Lett Mat Int (2015) 2:209–222

DOI 10.1007/s40329-014-0068-7

Galileo in Padua: architecture, fortifications, mathematics

and ‘‘practical’’ science
Raffaele Pisano • Paolo Bussotti

Published online: 5 March 2015

 Centro P.RI.ST.EM, Università Commerciale Luigi Bocconi 2015

Abstract During his stay in Padua ca. 1592–1610, Galileo university, and was a private lecturer in military archi-
Galilei (1564–1642) was a lecturer of mathematics at the tecture and fortifications. These activities were carried out
University of Padua and a tutor to private students of military essentially at the Accademia degli Artisti. These were the
architecture and fortifications. He carried out these activities years in which he began to study the motion and equi-
at the Academia degli Artisti. At the same time, and in re- librium of bodies (for example, the resistance of materi-
lation to his teaching activities, he began to study the equi- als), studies that would be presented in a complete and
librium of bodies and strength of materials, later better integrated way in his Discorsi e dimostrazioni intorno a
structured and completed in his Dialogues Concerning Two due nuove scienze (1638); they were the years in which
New Sciences of 1638. This paper examines important details he consolidated his Copernican beliefs–although he pub-
of four works dating to the Paduan period: Breve instruzione lishing nothing regarding this–and in which he would
dell’architettura militare; Trattato di Fortificazione; Le devote three lectures to the ‘‘new star’’ that appeared in
Mecaniche; Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et mil- the sky in October 1604, assumed by Galileo to be proof
itare. The two works on military architecture and fortifica- of the mutability of the heavens, in contrast to the con-
tions were compiled from notes taken by students, and are victions of the Aristotelian school. Countering Galileo, in
not by Galileo’s hand, but are still illustrative of his work and 1605 Baldassarre Capra (1580–1626) published his Con-
thinking at the time. sideratione astronomica sopra la nova et portentosa stella
che nell’anno 1604 a dı̀ 10 ottobre apparve. Con un
Keywords Galileo
Architecture
Fortifications
giudicio dei suoi significati, a work in which, in addition
Mechanics
Science in context
History of science
to giving his interpretations, Capra accused Galileo of
Military compass having reported the star’s position superficially and erro-
neously, of misunderstanding fundamental concepts such
as parallax, and of not knowing how to apply
1 Background mathematics to astronomy. Galileo replied with the cut-
ting Dialogo di Cecco de Ronchitti in perpuosito della
During his period in Padua, roughly from 1592 to 1610, stella nuova (published that same year, 1605, in the
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) read mathematics at the Venetan-Paduan dialect), a work marked by the ironic-
polemic vein that characterised a large part of his later
works, and whose aim is to show that Capra’s criticisms
R. Pisano (&)
were unfounded. In July 1609, thanks to his friend Paolo
Department of Physics, University of Lille 1, Bât P5 bis Bureau
168, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq Cedex, France Sarpi (1552–1623), Galileo learned of the existence of the
e-mail: [email protected] telescope, perfected it, and presented it to the Doge,
Leonardo Donato, and the Senate. The other dignitaries
P. Bussotti
were amazed and admiring of the invention; they doubled
Federigo Enriques Institute, Via della Bassata 21,
57126 Livorno, Italy Galileo’s stipend, and ordered him to prepare twelve in-
e-mail: [email protected] struments, which were deemed very useful for military

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purposes. Galileo pointed the instrument to the heavens, become highly expert and clever in explanation
arriving to the admirable discoveries set out in his Side- [logical argumentation].1
reus Nuncius (1610). This brief treatise, brought out by
This quotation, in addition to constituting a fascinating
the publishing house Baglioni with an initial print run of
incipit by a true master of the art of writing, reflects
550 copies, became the first scientific bestseller. The
Galileo’s deepest scientific convictions and is a sincere
copies were sold out in just a few days, and thanks to
homage to the period he spent in Padua and Venice, and
Sidereus Nuncius, Galileo would shortly become perhaps
above all to everything that he had learned in the Arsenal.
the most famous scientist in Europe.
It is almost as though what he called Mecanica, which, up
In Padua, after the inaugural lecture at the university on 7
to Galileo, was essentially the art of understanding the
December 1592, he officially began his teaching a week
function and construction of machines, was explored also
later: in this period and in correlation with his teaching, he
on the basis of what was then the foundations of natural
analysed Euclid’s Elements and Theorica planetarum,
philosophy: physics. One example is the principle of the
Sacrobosco’s De Sphaera, the Aristotelian School’s Ques-
lever (and the related study of the centre of gravity) applied
tiones Mechanicae, commenting as well on their De Coelo,
to one or more weights (force-weight), a principle of the
and Ptolemy’s Almagest, thus providing his students with a
earlier ‘‘science of weights’’ [26], underlying the
complete picture, albeit one that was in line with the classics.
mechanisms of machines and therefore later of mechanics,
He did not enter into questions such as the validity of the
hence the connection between practice and theory in ar-
different world systems or the criticisms of Aristotelian
chitecture-engineering and mechanics. It is no coincidence
physics.
that Galileo’s long-time collaborator was neither another
In his years in Padua Galileo also undertook his first
scientist nor a mathematician, but rather a very skilful
studies of the theory of motion and the equilibrium of
craftsman, Marcantonio Mazzoleni (d. 1632). Mazzoleni
bodies (in particular, on the resistance of materials). These
lived with his wife and children in Galileo’s house from
studies would later be expounded in complete form in his
1599 to 1603, and constructed a series of instruments for
Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove
him.
scienze published in 1638.
Galileo’s private lessons on fortifications, including
Galileo also devoted himself to privately tutoring
military architecture as well as the works on machines and
students who were technically oriented, mostly sons of
the proportional compass, also represented a source of
wealthy families of Venice and often foreigners, many of
supplementary income.
whom came from across the Alps. They were interested
In this article we will provide a general description and
in questions of engineering and architecture, in military
examination of some of the important details of the four
techniques, in the use of instruments for measuring and
works dating to the period in Padua, of which the first two,
machines that were useful in civil or military fields.
untitled, have come down to us in the Opere Nazionali
Galileo thus dedicated his private lessons to these topics
(Galilei Opere) only in the form of didactic lecture notes
rather than to questions of a theoretical nature. Besides,
(and thus not autograph). It was only for editorial reasons
as is known, the interests of the scientist from Pisa were
that Antonio Favoro collected them (Galilei Opere II, p. 9),
far from limited to theoretical problems. For him the
entitling them as though they were written by Galilei
Venice arsenal was a source of fundamental inspiration:
himself and inserting them among his publications. Here
the work of the artisans; the study of the ways in which
we will discuss:
ships were built; machines of all kinds, such as those for
Breve instruzione dell’architettura militare (Brief in-
raising or transporting heavy weights, and the search for
structions on military architecture);
instruments that might facilitate, improve and make hu-
Trattato di Fortificazione (Treatise on Fortifications);
man labour more precise. The famous beginning of the
Le Mecaniche (Mechanics);
Discorsi e dimostrazioni intorno a due nuove scienze
Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare
confirms this:
(Operations of the geometric and military compass).
The constant activity which you Venetians display in
your famous arsenal suggests to the studious mind a 1
Largo campo di filosofare a gl’intelletti specolativi parmi che
large field for investigation, especially that part of the porga la frequente pratica del famoso arsenale di voi, Signori
work which involves mechanics; for in this depart- Veneziani, ed in particolare di quella parte che mecanica si
domanda; atteso che quivi ogni sorte di strumento e di machina vien
ment all types of instruments and machines are con- continuamente posta in opera da numero grande d’artefici, tra i quali,
stantly being constructed by many artisans, among e per l’osservazioni fatte dai loro antecessori, e per quelle che di
whom there must be some who, partly by inherited propria avvertenza vanno continuamente per se stessi facendo, è forza
experience and partly by their own observations, have che ve ne siano de i peritissimi e di finissimo discorso (Galilei, Opere,
VIII, p. 49; Eng. trans. [5], p. 1).

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These works are quite different, first of all because of content; perhaps they were only original in the pedagogi-
the way they have come down to us, but also because of cal, didactical way in which he presented them, seeing as
style and objects. Nevertheless, we believe that they are how his background as a teacher was not that of an ar-
united by a common leading thread, which is the role of chitect or engineer, or as a ‘‘man of war’’, as Bertrand Gille
science, as it was then known, as the application in other wrote with regard to the engineers of the Renaissance [10].
disciplines that are of great interest with regard to the re- The study of fortifications was rapidly evolving at the time,
lationship between science and society as well. and Galileo attempted to offer his students a problematic
frame of reference regarding the art of artillery, in terms of
attack and defense: walls, bulwarks, orillions, firing, re-
2 Introduction to the four works structuring of medieval fortifications, casemates, treason,
mines, graphic scales.
In this section we will provide general details about the On the level of contents, the Breve instruzione opens
four works, relative to how they have come down to us, with a didactic summary of Euclidean geometry, funda-
their publication, and their contents. mental for the art of fortifications [22–24]. For example,
Galileo explains how to divide a line segment or angle into
2.1 Breve instruzione dell’architettura militare two equal parts, how to draw lines parallel and perpen-
dicular to a given line, how to construct regular polygons,
Breve instruzione dell’architettura militare (Brief instruc- rigorously where possible, and approximately where not.
tions in military architecture) (Galilei Opere, II, pp. 17–75) This is followed by a section introducing the student to the
dates in all likelihood to the first year of Galileo’s teaching terminology used to describe fortifications and the different
in Padua, that is, from 1592 to 1594. It is not autograph [14, types of artillery. The remarks that constitute what must
23], but is instead a set of notes, rather well ordered, taken ideally be considered the third part of the treatise are the
by students during Galileo’s lessons on military architec- most extensive (Galilei Opere, II, pp. 32–42), and are as
ture and fortifications, as emerges from the copies of the interesting as the section concerning defense because
manuscripts conserved at the Biblioteca Ambrosiana Galileo explains the best way to construct a defensive
(Galileo fl. 16th) in Milan and in the possession of Raffaele perimeter around a city. The method of learning is thus
Pisano: the different manuscripts (there are several manu- what we would call today ‘‘problem-based learning’’, such
scripts, probably because they come from different stu- as how to construct the curtain, the bulwark, the lower
dents) are very similar in structure, and thus it appears that piazza, the shoulder, the orillion and the buttresses, as well
their compilation was pre-established, perhaps by Galileo as the best placement of defensive artillery. Galileo then
himself, but we have no historic proof of this. Treatises on goes on to analyse the ditch and other structures, such as
fortification constitute a genre of text whose form, in the the cavaliero. The fourth part (pp. 42–57) is dedicated to
second half of the 16th century, had already been con- techniques of assault: Galileo teaches the best way to
solidated by tradition. To cite only one example of treatises construct trenches in order to advance, unseen, closer to the
written or published beginning in the 1560s, we mention fortress to be attacked, and the technique of constructing
the monumental Della fortificazione delle città by Giacomo the so-called forni to place the mines. This is followed by a
Castriotto (1510–1563) and Gerolamo Maggi d’Anghiari section devoted to the artillery of the attackers, in par-
(1523–1572), edited and published by the former in 1564. ticular, the best way to place the cannons to attack the
In 1570 in Venice Galasso Alghisi da Carpi (1523–1573) fortress, but also how to position the pieces of artillery in
published his ponderous Delle Fortificazioni, in three order to render the battery of the defenders as inoffensive
books. In 1573 appeared the English translation by Thomas as possible. The written part (pp. 57–67) concludes with a
Blundeville of an earlier treatise on fortification, Trattato fifth section, entitled Del fortificar la terra, in which
sulle fortificazioni, a manuscript compiled by Jacopo Galileo provides precise information regarding the best
Aconcio (1520?–1567). In 1596, again in Venice, Bonaiuto materials for constructing piote, blocks, or bricks to be
Lorini (c. 1540- c. 1611) published a treatise in five books used in fortification, and about the instruments to be used
that was destined to become famous, Delle fortificationi. to obtain the blocks or bricks. He concludes these course
Earlier still, Niccolò Tartaglia (1499–1557) in his La nova notes with a series of explanatory drawings (pp. 68–74) on
scientia (1537), had addressed some of the topics that how to restructure medieval fortifications with round
would later be treated by Galileo; it is highly probably that towers. Geometry plays an important role in the determi-
Galileo was directly influenced by Tartaglia [26], even nation of the most suitable structure based on the objectives
though he is never named in Galileo’s treatises on fortifi- to be met. The text ends with the following phrase, which
cations. Therefore, the arguments and topics dealt with by Favaro used for the title of the editorial notes mentioned
Galileo were not entirely original in terms of general earlier: E questo basti per questa breve instruzione

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all’architettura militare (And this suffices for this brief 2.3 Le mecaniche
instruction on military architecture) (Galilei Opere, II,
p. 75). Le mecaniche (Galilei Opere, II, pp. 155–191; [6]) is a
We would like to reiterate that the two works on forti- treatment of the functioning of several different machines.
fications were assembled by Favaro beginning with The date of composition is uncertain, but it was probably
manuscripts that were similar, and thus not from a single compiled around 1598. In this case as well the text is
manuscript. comprised of Galileo’s lessons, most likely prepared for his
private teaching. In contrast to the other two works just
2.2 Trattato di fortificazione described, Le mecaniche were published in French in 1634
by Marin Mersenne (1558–1648).
Written in the same years as the Breve instruzione Although this text is collocated in the Iuvenilia, in our
all’architettura militare, this work too is composed of opinion it is a very important work, one that is perhaps
manuscript notes taken by students of Galileo’s, probably underestimated in Galileo’s oeuvre: on the level of epis-
checked by the scientist, but this time intended for stu- temology, here we find Galileo already writing of the re-
dents of a more advanced level. In fact, the didactic lationships between sensate esperienze e dimostrazioni
treatment (for example, the absence of captions for the necessarie, sensate experience and necessary proofs
figures, etc.) confirm that this is what we today would call (although he uses words that are slightly different, as we
an advanced course of study. The Trattato di fortificazione will see in Sections. ‘‘Breve instruzione dell’architettura
(Galilei Opere, II, pp. 79–146) is thus more in-depth and militare’’ and ‘‘Le mecaniche’’, with respect to the famous
refined that the previous text, compiled (as indicated by terms we have just quoted, which were used in the letter to
the students) for educational purposes [14]; (Pisano and Christina of Lorraine in 1615 (Galilei Opere, V, [pp.
Capecchi 2012). Further, Galileo adds a greater number of 309–348] p. 316)). With regard to the content, the scientist
theoretical explanations; for example, he specifies qual sia clearly distinguishes the operations that are possible with
l’offizio dell’architetto (what the architect’s function is) the machines from those that are not, arriving at the for-
and, when he goes on to speak of the different defensive mulation of a series of principles of functioning for the
elements of a fortress, his text provides more detailed machines that excludes a perpetual motion, even though
explanations and artistic drawings. The reasons for the they are not expressed explicitly in this form. Galileo un-
imperfections in the extremely important part of the for- derlines how the builders of machines are often engaged in
tification, the bulwarks, is explained with due attention to the attempt to construct machines that are supposed to
detail (pp. 94–98), retracing them back to considerations carry out operations that are impossible. This is due to the
of a geometric nature. The discussions of how to place fact that the builders are, generally speaking, ignorant of
defensive elements are developed in a way that is rigorous the basic principles of physics. Further, here Galileo arrives
and convincing (pp. 103–107) and greater attention is at the formulation of propositions that are very close to the
given to the best way to thwart an attempt to scale the principle of inertia. There are thus multiple starting points
walls and how to counter an attack by a zappa (pp. for reflections offered in Le mecaniche, and in addition to
108–109) with respect to their treatment in the Breve in- the general ones of which we have spoken, there are also
struzione. Techniques of assault are also explained more the clear explanations provided by Galileo of the way in
completely. The two paragraphs dedicated to trenches and which the machines he deals with work. These are: (1) the
to ways of crossing the ditch (pp. 105–115) are admirable steelyard and the lever; (2) the axle of a wheel and the
for their clarity and precision. The section entitled Delle hoist; (3) taglie (which comprise pulleys and systems of
misure particolari di tutti i membri della fortezza (pp. pulleys); (4) the screw; (5) Archimedes’ screw. He closes
120–126) is a masterpiece on the level of didactics and with a brief section on the force of impact. Le mecaniche
explanation, because Galileo summarises the concepts set thus presents, in nuce, a series of starting points and con-
forth previously and, practically, presents a project for cepts that will form the bases of Galileo’s more mature
construction, like a true military architect. No less in- speculations.
structive and well done is the long section entitled Diversi
esempi d’accomodar i corpi di difesa secondo la diversità 2.4 Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare
de’ siti (pp. 130–142), where he examines the best way to
build defensive structures on plains, in mountains, near There is a strange story behind the military compass, as an
rivers or marshes, or at the seashore. Each situation is instrument and as a published text. Galileo ideated his
explained clearly and in detail. In both texts, the straight military compass instrument in 1597 and between 1598 and
lines drawn to describe the trajectories of projectiles are the years that followed–according to the reliable testimony
sadly scientifically inadequate ([14, 23], 2012). of Gerolamo Tiraboschi (1731–1794)–instructed several

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Fig. 1 Images of the dispute between Galileo and Capra regarding Capra, Usus et fabrica circini cuiusdam proportionis (1607);
the proportional compass (from left to right): a Galileo Galilei, Le c Galileo Galilei, Difesa contro le imposture et calunnie di
operazioni del compasso geometrico e militare (1606); b Baldassarre Baldassarre Capra (1607)

European sovereigns in its use, including Prince Giovanni to what was possible with the Galileian compass. Galileo
Federico of Alsace, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, Phi- cannot therefore claim, in this case, priority for the dis-
lipp, Landgrave of Hesse, and the Duke of Mantua. In 1606, covery, but as is often the case with him, he could claim its
Galileo, encouraged by the success of his instrument, pub- refinement, its dissemination, and the detailed explanation
lished the brief treatise entitled Le operazioni del compasso of its function. Why is the geometric and military compass
geometrico et militare. The following year Baldassarre so important? Its importance is due to the fact that it makes it
Capra, whom we have already encountered, took to print his possible to carry out, by following a series of mechanical
Usus et fabrica circini cuiusdam proportionis, per quem procedures, a plurality of mathematical operations–many of
omnia fere tum Euclidis, tum mathematicorum omnium which go beyond what can be performed with only
problemata facile negotio resolvitur, which, practically straightedge and compass–useful in military matters, even
speaking, was a translation into Latin of Galileo’s work. by those with a limited knowledge of mathematics. Practi-
Capra claimed priority for the invention of the devise and cally speaking, it is an instrument whose function can be
accused Galileo of plagiary. Galileo replied, still in 1607, codified in a series of instructions that are easy to follow.
with his Difesa contro alle calunnie et imposture di Bal- Galileo proposed thirty-two of these operations, including:
dessar Capra, in which he defended himself against Capra’s flat polygon, construct another similar to the first given a
accusations and accusing him in his turn. The affair took a side homologous to one in the first polygon (operation III);
legal turn, and the battle was won by Galileo, who was extract the square root of a number (operation XII); a simple
credited for the priority of the invention (Fig. 1). extension of the rule for the square root shows how to order
This might therefore appear to be the usual story of pla- the troops in a better way such that the array is in the form of
giary and a dispute over priority. In reality, however, while it a rectangle (operation XIII); extract the cube root (operation
is true that Galileo can claim priority for the discovery over XVIII); find two mean proportionals between two segments
Capra, it certainly cannot be claimed that he was the in- (operation XIX); find the ratio between the specific weights
ventor of the proportional compass. In effect, Thomas Hood of metals and other materials (operation XXII); divide the
(d. 1598) had published a text in 1598 on the geometric circumference of a circle as many equal parts as desired
compass, and before him, in 1572 Fabrizio Mordente (operation XXVII). Galileo further explains that a quadrant
(1532–1608) had constructed a proportional compass for can be added to the instrument in order to make other op-
Emperor Maximillian II, described ten years later in a erations possible. One such operation that is particularly
manuscript by his brother, Gaspare Mordente. There are important in the military sector consists in the possibility of
testimonies of proportional compasses even earlier than this, evaluating by sight the dimensions of objects that are far
but these permitted a number of operations that was inferior away, or in any case directly inaccessible.

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3 Examples of some of the contents of the four works Between one bulwark and the next there can be other
elements of defense, such as the piattaforma (platform),
3.1 Breve instruzione dell’architettura militare shown in the lower part of Fig. 2. An interesting and im-
portant part of the defensive system of city walls is the
Let us consider an example concerning the best way to arrangement of the artillery, which can strike with either
construct a bulwark that permits an optimal defense, in tiro di striscio (glancing fire) or tiro di ficco (direct fire).
which we will underline a remarkable epistemological Glancing fire allows firing directly along the walls, so it is
consideration on Galileo’s part. very effective when the attackers come to lean their ladders
We begin with the construction of the bulwark. Gali- against the walls; direct fire can be aimed at a precise point
leo’s explanation begins with a little nomenclature. Each on the curtain and is thus useful when the attackers attack a
line inclining on another and from which it is possible to given point on the wall with pick-axes and zappa, saps,
see another line is called fianco (flank). The line to ob- where it is generally difficult for the defenders to reach, so
serve and protect, which is longer than the flank, is called much so that Galileo writes that ‘‘direct fire is convenient
cortina (curtain). Of the elements of defense, the most and aimed at eliminating the attack by saps (zappe) and
important is the baluardo (bulwark), which is comprised pick-axe, which is extremely significant and perhaps more
of two faces and two flanks as shown in the upper part of important than all the others’’.2
Fig. 2. Galileo states that there are those who favour direct fire
and those who champion glancing fire, but his advice is the
following: ‘‘We could decide, to fulfil both needs, to make
it so that there are cannon embrasures that for direct fire
and others for glancing fire, as we will show in the con-
struction of our bulwark’’.3
Having provided these necessary explanations, Galileo
arrives to the best way to construct a bulwark. This topic is
quite interesting, because it concerns a problem of optimi-
sation between two variables, such that when the optimum of
one increases, that of the other decreases. Thus the problem is
to find the correct strada di mezzo (middle road) (Galilei
Opere, II, p. 29). Galileo is perfectly aware of the nature of
the question, even though he does not provide even a rough
sketch of a mathematical treatment. Thus, the situation is
this: to be well defended, a bulwark must have the angle
between its faces as little acute as possible (a fact that was
also underlined by Tartaglia and Lorini, among others [14],
2009). This is because when cannon fire strikes the corner of
the bulwark, if this angle is very acute, the blow can rather
easily damage both faces, while if the angle is less acute, this
eventuality is more remote. As Galileo writes, ‘‘if the angle is
less acute, it will be less easily cut by the enemy’’.4
On the other hand, he argues, the flank must be con-
structed as large as possible, where by large he means as
far as possible beyond the curtain, so that, when glancing
fire is used against the attackers, it is possible to use the
largest possible cannon balls. However, if the flanks are

2
… il tiro che ficca è accomodato ed atto a levar l’offesa della zappa
e piccone, la quale è grandissima e forse di più importanza di tutte
l’altre (Galilei Opere, II, p. 31).
3
Fig. 2 In the upper part of the figure we see the bulwark, which Potremo determinare, per supplire all’uno e all’altro bisogno, di
defends the curtain with its flanks and its faces. The lines drawn fare che ci siano cannoniere che ficchino, ed altre che striscino; come
parallel to the faces indicate the grazing fire, aimed at defending the nella fabrica del nostro baluardo dimostreremo’’ (Galilei Opere, II,
curtain from an assault with ladders. The lower part of the figure p. 31).
4
shows a platform. Also of note are the captions in the figures (from …quando l’angolo sarà meno acuto, meno facil sarà esser tagliato
Galilei Opere, II, p. 25) dal nimico (Galilei Opere, II, p. 29).

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Lett Mat Int (2015) 2:209–222 215

Fig. 3 Situations that lead to

constructing a bulwark with a
very acute angle: a top The
angle of the bulwark can turn
out to be very acute because it is
constructed on the angle of a
wall that is already very acute;
the angle of the bulwark will
then be even more acute (detail
of Galilei Opere, II, p. 29);
b middle the angle of the
bulwark will be very acute when
the flanks are very long (or
large, to use Galileo’s
expression) (detail of Galilei
Opere, II, p. 30); c bottom the
angle can turn out to be very
acute because of the desire to
locate defences close to the
curtain (detail of Galilei Opere,
II, p. 30)

very long, the angle of the bulwarks tend to become more (Fig. 3b); (3) when the defences are placed very close to
acute. the curtain (Fig. 3c).
Another question is this: if the batteries of defense must be Thus the effectiveness of the bulwark is a function of
located as close as possible to the curtain, in order to be most three variables: the angle of the bulwark, the length of the
effective, the acute angle is more suitable, as shown in Fig. 3c. flanks, and the closeness of the defences to the curtain.
The situations that lead to making the angle of the These variables are not, however, independent: as one in-
bulwark more acute—something that in itself is negative– creases, another decreases–although the functional nexus is
are thus: (1) when the bulwark is constructed on a wall never specified–and thus in designing the bulwark the ar-
whose angle is already very acute; it is in fact obvious that chitect must take the question into account and find a
the angle of the bulwark will turn out to be more acute than correct balance. Given the lack of a rigorous mathematical
that of the wall (Fig. 3a); (2) when the flank is very large treatment, which was beyond the capabilities of the

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mathematicians at the end of the 16th century, it is re- 3.2 Trattato di fortificazione
markable that Galileo underlined clearly the complex
functional relationship between the angle of the bulwark, All of the Trattato di fortificazione is interesting because,
its length, and the closeness of the defences to the curtain. even where Galileo reprises the topics of earlier work–
In the sections dedicated to the best way to carry out an which occurs in the majority of cases–he often does it in a
assault, Galileo explains how to construct the trenches and more in-depth and perspicuous way. First of all, Galileo
place the mines, after which he must grapple with the ex- explains the object:
planation of the phase of the actual assault. However,
THE REASONS FOR ORDERING FORTIFICATIONS
leading up to that, the Pisan scientist wishes to settle the
Because we must discourse about the way of for-
question of a diatribe that divided the experts of military
tifying, we must first of all put in our minds the
arts: there were those who maintained that, during the of-
aim, for which fortifications have been ordered:
fensive phase, artillery was most efficient if fired from as
which is none other than making it so that few can
close as possible, and those who maintained instead that a
defend themselves against many; … Thus it is
certain distance provided the most effectiveness. Galileo
necessary that those of the fortress devise ways to
states that this second opinion is ridiculous, as made
be able to fight the enemy with the advantage of
manifest by esperienza (experience) for those who wish to
the site.
try, and by ragione (reason), if used properly. This is as to
It is necessary, in addition to that, to know what
say that in problems that deal with the exterior world, pure
kind of offensives are to be resisted … that is, the
reason cannot suffice, it is necessary to experiment; but that
battery, when the artillery opens a wall from far
in itself is not enough, and it is necessary to reason cor-
way, and by means of that opening makes an adit
rectly about these experiences: precisely sensate esperienze
for entering the fortress; the spade [sap], which is
e dimostrazioni necessarie, sensate experiences and nec-
made by coming next to the wall, and ruining it
essary proofs (or in any case, where there are no proofs,
with iron rods, with pick-axes and other instru-
‘‘necessary reasoning’’). We close this section with Gali-
ments; the fifth, finally, is the siege, when, re-
leo’s enlightening words:
moving from the defenders all sorts of succour,
But before we proceed to other matters, it appears they are forced by hunger to surrender. Let us
suitable to me to say something about a curious dis- leave aside treason, as an ignominious way of ex-
pute between some who make a profession as expert punging, and which evil cannot be remedied, it
bombardiers: which is, if it is best to situate the ar- being impossible to guard against traitors.6
tillery at the walls that it is desired to demolish, as
We have chosen to give an example of a topic that
close as possible, or, if remaining at a certain dis-
instead is not, practically speaking, analysed in the Breve
tance, comes to have a greater effect than being very
instruzione: the various ways of erecting the elements of
close. And the reason of treating this is hearing that
defense in relation to the site where they are to be erected
some are of the opinion, indeed, in their minds it is
(Galilei Opere, II, pp. 130–137). Galileo analyses diverse
most certain, that the artillery makes a better pass
types of sites: (1) in the open countryside; (2) on a plain,
when it is placed at a certain determined distance than
if it is very close. This opinion, even though it has 6
LA CAGIONE PERCHÉ SONO ORDINATE LE FORTIFICAZIONI (Galileo Ms. 281,
infinite authors, can only remain false, and in some folia 2–4; Galilei Opere, II, p. 83).
way ridiculous: as experience, for those who wish to Dovendo noi discorrere intorno al modo di fortificare, doviamo
try it, and reason, for those who will discourse prima recarci inanzi alla mente il fine, per il quale sono state ordinate
le fortificazioni: il quale altro non è che il fare che pochi possino
with correct judgement, can persuade.5 difendersi da molti;… Adunque bisogna che quelli della fortezza
s’ingegnino di poter contrastare al nimico co ‘l vantaggio del sito.…
5
Ma prima che innanzi procediamo ad altro, mi pare a proposito Bisogna, oltre a ciò, sapere a quali sorte d’offese si deve resistere
parlare alquanto intorno a una disputa curiosa che corra tra alcuni … cioè, la batteria, quando con l’artiglierie s’apre di lontano una
che fanno professione di bombardieri periti: la quale è, s’è meglio muraglia, e per l’apertura si fa adito per entrare nella fortezza … la
piantar l’artiglieria alla muraglia, che si vuol battere, più vicina che zappa, che si fa accostandosi alla muraglia, e con pali di ferro, con
sia possibile; o pure, se stando lontana per una certa distanza, verrà picconi, ed altri istrumenti, si rovina; … la terza è la scalata, quando
a far maggior effetto ch’essendo molto vicina. E la cagione di trattar con le scale si monta sopra la muraglia; … la quarta è la mina, la
di ciò è il sentire ch’alcuni hanno per opinione, anzi pur nella mente quale, per la forza del fuoco rinchiuso in una cava sotterranea (come
loro come per cosa certissima, che l’artiglierie faccino maggior a suo luogo dichiareremo), rovina in uno instante una muraglia;… la
passata stando a una certa determinata lontananza, che se fossero più quinta finalmente è l’assedio, quando, togliendo a i difensori ogni
vicine: la qual opinione, ancor che abbia infiniti fautori, non resta sorte di sussidio, si constringono per la fame a rendersi. … Lasciamo
però che non sia falsa, ed in un certo modo ridiculosa; sı̀ come la stare il tradimento, come maniera d’espugnare ignominiosa, ed alla
esperienza, a chi far la vorrà, e la ragione a chi con retto giudizio quale male si può trovare rimedio, sendo impossibile guardarsi da i
discorrerà, può persuadere (Galilei Opere, II, p. 49, our emphasis). traditori’’ (Galileo Ms. 281, folia 2–4; Galilei Opere, II, p. 83).

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Lett Mat Int (2015) 2:209–222 217

but with nearby hollows; (3) close to mountains; (4) sites

crossed by a river; (5) in a marsh or lake; (6) at seaports
(the most difficult to defend). In what follows we will
analyse the first two cases.
The section entitled ‘‘Diversi esempi d’accomodar i
corpi di difesa secondo la diversità de’ siti’’ (Diverse ex-
amples of adapting the elements of defense according to
the diversity of sites) begins, as is often the case in these
youthful works, with an epistemological consideration that
is noteworthy and significant in relation to Galileo’s works
way of reasoning:
Considering the great force that sensate examples
have to persuade and declare the thoughts of the
mind, we have determined, to shed more light on our
intention, to place before the eyes diverse designs of
fortified places.7
Fig. 4 ‘‘The most opportune way to erect defensive fortifications in a
Here again we find the concept of sensateness, which in settlement located in the open countryside’’ (detail of Galilei Opere,
Galileo means not only ‘‘related to or deriving from the II, p. 130)
senses’’ but also, with a significance still more current,
something that has sense, or better, something that must be
interpreted by giving it a sense; that is to say, an experience construct two flanks that form an angle HG less acute
is not sensate in the absolute, but in relation to the context in than the original one, in order to be able to construct an
which it is found and to the interpretative instruments used effective bulwark. At K and R the new flanks conjoin to
to contextualise it. In essence, it concerns: (1) the rela- the old curtain. A defensive system is good if the ele-
tionship between theory and practice; (2) the way in which ments of defense are not too far apart, and for such a
man ‘‘intentionates’’ (to use the expression of Brentano- small settlement, the bulwarks placed as described are
Husserl), that is, gives a sense to the objects before him or too far apart, and thus it is necessary to add other de-
that he constructs. Galileo is aware that examples serve to fensive elements: the cavalieri, indicated by N. This is a
render evident how well the theory functions, and that our raised structure that makes it possible to dominate the
aims, whether purely cognitive or practical, are funda- countryside and add batteries of support to those of the
mental for framing the relationship between practice and bulwarks. Galileo suggests that the maximum distance
theory. This is as valid for ‘‘natural philosophy’’ (physics) between one defensive structure and the next should not
as it is for questions that are less abstract, such as those exceed 400 braccia. Medieval cities often had towers.
appertaining to fortifications. Thus Galileo, given the pre- When the times change, these towers were no longer
cepts about how to construct defences, shows what happens effective; in fact, if they are too close to the flanks, such
in specific cases. as those shown at Q, they must be demolished because if
they are brought down by artillery fire during an assault,
3.2.1 A site in the open countryside they can do major damage to the defenders.

Galileo presumes that the town, village or city to be 3.2.2 A site on the plain with hollows nearby
fortified already has a wall constructed around it before
the advent of artillery, and intends to fortify it ‘‘accord- In this case it is necessary to protect the hollows near the
ing to modern usage’’ (Fig. 4). First of all it is necessary settlement as well, so as to avoid their use by the enemy.
to furnish the ancient curtains with bulwarks to be placed So, with the heaviest continuous line indicating the old
at corners A, B, E, F. However, the bulwark at E would fortress and the area drawn in black the hollows (Fig. 5), it
turn out to be too acute if it were constructed on the is necessary to erect bulwarks in areas A, B, E, D, C, so
corner of the old fortress, and thus it is necessary to that it is possible to control the zones below the level of the
settled and strike the enemy should need arise. The letter F
7
indicates the cavaliero. The structure of bulwark GCE is so
Considerando quanto abbiano grande forza gli essempi sensati in
extensive and massive for two reasons: (1) to allow control
persuadere e dichiarare i pensieri dell’animo, abbiamo determinato,
per dar maggior lume dell’intenzione nostra, recare innanzi a gli of the hollow in front of the settlement; (2) to construct a
occhi diversi disegni de’ luoghi fortificati (Galilei Opere, II, p. 130). fortification whose angle in G is not too acute, as it would

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218 Lett Mat Int (2015) 2:209–222

and necessary proofs, which we will have as we go

along, to make most manifest.8
This quotation is very dense
1. First of all, Galileo was very familiar with Archi-
medes’ On the Equilibrium of Planes and had consid-
ered at length (as his Mecaniche prove) the principle of
the lever. He thus knew well that a weight can be lifted
only if the moment of the lifting force is superior to
that of the resisting force.
2. Galileo then notes that nature cannot be deceived. It is
impossible, we would say today, with a small ‘‘force’’
to transport or move a heavy weight. It is well known
that the concept of force is not well defined in
Galileo’s day, and would not be until Isaac Newton
(1642–1727), but what Galileo wants to say is clear,
and is a consideration that brings him close to those
Fig. 5 Fortification of a site on a plain with nearby hollows (detail of who thought to express physics in terms of principles,
Galilei Opere, II, p. 132) such as Simon Stevin (1548–1620) before Galileo, and
as Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716) would
do in the seventeenth century, albeit not in a complete
turn out to be if the bulwark were constructed directly on and rigorous way: if a certain quantity of mechanical
the corner of the old walls. energy is introduced into a system, in optimum
conditions, the final energy is equal to the initial
3.3 Le mecaniche energy; that is, energy cannot be created by means of
the transformation of human work into the work of a
For Le mecaniche we will not provide specific examples of machine. Put another way, work cannot be created
the way in which Galileo explains the functioning of the from nothing. In other words, perpetual mechanical
machines that he analyses. Instead, we will highlight the motion (to use Leibniz’s words) is impossible.
principles that lie at the base of his work and which are Galileo–obviously–does not express himself in these
very interesting with regard to the history of physics. terms, nor does he know the variables at play on the
Galileo makes it clear from the very beginning of his level of the relationship between physics and
work that one of the primary aims in writing is to clarify mathematics [20], but the concept that he wishes to
what operations a machine can do, in contrast to those highlight is clear and very advanced, so much so in fact
which it cannot perform. This is due to the fact that many that it is completely unknown to ‘‘l’universo dei
builders of machines–indeed, all of them, he means to say, meccanici’’ (all mechanics).
where he uses the expression l’universale dei mecanici 3. Also of interest is the final part of the quotation where
(Galilei Opere, II, p. 155)—deceive themselves by asking he explains how certainty can be achieved only by
for the impossible. In particular, what their error comes means of le dimostrazioni vere e necessarie (true and
down to is the belief that it is possible to raise heavy necessary proofs). This shows that Galileo’s ideas
weights with a small force. Galileo is extremely clear in about methodology were clear from his youth. How-
this regard: ever, while machines cannot produce energy from
nothing – to express it in modern terms, but without
Of those deceptions [those into which the builders betraying Galileo’s thinking–it is true that they can
of machines are led] it seems to me to have mainly
understood the reason for the belief that these ar-
8
tisans have had, and still have, of being able with a Dei quali inganni [quelli in cui cadono i costruttori di macchine]
small force to move and lift extremely heavy parmi di avere compreso essere principalmente cagione la credenza,
che i detti artefici hanno avuta ed hanno continuamente, di poter con
weights, in some way deceiving nature with their poca forza muovere ed alzare grandissimi pesi, ingannando, in certo
machines; an instinct of which, indeed, an ex- modo, con le loro macchine, la natura; instinto della quale, anzi
tremely firm characteristic is that no resistance can fermissima costituzione, è che niuna resistenza possa essere superata
be overcome by a force that is not more powerful da forza, che di quella non sia più potente. La quale credenza quanto
sia falsa, spero con le dimostrazioni vere e necessarie, che averemo
than it. How false this belief is I hope, with true nel progresso, di far manifestissimo (Galilei Opere, II, p. 155).

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Lett Mat Int (2015) 2:209–222 219

transform it. This is their purpose, and it is one that is 4. Finally, machines make it possible to save in economic
very useful for man. Galileo thus maintains that the use terms, which is the most important thing from the point
of machines is tied to four variables: of view of society, but has less need of physical
explanations.
1. the weight (mass) that we wish to transfer from
one place to another; In the final analysis–and without attributing to Galileo
2. the force, or if we prefer, the concept of power–to concepts that are not stated or historically false as com-
use the terminology of the period that we are monly occurs for illustrious scientists of his calibre–it
dealing with (an implicit condition, but not stated); seems reasonable to us to underline how Galileo leaves the
3. the distance that we wish this weight to travel; modern reader to intuit his comprehension and capacity to
4. the time that we have available. handle functional nexuses among the physical variables
observed, and the mathematics (arithmetic, proportions,
Here again, as in the case of the relationship between the
including geometry) used. This characteristic is present in
angle and the length of the bulwark, Galileo understands
both the didactic works applied to military architecture,
that they are not independent variables; that is, there is no
and in the studies of motion and equilibrium. We thus
ideal situation that consists in transporting a heavy weight
quote, without comment, a passage from Le mecaniche, in
with a small force for a long distance in a short interval of
which Galileo makes a statement that very closely recalls
time. Due to the intrinsic necessities of nature, that is,
the modern principle of inertia–even though with reference
physical principles, this is not possible.
to motion along a terrestrial circumference and not in along
Galileo thus maintains: a straight line, as Newton will do. This work of iuvenilia
goes in the direction that Newton would take it (not René
1. if we must transport a heavy weight from one place to
Descartes (1596–1650), as might be thought, seeing as how
another, but there is no need to perform the operation
Descartes lacked the concept of force, while the full un-
in a short interval of time, and we can subdivide the
derstanding of the principle of inertia requires the concept
weight, then a machine, even one with a reduced force,
of force) to correctly formulate the principle of inertia.
as a man, can do it in a certain number n of trips,
Galileo writes:
transporting fractions of 1/nth of the overall weight.
2. if we wish to transport that same weight as a single Since we have a surface that is quite clear and clean,
whole with a machine that has a force exactly equal to like that of a mirror, and a ball that is perfectly round
n times that of man, this machine will be able to and smooth, of either marble or glass, or a similar
transport the weight as a whole, but in exactly the same material that remains clean, when this is placed on a
amount of time as the man. Anyone who hoped to given surface, it will go along moving, as long as that
transport the weight as a whole faster with such a [surface] has a slight incline, even minimal, and will
machine than a man could do dividing the weight into only stop on that surface which is exactly level and
n parts, is deceiving himself. equidistant from the plane of the horizon; such, for
3. machines can then be used to make certain operations example, will be the surface of a frozen lake or
easier. Galileo uses the example of a well that must be marsh, on which said spherical body will remain still,
emptied. To be sure it is possible to use buckets and but disposed to be moved by any extremely small
repeat the operation a number of times, or to use a force.10
pump that will draw the water out, which is easier for
obvious reasons. However, in this case as well Galileo 3.4 Le operazioni del compasso geometrico et militare
explains that:
Galileo’s geometric and military compass has a recto and a
…whoever believes he is able with any kind of ma-
verso. It has a series of lines, whose construction we will
chine to draw out, with the same force, in the same
explain. It should be underlined that all the lines are
amount of time, a greater quantity of water, he is in
grave error; and the more often and more deeply he 10
Sı̀ che avendo noi una superficie molto ben tersa e polita, quale
finds himself deceived, the more he will go on imag- saria quella di uno specchio, ed una palla perfettamente rotonda e
ining the most diverse and multiplied inventions.9 liscia, o di marmo o di vetro, o di simile materia atta a pulirsi, questa,
collocata sopra la data superficie, anderà movendosi, purché quella
abbia un poco d’inclinazione, ancorché minima, e solamente si
9
…qualunque credesse di potere con machine di qual si voglia sorte fermerà sopra quella superficie, la quale sia esattissimamente
cavare, con l’istessa forza, nel medesimo tempo, maggior quantità di livellata, ed equidistante dal piano dell’orizonte; quale, per essempio,
acqua, costui è in grandissimo errore; e tanto più spesso e tanto saria la superficie di un lago o stagno agghiacciato, sopra la quale il
maggiormente si troverà ingannato, quanto più varie e moltiplicate detto corpo sferico staria fermo, ma con disposizione di essere da
invenzioni anderà imaginandosi (Galilei Opere, II, p. 157). ogni piccolissima forza mosso (Galilei Opere, II, p. 179).

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Fig. 6 a The proportional compass conceived by Galileo, as shown in Bion (1723, Pl. 6). Reproduced by kind permission of the Museo Galileo,
Florence, http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/gallery/ProportionalCompasses_n01.html. b Galileo 1587, Tav. VI, p. 36, from: Bion 1725, 36v

proportional scales. As Galileo notes in the preface to the from 1 to 50. Their primary function is that of indicating
reader at the beginning of the work: the sides of the squares whose areas are the indicated
numbers. Thus the distance from the centre of the
It only pains me to underline, good reader, that, however
compass to each of the indicated numbers represents the
much I worked to explain the things that follow with all
square root of that number;
clarity and facility possible, in any case to those who
the stereometric lines, even further towards the exterior,
must derive from the writing, some things will remain
marked with numbers up to 140, and indicate the sides of
enveloped in obscurity, losing thereby much of that
the cubes whose volume is the indicated number. Thus
grace that, in seeing it actually used and learning about it
the distance from the centre of the compass to each of
by live voice, renders it marvellous.11
the numbers indicated equals the cube root of the
Never were truer words written. In spite of the image numbers shown.
that we show in Fig. 6, the full explanation of how the the metallic lines, which are marked with the names of
compass works is much facilitated by seeing it in person, or eight materials: gold, lead, silver, copper, iron, tin,
today, in video. For this reason we refer the reader to the marble and stone. Given a constant weight P, each mark
website of the Institute and Museum of the History of on the line indicates the diameter of a sphere of one of
Science in Florence (http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/ the eight materials whose weight is P. The marks closest
compasso/) for this important aspect and other information. to the centre of the compass thus indicate the materials
with a greater specific weight, which decreases moving
The recto shows:
away from the centre.
the arithmetic lines, on which are marked integers up to
The verso shows:
250;
the geometric lines located in a more exterior position the polygraphic lines, marked closest to the inside,
immediately next to the arithmetic lines, and numbered which carry the radii of circles circumscribing regular
polygons having the same side, from the triangle to the
11
Duolmi solamente sottolineare, benigno lettore, che, quantunque polygon with fifteen sides. They are used to divide the
io mi sia ingegnato di spiegare le seguenti cose con ogni chiarezza e circumference of a circle into a desired number of equal
facilità possibile, tuttavia a chi le dovrà dalla scrittura cavare, parts;
resteranno in qualche oscurità involte, perdendo appresso molta di
the tetragonic lines, located immediately next to the
quella grazia, che nel vederle attualmente operare e nell’apprenderle
dalla viva voce, le rende meravigliose (Galilei Opere, II, p. 370). polygraphic lines, indicate, given a certain surface S, the

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Lett Mat Int (2015) 2:209–222 221

sides of the regular polygons that have that surface, from works could not be explained. On the basis of recent
the triangle up to the polygon with thirteen sides; publications (for example, see the works of Raffaele Pisano
the added lines have an internal and an external scale; in the bibliography) and other researches of ours, we have
the external scale, divided into twenty equal parts, is shown the historic context and epistemological interpreta-
marked with the heights of the arced portion of twenty tion of Galileo’s period in Padua. A forthcoming special
circular segments with the same chord; on the internal issue of Philosophia Scientiae out in 2017, edited by the
scale are marked the twenty squares whose areas are authors of this present paper, devoted precisely to the Iu-
equal to those of the respective circular segments. This is venilia (including fortifications) will also celebrate the
used to find the area of circular segments. 450th anniversary of Galileo.
Translated from the Italian by Kim Williams.
There is also a quadrant that can be applied to the
compass. This quadrant serves four purposes: the bom-
bardiers’ square; the astronomical quadrant; the scale of
5 For further reading
inclines, and the square of shadows. For more in-depth
descriptions, we refer the reader to the website of the In-
The following references presented here are essentially
stitute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence
limited to Galileo’s works and to the topics examined in
mentioned earlier.
this present paper. We have no pretence of being exhaus-
Among the thirty-two operations described by Galileo,
tive, but only to provide the reader with some ideas for
we will provide the example of two concerning the poly-
further study. The reader can thus see the diversity of ap-
graphic lines.
proaches and methods used in the interpretation of the
1. Operation XXVI: describe a regular polygon of any topics and works treated herein.
number of sides n, given side AB of the polygon. The
procedure is the following: put AB transversal to the
points marked 6–6; the segment that joins the points
marked n–n indicates the length of the radius of the References
desired circle. In fact, the line that conjoins points 6–6
indicates the side of the inscribed hexagon, and thus
the radius of the circumscribed circle. Then, because of
On Galileo and his work
how the polygraphic lines are constructed, the line n–
n indicates the radius of the circle circumscribed about 1. Bion, N.: Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des
the n-gon whose side in AB. If, for example, we wish to instruments de mathematiques. La Haye, Husson (1723)
construct the regular heptagon with side AB, we place 2. Drake, S.: Galileo’s experimental confirmation of horizontal in-
AB transversal to 6–6; line 7–7 thus indicates the ertia. Isis 64, 291–305 (1973)
3. Galilei, G.: Le Opere di Galileo Galilei: Edizione nazionale sotto
radius of the circle that circumscribes the heptagon. At gli auspici di sua maestà il re d’Italia, vols. 20. Firenze, La
this point, having drawn the circle and knowing the Barbèra (1890–1909)
length of the side, it is possible to construct the 4. Galilei, G.: Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences. Henry
heptagon with an ordinary compass. Crew and Alfonso de Salvio, trans. New York, MacMillan (1914)
5. Galilei, G.: Galileo Galilei. Le Mecaniche. Gatto, R. (ed.)
2. Operation XXVII: divide the circumference into a Firenze, Olschki (2002)
given number of equal parts. This operation is the 6. Galilei, G.: Ms. A—Trattato di fortificazioni e modo d’espugnare
converse of the previous one, that is, we apply la città con disegni e piante di fortificazioni. Biblioteca Am-
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and segment 6–6 will be what will divide the versi. Biblioteca Ambrosiana. D: 296 Inf.–38499 (fl. 16th)
circumference into seven equal parts. 8. Galilei, G.: Ms. m—Trattato di fortificazioni, con disegni e figure
(acephalous). Biblioteca Ambrosiana. N: 281 Sup.–2–80277 (fl.
These two examples show the ease with which Galileo’s 16th)
compass allows us to perform operations that cannot be 9. Gille, G.: Les ingénieurs de la Renaissance. Paris, Hermann (Eng.
carried out with only the use of compass and straightedge. ed. The Renaissance Engineers. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1966)
(1964)
10. Hill, D.K.: Galileo’s work on 116v: a new analysis. Isis 77,
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Our aim in this paper was to cover an important step in the 12. Hogg, I.: Storia delle Fortificazioni. Novara, Istituto Geografico
early scientific life of Galileo, one without which his later De Agostini (1982)

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13. Naylor, R.H., Drake, S.: Discussion on Galileo’s early ex- di Storia dell’ingegneria, vol. I, pp. 77–90. Cozzolin, Napoli
periment on projectile trajectories. Ann. Sci. 40, 391–396 (1983) (2012b)
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degli architetti e degli ingegneri del Rinascimento, vols. 2. Mechanics in the Sixteenth Century. Selections from Quesiti et
Università di Roma ‘‘La Sapienza’’, Roma. E-book: International invention diverse: Books VII–VIII. Springer, Dordrecht (2015, in
Galilean Bibliography. Istituto e Museo di Storia delle Scienze, press)
Firenze. http://biblioteca.imss.fi.it/. Print book: Direction des
collections, Département Sciences & Techniques, Bibliothèque
Nationale de France, Paris, référence: DDD–TOL–2011–94, p. 18 Raffaele Pisano physicist, is a
(2008) qualified historian, lecturer re-
15. Renn, J., Valleriani, M.: Galileo and the challenge of the arsenal. searcher of history of physics,
Nuncius, XVI 2, 481–503 (2001) epistemology of science at the
University of Lille 1, France.
Vice President of Inter–Divi-
sional Teaching Commission
(DLMP/IUHPST). Former head
Other works on the topics covered herein by the present of Research Centre for the
authors: Theory and History of Science,
University of Plzen, Czech
16. Capecchi, D., Pisano, R.: Scienza e tecnica nell’architettura del Republic. Fields: history and
Rinascimento, CISU, Roma (2010) historical epistemology of sci-
17. Pisano, R.: On method in Galileo Galilei’s mechanics. In: Hun- ences. His recent works include
ger, H. (ed.) Proceedings of ESHS 3rd Conference, pp. 147–186. ‘‘Newton’s Philosophiae
Austrian Academy of Science, Vienna (2009a) Naturalis Principia Mathematica ‘‘Jesuit’’ Edition: The Tenor of a
18. Pisano, R.: Galileo Galilei. Riflessioni epistemologiche sulla re- Huge Work’’, Rendiconti Lincei Matematica e Applicazioni, with
sistenza dei corpi. In: Giannetto, E., Giannini, G., Toscano, M. Paolo Bussotti; Lazare and Sadi Carnot. A Scientific and Filial Re-
(eds.) Relatività, Quanti, Chaos e altre Rivoluzioni della Fisica. lationship (Springer) with Charles Gillispie; The Dialectic Relation
Rimini, Guaraldi, pp. 61–72 (2009b) between Physics and Mathematics in The XIXth Century (Springer).
19. Pisano, R.: Il ruolo della scienza archimedea nei lavori di mec- In press: Tartaglia’s Science of Weights and Mechanics in Sixteenth-
canica di Galilei e di Torricelli. In: Giannetto, E., Giannini, G., Century. Selections from Quesiti et inventioni diverse: Books VII–VIII
Capecchi, D., Pisano, R. (eds.) Da Archimede a Majorana: La (Springer); A Bridge between Conceptual Frameworks, Science, So-
fisica nel suo divenire (Proceedings of XXVI SISFA Congress). ciety and Technology Studies (Springer). More info: http://fr.linkedin.
Rimini, Guaraldi, pp. 65–74 (2009c) com/pub/raffaele-pisano/6/a11/a61/.
20. Pisano, R.: Physics–Mathematics relationship. historical and
epistemological notes. In: Proceedings of the ESU 6 - European Paolo Bussotti historian of sci-
Summer University History and Epistemology in Mathematics ence and mathematics, former
(curato da E. Barbin, M. Kronfellner, and C. Tzanakis). Verlag Alexander von Humboldt Fel-
Holzhausen GmbH–Holzhausen Publishing Ltd., Vienna, low at the Ludwig Maximilians
pp. 457–472 (2011) University in Munich and Ber-
21. Pisano, R., Bussotti, P.: On Theoremata Circa Centrum Grav- lin-Brandenburg Academy of
itatis Solidorum and Mysterium Consmographicum. In: History Sciences, Berlin. His recent
Research, 2/2:1, pp. 110–145 (2012) work includes: From Fermat to
22. Pisano, R., Capecchi, D.: Il ruolo della meccanica ne Le Forti- Gauss: indefinite descent and
ficazioni di Buonaiuto Lorini. In: Atti del 3 Convegno di Storia methods of reduction in number
dell’Ingegneria (ed. S. D’Agostino), vol. II. Cozzolin, Napoli, theory (Rauner), Un mediocre
pp. 797–808 (2009) lettore. Le letture e le idee di
23. Pisano, R., Capecchi, D.: Galileo Galilei: notes on Trattato di Federigo Enriques (Agorà-Lu-
Fortificazione. In: Altamore, A., Antonini, G. (eds.) Galileo and mieres). The influence of
the Renaissance Scientific Discourse. Edizioni Nuova Cultura, Spinoza’s concept of infinity on
Roma, pp. 28–41 (2010) Cantor’s set theory (SHPS, with Tapp). With Raffaele Pisano:
24. Pisano, R., Capecchi, D.: Historical Reflections on the Scale ‘‘Galileo and Kepler: On Theoremata Circa Centrum Gravitatis and
Ratio in Galilean Trattato di Fortificazioni. In: Koestler, T., Mysterium Cosmographicum’’ (History Research), ‘‘On the Jesuit
Ceccarelli, M. (eds.) Explorations in the History of Machines and Edition of Newton’s Principia. Science and Advanced Researches in
Mechanism (Proceedings of HMM 2012). Springer, Dordrecht, the Western Civilization’’ (Advances in Historical Studies), Newton’s
pp. 463–473 (2012a) Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ‘‘Jesuit’’ Edition: The
25. Pisano, R., Capecchi, D.: Il Trattato di Fortificazione di Galileo Tenor of a Huge Work (Rendiconti Lincei Matematica e
Galilei. In: d’Agostino, S. (ed.) Atti del 4 Convegno Nazionale Applicazioni).

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