF value for FM, and its output should be as high as possible,
about 1 volt.
3. Adjust the primary of the discriminator transformer for maximum output. Now connect the DC
voltmeter across both diode loads and adjust the secondary of the discriminator transformer for zero
output voltage.
4. To align the resonant circuit ahead of the limiter stage, connect the signal generator (still set at the IF
value for FM) to the grid-chassis of the stage ahead of the limiter. A 0 to 100 micro-ampere meter can be
connected in the grid return of the limiter, or a high-resistance voltmeter, a vacuum tube voltmeter
(VTVM) can be connected across the grid return resistor which produces the automatic control volume
(AVM) voltage. Adjust the resonant circuit ahead of the limiter for maximum deflection.
5. When a peak reading is obtained, the output reading should be high enough to indicate that the limiter
is being saturated. To do this, the signal generator output should be set to a high output value. This can be
checked by noting the output across one diode load in the discriminator; increased input to the limiter
should show a little rise in output voltage. This condition is essential, for it is necessary to have the same
loading of the limiter on the resonant circuit as would exist in normal operation. This loading affects the
response of the resonant circuit. If you align this circuit with little load, a different peak setting will
result.
6. Advancing the signal generator one stage at a time aligns each resonant circuit for maximum limiter
grid current or self-rectified DC voltage. The IF channel for FM will be aligned when the signal generator
is connected to the input of the mixer-first detector.
7. Next is the alignment of the preselector and oscillator. For this adjustment, the signal generator is
connected to the two antenna posts. The oscillator is always aligned first, and the preselector is adjusted
for maximum grid current or voltage in the limiter. The alignment will, of course, depend upon the type
of tracking employed. One method worth mentioning involves the iron-core coil in the oscillator. The
signal generator and the receiver dial are set at a low frequency (about 42 to 43 mc.), and the oscillator
core aligner is adjusted for maximum output. Then the signal generator and receiver are set to a high
frequency (about 49 to 50 Hz). Likewise, the trimmer shunting the oscillator variable condenser is
adjusted for maximum output. An FM receiver should be tuned for the least noise, not for maximum
sound level. An electric eye working on peak limiter grid current offers an excellent tuning indicator.
Lesson 6. Testing the Functionality of an AM/FM Receiver Electronics 10 | Quarter 3

FM is essentially an analog transfer function between audio and RF. To test it adequately, it requires both
RF and audio tests. Module testing is easier than endues device testing because the control, stimulus, and
response are more direct. In an end-user device, the tester must work through an intermediary (the device’s
CPU or control processor), and analog output must be accurately digitized for analysis by the PC. Those,
however, are implementation details. The fundamental tests, in each case, are mostly the same.

RF TESTING ON FM RECEIVERS

Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI). RSSI is the relative measure of incoming RF signal strength.
Testing RSSI involves injecting an RF signal of known power and seeing whether the RSSI returns an
expected indication-level result within design tolerances.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). To find out the sensitivity of an FM receiver, use a 30 or 50% audio deviation
and measure the ratio of signal + noise /noise. As one lowers the signal strength, look for the point where
the ratio drops below some value (e.g., 26 dB for stereo). The lower the signal strength that still provides a
minimum ratio the higher the receiver’s sensitivity.

Radio Data System (RDS) sensitivity/Block Error Rate. To find the accuracy rate of demodulation, one
sends 26-bit data blocks to the receiver and compares the decoded result. As the signal level is lowered,
one-note blocks with non-correctable errors. When the number exceeds 5% of those sent, that power level
establishes the RDS sensitivity limit (e.g., the signal level at which errors exceed 5%).

Receiver (RX) selectivity. An adequately sensitive receiver is only a partial solution. The FM broadcast
band contains a group of stations spread across the band in any locality. The FM receiver must be capable
of selecting among those stations to approach ideal singlesignal reception. Testing for selectivity would
involve injecting discrete FM signals of different carrier frequencies and different signal levels to simulate
weak-signal selection with a strong adjacent-channel signal. By setting the in-channel signal level to the
lowest level just before the SNR begins to degrade, and by raising the out-ofchannel signal level to a point
where the SNR begins to degrade, one can find the minimum out-of-channel signal level that causes SNR
to fall away.
AM suppression. In AM suppression testing, one wants to measure the FM receiver’s rejection of
amplitude modulation of the signal. An FM signal can become amplitude modulated during fading, by
transmitter distortion, and by other conditions. To test the suppression, one supplies the device with an FM
signal having known AM modulation (say 30%), so the device receives a signal having both FM and AM
characteristics. By measuring the device’s audio output voltage and repeating the test without AM, one can
measure the output level ratio, which is a measure of suppression.
AUDIO TESTS IN THE DESIGN PHASE. It now completes the description of the minimum essential
RF tests. Now, let us examine the audio tests. Keep in mind that an FM receiver delivers sound. The purity
of that sound is directly related to the degree to which unintended audiofrequency signal components are
reduced. The ratio of the harmonic energy compared to the fundamental provides a measure of harmonic
distortion. There are essentially two measures: total harmonic distortion (THD) and total harmonic
distortion plus noise (THD+N, also called “SINAD”). The second is considered a better representation of
real-world conditions because it includes noise in the result, and one’s ears do hear the noise in addition to
signal content.

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). In total harmonic distortion, one uses a high-purity tone (typically 1
kHz) and adjusts the system for 100% deviation (e.g., a full audio-signal modulation). The output is
examined for the presence of the applied and other frequencies. THD is defined as the RMS voltage of the
harmonics compared to that of the fundamental tone. There is no specification for the maximum allowed
THD. Different circuit designs will yield different THD values. This measure provides a way to compare
the actual value to the design target value.

THD+N/SINAD(Signal+Noise+Distortion). THD+N is considered a measure of design performance

because it measures everything on the output signal rather than individual harmonics. THD+N is the sum
of RMS (Root Mean Square) signal components (excluding the fundamental) over a specific bandwidth.
Noise shaping using “weighting filters” is often used to correlate with what is actually “heard.”
Audio signal power and balance. In an ideal case, modulating equal amplitude signals applied to the left
and right channels should result in an FM receiver producing left- and right-channel audio signals with
equal power and of a power level consistent with design targets. The signal level should also be high enough
so that the system’s noise does not affect what is heard.
Audio bandwidth. Typically, the high-quality audio bandwidth is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Realistically, an FM
receiver’s audio bandwidth will be somewhat narrower (say, 30 Hz to 15 kHz). By varying the modulation
signal’s frequency from, say, 30 Hz to 15 kHz and keeping the power level constant, one can find the lower
and upper-frequency limits where the output rolls off by 3 dB.

Channel crosstalk. Crosstalk in a stereophonic system relates to the presence of one channel’s signal to
the other channel. As described earlier, FM stereo is not produced by transmitting separate right-and-left
channel signals, but by a sum and difference of L+R and L-R signals. That process can result in some
excess L signal on the R channel, and vice-versa. One can measure crosstalk by placing a single-tone signal
on one channel while keeping the other channel’s modulation input at zero.

Pilot suppression. The 19-kHz pilot signal tells an FM receiver that a stereo-modulated signal is being
received. It also provides the signal source for the 38-kHz and 57-kHz signals. This 19-kHz tone is in the
audible range of the human ear but above the transmitted audio bandwidth ((57 kHz – 38 kHz)/ 2), so the
FM receiver will filter the 19-kHz tone. The remaining finite signal must be verified to be below some
threshold because it would otherwise distract from the audio being transmitted.

TRANSMITTER DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE DESIGN PHASE

The FM subsystems in today’s advanced wireless devices are more than FM receivers. FM transmitters
(FM TX) are used to send stored music content to another FM receiver. The key to ensuring the FM TX
function will provide a signal that is stable and minimally distorted. The FM TX function may be required
to do more than transfer audio between devices. It may also be used to transfer GPS information to the car
radio and transfer a simple Radio data system (RDS) data message.
As with the FM receiver, the FM TX requires two kinds of tests: RF and audio quality.
RF TESTS
The following RF tests are used to verify TX power, the bandwidth its signal occupies, the quality of the
audio modulation, its frequency accuracy and stability, and its RDS digital functionality.

Transmit power. One has to make sure that the power design targets have been met. The power range must
be verified, and the most critical parameter is maximum power because the licensing authorities do specify
such, and it is different in different countries. To test this, one must verify that the device produces a signal
of power level consistent with the maximum regulatory threshold (typically 0 to +5dBm). In testing the
device, it should be instructed to transmit at its maximum power level, and that signal must be accurately
measured and compared to the specified maximum. In some cases, during this test, the device may be
calibrated.

Occupied bandwidth. The signal is captured and analyzed in the frequency domain to affirm that it is
confined to the channel spectrum. The test should look well beyond the 100-kHz channel bandwidth to
ensure that 99% of the transmitted signal power is confined inside the intended channel.

Modulation accuracy. Successful modulation-accuracy testing hinges on a very accurate and stable signal
source. The transmitted signal can contain audio, pilot, and RDS data. The deviation contributions from all
of them will affect the total frequency deviation. One must apply a known audio signal, a preset deviation
for the 19-kHz pilot tone, a preset deviation for the RDS modulated data, and measure/verify each
contributor’s deviation.

Frequency accuracy. The FM TX will emulate an FM broadcast, albeit at much lower power. The FM TX,
however, will not be held to the tight frequency tolerances of an FM broadcast station, instead, the
frequency should be tested to verify that it is within the pull-in range of a typical FM receiver.
RDS check. Here, unlike in FM RX, we need to check block error rate and ensure that the data signal
produces the correct modulation deviation and that SNR is high enough to allow reliable demodulation.
AUDIO TESTS

Unlike in RX testing, where the device’s audio output was used to verify various audio-related tests, TX
testing relies on the test instrument to provide those measurements based on its transmitted signal.
Essentially, then, one must use an audio source signal with known characteristics and measure how well
the FM TX device modulates that source. The actual tests are like those done in RX. We have THD,
THD+N, signal power and balance, bandwidth, and crosstalk. In RX testing, we assume the transmitted
signal is near perfect, and all distortions occur in the audio chain. However, in TX testing, we assume that
the modulating source is near perfect, and all imperfections occur in the modulation and RF chains. Just
like an FM broadcast system, the FM TX device will apply pre-emphasis. The test system must have that
pre-emphasis setting to match it with the test instrument’s de-emphasis to get accurate results.

TESTING AT THE FM BLOCK LEVEL VERSUS END-USE DEVICES

Modules are a crucial part of most multi-radio wireless devices. An FM block would typically have an FM
signal input and produce either analog right- and leftchannel audio outputs or integrated interchip sound
(I2S) outputs. An interface subsystem would use the module’s outputs and create digitized equivalents
(such as.wav files). These would provide the input data for the FM RX tests.
In an end-user device, FM is just a small sub-block. It is typically interfaced to the control processor (CPU)
that controls the FM sub-block. The control processor interface is usually through analog signals plus a
control interface for changing FM frequency. The interface subsystem is integral to the end-use device and
would require device-specific software to create the analysis-required digital output.

In analog signals, the CPU would use its analog-to-digital converter to digitize the analog audio signals.
Other than that, though, the testing would be identical. You would use the same FM input signals and
analyze the digitized output data for the desired test metrics. Most modern devices feature a USB port,
which enables data to transfer back to the measurement system. Alternatively, if the libraries are available
to it, the CPU can perform the analysis itself.