LESSON 1 To contrast persons, things, places, events,

situations, or ideas is to show how they are different. To do

Patterns of Development in Writing across Disciplines so, you need to make a list of the characteristics or
qualities of the subjects and then identify the differences
 Certain patterns or structures which guide the between them. The following are some words that signal
writers or readers in the way they view the contrast: but, however, though, on the other hand, in
relationship of ideas presented in a text contrast
 Help writers or readers follow ideas easily and
understand the text better USING EXEMPLIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
 Help in distinguishing major details from minor
ones, in predicting ideas and noting details Is one of the most common and effective ways to
 Signal words may indicate a certain pattern show or explain an idea or point
(e.g., observation, opinion, belief). In this pattern of
development, the main idea is explained by giving an
NARRATION extended.
Narration tells a story. It relates an incident or a
series of events that leads to a conclusion or ending. It tells
the readers when, where, and what happened.
EXEMPLIFICATION
You can use both exemplification and classification
A narrative paragraph contains action verbs and
in developing a paragraph. You can begin by classifying
transition words that indicate time or sequence. The
some ideas and then explain each idea by giving examples.
following are some transition words used to signal time or
For instance, a series of detailed examples.
sequence order:
CLASSIFICATION
DESCRIPTION
Refers to sorting or arranging subjects (e.g.,
Description gives information of what a person, an
persons, places, things, ideas) into groups or categories
object, a place, or a situation is like. It appeals to the
according to their common or shared characteristic. The
reader’s senses; it makes the reader see, hear, taste, smell,
subject can be grouped in different ways depending on
or feel the subject.
your purpose. For instance, classifying historical events by
year, popular TV shows by genre, diseases based on mode
of transmission, cleaning products based on manufacturer,
A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific and animals based on habitat.
details, which are carefully chosen by a writer to paint a
picture in the mind of the reader. Literary analyses,
descriptive essays, business plans, lab reports, and CAUSE AND EFFECT
research papers are A cause is simply “why something happens” and an
effect is “what happens”. Together, they can be used as a
. pattern of development in writing. With the cause-and-
effect in pattern, the writer can explain how an event or
DEFINITION action leads to another.
The main purpose is to clarify and explain concepts,
ideas, and things by answering the question “what does it
mean?” This pattern explains the information through the
PERSUASION
use of illustrations, examples and descriptions. It may
A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers
include one or more patterns
to do or believe in something. Many writing genres such as
critiques or reviews, reaction papers, editorials, proposals,
advertisements and brochures make strong use of
COMPARISON persuasive paragraphs to state opinions and to influence
To compare persons, things, places, events, others.
situations, or ideas is to show how they are alike. You need
to identify the points of comparison and make a list of PROBLEM-SOLUTION
similar characteristics or qualities for each point of A problem in general is an unsatisfactory situation that
comparison. The following are words that signal causes troubles or difficulties. Therefore, it needs a
similarities: also, like, both, and as…as solution, a way to deal with the situation so that the
troubles or difficulties are removed.

CONTRAST
LESSON 2
 A paragraph is a series of sentences that are 4. Definition Order - is, refers to, can be defined as,
organized, coherent, and are all related to a single topic. means, consists of, involves, is a term that, is
For a paragraph, or for any composition, to be effective, it called
must always consider the Properties of a Well-Written
Text. These properties are: Organization, Coherence and 5. Classification - classified as, comprises, is
Cohesion, Unity, Language Use, and Mechanics. composed of, several, varieties of, different
stages of, different groups that

6. Process - first, next, then, following, after that,

The first line of a paragraph is usually indented. last, finally
This indentation of a paragraph indicates where the
paragraph begins. Remember that you must capitalize the 7. Cause and Effect - Causes: because, for, since,
first word in each sentence and end each sentence with a stems from, one cause is, one reason is, leads to,
punctuation mark, most often a period (.). causes, creates, yields, due to, breeds, for this
reason // Effects: consequently, results in, one
result is, therefore, thus, as a result, hence

Parts of Paragraph 8. Comparison and Contrast - Similarities: both,

also, similarly, like, likewise, too, as well as,
Introduction -The first section of a paragraph; it resembles, correspondingly, in the same way, to
should include the topic sentence and any other sentences compare, in comparison, share// Differences:
at the beginning of the paragraph that give background unlike, differs from, in contrast, on the other
information or provide a transition. hand, instead, despite, nevertheless, however, in
Body- Follows the introduction; discusses the spite of, whereas, as opposed to
controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis, 9. Listing - the following, several, for example, for
examples, or other information. instance, one, another, also, too, in other words,
Conclusion- The final section; summarizes the first, second, numerals (1, 2, 3...), letters (a, b,
connections between the information discussed in the c...)
body of the paragraphs and the paragraph's controlling 10. Clarification - in fact, in other words, clearly
idea.
11. Summary - in summary, in conclusion, in brief,
to summarize, to sum up, in short, on the
Qualities of a Paragraph 12. Example - for example, for instance, to illustrate
ORGANIZATION- also known as arrangement, is 13. Addition - furthermore, additionally, also,
achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged besides, further, in addition, moreover, again
with focus on the arrangement of ideas, incidents,
evidence, or details in a definite order in a paragraph,
essay, or speech. It can be done with a recognizable plan COHERENCE refers to the overall sense of unity in a
that defines one sentence connection to the other sentence passage, including both the main point of sentences and
and paragraph to the other paragraph. the main point of each paragraph. A coherent passage
focuses the reader’s attention on the main ideas and the
specific people, things, and events you are writing about.
Check the following paragraph arrangements and Unity and logic on a conceptual level.
the words which are useful in securing in each of them:

1. Chronological Order - first, second, later, before, COHESION is also a very important aspect of
next, as soon as, after, then, finally, meanwhile, academic writing because it immediately affects the tone
following, last, during, in, on, until of your writing. Cohesive writing does not mean just
2. Order of Importance - less, more, primary, next, “grammatically correct” sentences; cohesive writing refers
last, most important, primarily, secondarily to the connection of your ideas both at the sentence level
and at the paragraph level. Cohesion is important because
3. Spatial Order - above, below, beside, next to, in it allows writers to make multiple references to people,
front of, behind, inside, outside, opposite, within, things, and events without reintroducing them at each
nearby turn. If we had to repeat every time, we wanted to refer to
them, the text would be very tedious to read. In short,
connections on a sentence level.
Check these examples:

Coherent but not cohesive - "My favorite color is blue. MECHANICS focuses on the technicalities of the structure.
I'm calm and relaxed. In the summer I lie on the grass and It determines errors on subject-verb agreement,
look up." Cohesive but not coherent - “My favorite color prepositions, tenses, the grammar, spelling, capitalization,
is blue. Blue sports cars go very fast. Driving in this way is abbreviations and acronyms, the use of numbers as part of
dangerous and can cause many car crashes. I had a car the statement, and the punctuation marks. (Spelling,
accident once and broke my leg. I was very sad because I Capitalization, Abbreviation and Acronyms, Number,
had to miss a holiday in Europe because of the injury." Punctuation Marks, Grammar

Coherent and cohesive - "My favorite color is blue. I like LESSON 3

it because it is calming and it relaxes me. I often go outside
in the summer and lie on the grass and look into the clear A statement is something that is expressed
sky when I am stressed. For this reason, I'd have to say my through speech or writing. An example of it is a module.
favorite color is blue." Another could be a discussion of a certain topic.
Exchanging statements is often use in conversation to
provide information, something expresses something of
UNITY is achieved when a composition is focused value to one’s understanding.
on one idea. In a unified text, all supporting ideas are
relevant to the main thought. Without unity, text will be
confusing. Topic Sentence/ Thesis Statement/ Lead Determining explicit and implicit information
Supporting Sentences Cohesive Device Conclusion
- Critical reading also means that you are able to
distinguish the information that is clearly
stated (explicit) in the text from ideas that are
LANGUAGE USE is one of the clearest indicators of suggested (implicit). This will help you make
a well written text. It enables writers to effectively inferences about what you read.
communicate ideas without confusing the reader. An
effective language is: Specific, Concise, Familiar, Correct,
and Appropriate
Defining claims

- The important skills needed in critical reading is

Levels of Language Use knowing how to identify explicit and implicit
information and also evaluating the claims made
1. Informal/ Personal - slang, local expressions, by an author. This involves going back to the text
text messaging to recognize the writer’s arguments and evidence
2. Standard/Academic - widely accepted words so you can begin judging the writer’s work.
and phrases found in books, magazines, and
newspapers
3. Business/Technical - scientific terms, jargons,
and special expressions - Whenever you read something, you find yourself
looking for the writer’s point or position
regarding the chosen topic. That point is also
known as the claim, or the central argument or
Principles in Language Use/ Diction
thesis statement of the text. This claim is what
1. Use clear and concise sentences, usually about 18 the writer tries to prove in the text by providing
words long. details, explanations, and other types of
evidence.
2. Avoid redundancies, cliches wordiness, and
highfalutin

3. Although may be used, avoid overusing “There” - The claim is the most important part of the text.
and “It”, drop it The quality and complexity of the reading
depends on the claim, because the claim defines
4. Use precise vocabulary. Be accurate. Condensed. the paper’s direction and scope. The claim is a
sentence that summarizes the most important
5. Be consistent in pronoun POV
thing the writer wants to say as a result of
6. Avoid sexist language. his/her thinking, reading, or writing.

7. Use appropriate level of formality.

 - The following are the characteristics of good - It must have reliable sources or systematic
claims: procedures in order to be considered as valid.

1. A claim should be argumentative and - It answers the question “what”.

debatable.
- The following questions are useful in
- It must have a particular perspective on the determining whether something is a claim of
topic and objections are expected to be raised. fact.

- Raising objections can be done if the claim is  Is this issue related to a possible cause
something that can be reasonably challenged or effect?
- Claims that are only factual or based on opinion,  Is this statement true or false? How can
thus, are not debatable its truthfulness be verified?

 Is this claim controversial or debatable?

 Claim of value
2. A claim should be specific and focused - It is something that can be qualified.
- An unfocused claim will result being too broad - It consists of arguments about moral,
in scope and will lack direction and clear philosophical, or aesthetic topics.
connection to the support provided.
- It tries to prove that some values are more or
- It may also lead to overgeneralizations and less desirable compared to others.
vague assertions.
- It makes judgments, based on certain
standards, on whether something is right or
wrong, good or bad, or something similar.
3. A claim should be interesting and engaging
- It attempts to explain how problems,
- It should hook the reader, who may or may not
situations, or issues ought to be valued.
agree with you, to encourage them to consider
your perspective and learn something new from - The following questions will help you
you. discover these explanations.

 Which claims endorse what is good or

right?
4. A claim should be logical
 What qualities should be considered
- It should result from reasonable weighing if
good? Why is that so?
support provided.

- Here are some questions to help you determine  Which of these values contend with
the writer’s claim while you are reading a text: others? Which ones are more
important, and why? Whose standards
 What is the author’s main point? are used?

 What is the author’s position regarding  What are some concrete examples of
it? such values?

 Claim of policy

Distinguishing between the types of claims - It has specific actions that should be
chosen as solutions to a particular problem.
- The claims can be easily identified by examining
the type of questions they answer about the text. - It is easily identified because they begin with
should, ought to, or must
 Claim of fact
- It has an actionable plan and usually answer
- It states a quantifiable assertion or a “how” questions.
measurable topic.
- The following questions will be useful in
- It is something has existed, exists, or will exist evaluating a claim of policy.
based on data.
  Does the claim suggest a specific
remedy to solve the problem?

 Is the policy clearly defined?

Types of Intertextualities
 Is the need for the policy established?
 Obligatory Intertextuality
 Is the policy the best one available? For
- It is when the writer deliberately involves a
whom? According to whose standards?
comparison or association between two or
 How does the policy solve the problem? more text.

 Optional Intertextuality
LESSON 4
- It has a less vital important on the
Being a critical reader also involves significance of the hyperlinks. It is impossible,
understanding that texts are always developed with a but not essential relationship that if, the
certain context. A text is neither written nor read in a
vacuum; its meaning and interpretation are affected by connection will slightly shift the understanding
a given set of circumstances. of the text.

- The intent of the writer when sing optional

intertextuality is to play homage to the
Context is defined as the social, cultural, original writer.
political, historical, and other related
circumstances that surround the text and form the
terms from which it can be better understood and
 Accidental Intertextuality
evaluated. Knowledge of the text’s context helps in
appreciating the text’s message more deeply. In - It is when readers often connect a text with
discovering a reading’s context, you may ask questions another text cultural practice or a personal
like: experience without there being any tangible
anchor point within the original text
 When was the work written?
HYPERTEXT
 What were the circumstances that
produced it? - It is a non-linear way of showing information. It
connects topics on a screen to related
 What issues does it deal with? information, graphics, videos, music-information
is not simply related to text. This information
appears as links and is usuallly accessed by
INTERTEXT clicking. The reader can jump to more
information about a topic, which in turn msy
- Intertextuality is the modeling of a text’s
have more links. This opens up the reader a
meaning by another text. It is defined as the
wider horizon of information or to a new
connections between language, images,
direction.
characters, themes, or subjects depending on
their similarities in language, genre, or - A reader can skim through section of a text, freely
discourse. This is seen when an author jumping from one part to another depending on
borrows and transforms a prior text, or when what aspect of the text interests him/her. Thus,
you read one text and you reference another. in reading with hypertext, you are given more
This view recognizes that the text is always flexibility and personalization because you get to
influenced by previous texts and in turn select the order in which you read the text and
aniticpates future texts. A text contains many focus on information that is relevant to your
layers of accumulated cultural, historical, and background and interests.
social knowledge, which continually adds to
and affects one another.

Thus, intextuality becomes a dialogue among

differe texts and interpretations of the writer,
the audience, and the current and earlier
cultural contexts.