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SECOND HALF
For STEM 11 – CURIE, HEISENBERG, RUTHERFORD, WEINBERG

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FOREWORD:
Welcome to Earth Science!

You can’t fully appreciate your surroundings until you understand the rules of
nature. Earth Science will show how everything in nature is beautifully connected. So
the main reason reason to study this subject is to enhance the way you see the
physical world. Once you understand the connections of everything in nature, I
guarantee you, your life will never be the same again.

Please take note that the Pre-Test, and Independent Practice have Google Form
versions. I encourage you to take the exam online through our Google Classroom.
Answer Keys will also be available online.

Have fun in learning Earth Science!

With best regards,

Sir Gabs

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PRE-TEST

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST
Directions: Answer each of the following questions. Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. How does inner core differ from outer core?

A. Inner core is composed of liquid metal while outer core is composed of solid
iron.
B. Inner core is composed of solid iron while outer core is composed of melted
metal.
C. Inner core is composed molten rocks while outer core is composed of
radioactive decay.
D. Inner core is composed of silicate mineral while outer core is composed of
carbonate mineral.
2. What layer of the Earth is liquid?
A. Lithosphere
B. asthenosphere
C. inner core
D. outer core
3. Gradual breaking down into smaller particles
A. Geomorpholgy
B. Weathering
C. Salinity
D. Erosion
4. Which of the following is not exogenic in nature?
A. weathering
B. erosion
C. mass movement
D. tectonic uplift
5. Factors influencing the weathering process include
A. the climate of an area only.
B. rock composition and structure only.
C. organic processes only.
D. rock composition and structure, climate, organic processes, and subsurface
water.
6. When rock is broken down and disintegrated without any chemical alterations, the
process in operation is
A. physical weathering.
B. chemical weathering.
C. hydrolysis.
D. erosion.
7. When rock is broken down and disintegrated in the presence of water and with
chemical alterations to the rock, the process in operation is
A. physical weathering.
B. chemical weathering.
C. mass movement.
D. biological weathering.
8. Which of the following weathering processes involves the constant freezing and
thawing of water?
A. Frost wedging B. Spheroidal weathering
C. Exfoliation D. Unloading

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9. What process is used to form metamorphic rocks?
A. Lava cools and hardens to form a rock.
B. Bits of sand and gravel form layers that turn into rock from pressure.
C. Extreme heat and pressure from inside the Earth turn rocks into new rocks.
D. All of the above
10. Why do tectonic plates move?
A. Due to active volcanism and earthquakes
B. Due to thermal convection in the mantle
C. Due to earth’s gravitational force
D. Due to earth’s rotation
11. Which phrase would best describe the process of subduction?
A. sinking process
B. rising process
C. colliding process
D. sliding process
12. Does the earth become smaller or bigger when plates move?
A. Bigger. New ocean floor is continuously being formed at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
which means that the Atlantic Ocean is expanding.
B. Bigger. Iceland is located at the boundary between the North American plate,
which moves to the west and the Eurasian plate which move to the east. This
opposing movement increases the width of Iceland approximately two
centimeters every year, about one centimeter to the left and one centimeter to
the right.
C. Smaller. Subduction continuously takes place and some plates keep colliding.
These form new volcanoes and mountains in the Andes and the Himalayas.
D. Neither. When new crust is created in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is a divergent plate
boundary, the same amount of crust is absorbed into the earth during subduction at
convergent plate boundaries.
13. Why does the oceanic crust sink beneath the continental crust at the subduction
zone?
A. The oceanic crust has greater density.
B. The oceanic crust is pulled downward by Earth’s magnetic field.
C. The oceanic crust is pushed from the ridge.
D. The continental crust has a denser composition.
14. In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed a theory that the Earth is once a single
landmass. What is the name of the Mesozoic supercontinent that consisted of all of the
present continents?
A. Eurasia
B. Laurasia
C. Pangaea
D. Gondwanaland
15. Which is the best match for divergent plate boundaries?
A. Two plates move away from each other.
B. Two plates move towards each other.
C. Two plates slip past each other.
D. One plate moves in, the other moves out.

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Subject Area Earth Science Teacher Jay Farofaldane Gabata
Grade Level 11 Consultation
schedule
Activity Sheet no. 1 Week no. 4
Topic: Exogenous Processes

LEARNING TARGETS

1. At the end of the lesson, the students CAN describe how rocks undergo weathering by
A. identifying the different types of weathering and
B. describing the effects of weathering on the surface of the earth.

I. PRIMING ACTIVITIES

A. ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

How did these rocks obtain there physical appearance?

B. LINKING STATEMENT

Earth undergoes change through weathering and erosion.

II. GUIDED INSTRUCTIONS

A. CONCEPT DIGEST

Weathering is the general term applied to the combined action of all physical and
chemical processes that disintegrate and decompose rocks near the earth’s surface
through the elements of weather.

Weathering is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on Earth’s surface,
by the action of rainwater, ice, acids, salt, extremes of temperature, and biological
activity.

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A. Physical Weathering happens whenever rocks are broken up without any change in
their physical composition; sometimes called mechanical weathering.
a. Block disintegration is cause by successive heating and cooling which causes
the expansion and contraction of rock. It is particularly effective in areas with
great diurnal range of temperature (10ºC to 15ºC or more) and barren rocks
without a protective vegetation cover, e.g. in deserted regions.

examples of block disintegration

b. Exfoliation is the stripping of the outer layers of rocks due to intense heating. It
occurs as cracks develop parallel to the land surface a consequence of the
reduction in pressure during uplift and erosion.

examples of exfoliation

c. Frost weathering refers to the alternate freezing and thawing of water inside
the joints of rocks, causing them to split into small particles or fragments. This
occurs because the conversion of water into ice increases the volume of water
by 10 percent. This is the most important physical weathering process in cold
regions.

Example of frost weathering

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B. Chemical Weathering is the weakening or disintegration of rocks and formation of

new compounds or new substances caused by chemical reactions.
a. Oxidation is the process in which oxygen
reacts with the rock and changes its mineral
composition; it is the reaction of rock minerals
with oxygen, thus changing the mineral
composition of the rock. When minerals in rock
oxidize, they become less resistant to weathering.
Iron, a commonly known mineral, becomes red or
rust colored when oxidized.

b. Carbonation is the process of rock minerals example of oxidation

reacting with carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is
formed when water combines with carbon
dioxide. Carbonic acid dissolves or breaks down
minerals in the rock.

c. Hydration is the absorption of water and other

substances into the mineral structure of a rock, example of carbonation
leading in increase in volume, and change in grain shape and sizes.

d. Solution is the process in which some of the minerals in rocks are directly
dissolved in water. As water continues to remove substances in rocks, the rock is
deformed, broken into pieces, and disintegrated. Rock salt and gypsum are
removed through this process.
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C. Biotic weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock through

the action of living organisms.

Plants contribute to both mechanical and chemical

weathering. The roots of the plants penetrate into the
joints of the rocks searching for moisture. As the roots
grow larger and thicker, they exert pressure on rocks.
The pressure acts as wedge, widening and extending
the cracks, breaking the rocks into fragments.
Animals like earthworms, rats, rabbits, termites and
ants breakdown rocks through burrowing.
Humans play a very important role in the weathering
of rocks. Provisions for agriculture, construction of
houses, and construction of roads require a large
amount of rocks to be broken down.
example of biotic weathering by plants

Mass Wasting
Mass wasting refers to the downslope movement of rocks,
regolith, and soil because of gravity. Mass wasting is a
natural process, which follows weathering. It is considered
as a natural hazard. Mass wasting is classified based on
their moisture or water content and speed, or rate of
movement.
human activities that contribute to
weathering of rocks

Fall is the free-fall movement of detached individual pieces of rock.

Slides occur when rock materials remain fairly coherent and move along a well-
defined surface.
Flow happens when rock materials are saturated with water and remove downslope
as viscous fluid.

Rock fall slide Flow

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Erosion
Erosion is the removal of soil at a greater rate than its replacement by natural
agencies.
a. Wind erosion happens when wind carry vast quantity of fine soil and sand
away region, spreading it over adjoining cultivated land and destroying their
fertility.
b. sheet erosion is the removal of thin layers of the soil through surface runoff
and rain.
c. Rill erosion is the removal of soil by action of concentrated running water.
d. Gully Erosion is the removal of soil in water channels or drainage.

Wind erosion Sheet erosion Rill erosion Gully erosion

Watch it in

What is Weathering?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxmAJMjJ5Nk

Weathering and Erosion: Crash Course Kids #10.2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-Iak3Wvh9c

B. CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

Hydrosphere
Answer the following.

1. How does weathering affect the landscape?

2. How do you differentiate weathering from erosion?

III. PRODUCTIVE COLLABORATION

Infographic

Instructions:
1. You will be divided into groups with 2-3 members each.
2. You are going to create an infographic on how to minimize erosion from happening.
3. Your output must be in digital form.
4. Only one output will be submitted for each group. Submit it via email to your
teacher following the correct format.
5. Your output will be rated using the following rubric.

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IV. ANALYSIS QUESTION(S)

1. What environmental practices can be done to minimize the threats of exogenous

processes to human safety?

V. SYNTHESIS
1. If geological processes seem to bring risk to human safety, when then is a safe place
to live? Is there even any?

VI. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE

Test I. Multiple-Choice Test

Answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. What is the term for the general process by which rocks are broken down at the
Earth's surface?
A. deposition B. erosion C. lithification D. weathering

2. Carbonic acid, the primary agent of chemical weathering is produced by:

A. carbon dioxide dissolving in rainwater C. plant roots
B. bacteria that feed on plant and animal remains D. all of these

3. How does weathering differ from erosion?

A. Erosion breaks down rocks into sediments and weathering transports
sediments to new locations
B. Weathering breaks down rocks into sediments and erosion transports
sediments to new locations
C. Erosion deposits sediments in new locations and weathering builds new
landforms
D. Weathering and erosion are the same thing.

4. Which of the following factors would increase the rate of weathering?

A. increasing rainfall C. increasing temperature
B. increasing organic activity D. all of these

5. The process by which wind, water, ice or gravity picks up sediments and moves
them to a new location is called:
A. Erosion B. Compaction C. Velocity D. Deposition

6. Which of the following weathering processes involves the constant freezing and
thawing of water?
A. Frost wedging B. Spheroidal weathering
C. Exfoliation D. Unloading
7. The picture shows a large rock breaking apart. Which of these is MOST likely making
the rock break apart?
A. hot sunlight B. plant roots
C. falling leaves D. running water

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8. Weathering is the breaking down of rock into ___________.
A. boulders B. mountains C. sediment D. ice

9. How does freezing water cause the weathering of rocks? The freezing water—
A. keeps the rocks in place B. makes the rocks last longer
C. expands cracks and breaks rocks D. causes rocks to fall in landslides

10. What type of weathering is it when acid rain breaks down and changes the rock?
A. chemical weathering B. physical weathering
C. erosion D. biotic weathering

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Subject Area Earth Science Teacher Jay Farofaldane Gabata
Grade Level 11 Consultation
schedule
Activity Sheet no. 2 Week no. 4
Topic: Endogenous Processes

LEARNING TARGETS

1. At the end of the lesson, the students CAN explain why the earth’s interior is hot,
describe what happens after magma is formed, and describe the changes in mineral
components and texture of rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature
(metamorphism).

II. PRIMING ACTIVITIES

A. ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Recall the different layers of the earth. Which layer is the hottest?

B. LINKING STATEMENT

Endogenous processes on earth are responsible for earthquakes, development of

continents, mountain building, volcanic activities, and other movements related to
earth’s crust.

II. GUIDED INSTRUCTIONS

A. CONCEPT DIGEST

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Three main sources of heat on earth:

1. Heat from the accretion of earth during its formation.
2. Frictional heating caused by the sinking of core materials to the center of the
planet.
3. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements.

A. Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock called magma onto earth’s surface
through a vent. The driving force of volcanism is the plate tectonic motion created by
the movement of molten rocks in the mantle caused by thermal convection currents.

A volcano is a vent on the surface of the earth where magma is expelled during a
volcanic eruption. Volcanic eruptions can cause changes on the earth’s surface.
Eruptions could trigger mudflows, avalanches, and cracks and fissures.

The heat of the earth is trapped underneath. The temperature increases with depth.
The change in temperature is called geothermal gradient, a result of the residual heat
of primordial earth.

B. Magmatism. Magma is the original material that make up igneous rocks. Originally
found beneath the earth’s surface, magma is very hot and constantly by the internal
heat that reaches the mantle of earth through convective flow. Magmatism happens
when magma is generated and develops into igneous rocks.

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The factors that mainly affect in the formation of magma can be summarized into
three: Temperature, Pressure and composition.

Temperature plays a role in the formation of the melts in the magma. Generally
magma has a temperature range from 700-1300 degrees Celsius. Lower temperature
in the earth's crust might solidify the components and magma may not be formed.
Temperature should be consistent in order for a particular magma to pre produced.
Higher temperature magma is less viscous and therefore more fluid. Magma is
dependent on the rate of cooling which affects the formation of the end products. In
this effect, the end products of magma such as rocks may vary in the structure based
on how high the temperature has been and how long the cooling takes place.

Pressure can affect the shape and formation of melts. This goes hand in hand with the
temperature in order to get a particular form of magma. At constant temperature, the
fluidity of the magma can be dependent on the topographical location of the melts.
As the pressure builds up, the magma will find a way in order to release it, thus
destructive explosion happens.

Compositions of magma vary depending on the types of material present in the area.
Some particles melt at lower temperature than the other. Also, volatile compounds
such as water and carbon dioxide may be present in the melts and can affect the
melting and formation of magma. Generally, the more volatile molecules present in
the magma, the easier for it to melt at lower temperatures.

C. Metamorphism. It is the process of changing the materials that make up a rock. The
chemical components and geologic characteristics of the rock changed due to heat
and pressure that are increasing and decreasing. The minerals in the rock may
change even if the rock does not melt. It should be noted that rocks changing due to
weathering and sedimentation are not considered to have undergone
metamorphism.

Metamorphism occurs at temperatures and pressures higher than 200oC and 300
MPa. Rocks can be subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as they are
buried deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually takes place as a result of tectonic
processes such as continental collisions or subduction.

The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at the pressure and temperature where
melting of the rock in question begins. Once melting begins, the process changes to
an igneous process rather than a metamorphic process.

Types of Metamorphism

1. Contact Metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high
temperatures associated with the igneous
intrusion.

Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion

is heated by the magma, metamorphism is
restricted to the zone surrounding the intrusion,
called a metamorphic or contact aureole.
Outside of the contact aureole, the rocks are
not affected by the intrusive event. The grade
of metamorphism increases in all directions

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toward the intrusion. Because the temperature contrast between the surrounding rock
and the intruded magma is larger at shallow levels in the crust where pressure is low,
contact metamorphism is often referred to as high temperature, low pressure
metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no foliation,
called a hornfels.

2. Regional Metamorphism

Regional metamorphism occurs over large areas and generally does not show any
relationship to igneous bodies. Most regional metamorphism is accompanied by
deformation under non-hydrostatic or differential stress conditions. Thus, regional
metamorphism usually results in forming metamorphic rocks that are strongly foliated,
such as slates, schists, and gneisses. The differential stress usually results from tectonic
forces that produce compressional stresses in the rocks, such as when two continental
masses collide. Thus, regionally metamorphosed rocks occur in the cores of fold/thrust
mountain belts or in eroded mountain ranges. Compressive stresses result in folding
of rock and thickening of the crust, which tends to push rocks to deeper levels where
they are subjected to higher temperatures and pressures.

Watch it in

Volcanoes 101 | National Geographic:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNGUdObDoLk

Biosphere Hydrosphere 14
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B. CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING
Answer the following.

1. What happens to the temperature as the depth increases?

2. How does earth’s internal temperature affect everything on the earth’s surface?

III. PRODUCTIVE COLLABORATION

Venn Diagram

Instructions:
1. You will be working with your pair.
2. Create a Venn diagram showing the differences and similarities of volcanism,
magmatism, and metamorphism.
3. Your output can be digital. Be creative!
4. Only one output will be submitted for each group. Submit it via email to your
teacher following the correct format.

IV. ANALYSIS QUESTION(S)

1. What drives the endogenous processes on earth? Where does the force come
from?

V. SYNTHESIS
1. Why do we need to know the different endogenous processes on earth? How does
these processes affect your life?

VI. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE

Test I. Multiple-Choice Test

Answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. Which is not a consideration in generating magma?

A. addition of heat
B. addition of volatiles
C. increase in pressure through convective uplifting
D. decrease in pressure through convective uplifting

2. Movement of tectonic plates and formation of volcanoes are endogenic processes.

A. true B. false

3. Magma: Intrusive Lava: Extrusive

A. true B. false

4. Temperature and pressure increases with depth.

A. true B. false

5. When one plate subducts and melts beneath

the other, magma is likely to be formed.
A. true B. false

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6. How are magma's formed?
A. Magma's are formed under certain circumstances in special location deep in
the crust or in the upper mantle.
B. Magma's are formed through movement of rocks and minerals.
C. Magma's are formed through heating and cooling of materials on the earth’s
surface
D. Magma's are formed under the earth’s mantle with the help of worms

7. What happens after magma is formed?

A. Magma escaped in two forms intrusion and extrusion
B. Magma escaped in a tube that can be found on the earth’s mantle
C. Magma escaped in the form of a magma monster
D. Magma escaped using a door
8. Why is the Earth’s interior hot?
A. Because of the magma inside the Earth’s mantle
B. Because of the metamorphism happened beneath the earth's surface
C. Because of the global warming that happened on the Earth’s atmosphere
D. Because of the left over heat from its formation and disintegration of
radioactive element

9. What layer of the Earth is considered as the thinnest layer and composed mainly of
silicon and aluminum?
A. Crust B. Inner Core C. Mantle D. Outer Core

10. What layer of the Earth is liquid?

A. Lithosphere
B. asthenosphere
C. inner core
D. outer core

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Subject Area Earth Science Teacher Jay Farofaldane Gabata
Grade Level 11 Consultation schedule
Activity Sheet no. 3 Week no. 4
Topic: Tectonic and Tectonic Processes

LEARNING TARGETS

1. At the end of the lesson, the students CAN describe how rocks behave under different types of
stress such as compression, pulling apart, and shearing, and explain how seafloor spreads.

III. PRIMING ACTIVITIES

A. ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Questions:
1. How does earth look like 2 million years later?

B. LINKING STATEMENT

Plate motions and the interactions along plate boundaries generate forces that cause rocks
to deform.

II. GUIDED INSTRUCTIONS

A. CONCEPT DIGEST

Deformation refers to any change in the shape or size of a rock as a response to stress. The
deformation may occur by either folding or faulting.
Folding in rocks is when they are subjected to tectonic forces from opposite sides.
Compressional stress causing squeezing, tensional stress causes stretching, and shearing stress
causes side-to-side movement.

Figure 1 Folding of Rocks

Faulting is the result of the fracture or displacement of rock layer or strata along a fault plane.
Types of Faults

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Dip-Slip Faults show vertical movement of the hanging wall and the footwall. Examples of dip-
slip faults are the normal faults (caused by tension) and reverse fault (caused by compression).

Figure 2 (left)Dip-slip Faults (normal and reverse), (right) normal fault

Along a normal fault, the block of rock above the fault plane slides down relative to the other
block. Stress that pulls rocks apart causes normal faults. Earthquakes along normal faults are
common near boundaries where tectonic plates are moving apart, such as in the Great Rift
Valley of Africa.
Along a reverse fault, the block of rock above the fault plane moves up relative to the other
block. Stress that presses rocks together causes reverse faults. These faults can occur near
collision-zone boundaries
Strike-slip faults shows horizontal and parallel displacements of the fault plane. A transform
fault, which is caused by the shear strain, is an example of a strike-slip fault.

Figure 3 (left) strike-slip fault (right) Transform fault

Watch it in
Types of Faults in Geology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhSzpCpI38U
The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly 1,200
kilometers through California. It forms the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate
and the North American Plate, and its motion is right-lateral strike-slip (horizontal). The
fault divides into three segments, each with different characteristics and a different
degree of earthquake risk. The slip rate along the fault ranges from 20 to 35 mm (0.79
to 1.38 in)/yr.

Figure 4 San Andreas Fault

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Plate Motion
The continent accretion theory (J.D. Dana) proposed that the continents have always been
stationary, with the gradual addition of new material around a central nucleus.
The continental assimilation hypothesis explained how the ocean areas accumulated the
denser elements then subsided to form basins.
The expanding earth hypothesis stated that the present continents split apart with the
expansion of earth and that the continents combined could cover half of the current earth’s
surface area.
The most accepted theory that explains the movement of plates the continental drift theory
and the theory of seafloor spreading.
Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once united into a single supercontinent
named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that Pangaea broke up
long ago and that the continents then moved to their current positions. He called his
hypothesis continental drift.

Continental drift is the gradual movement of the continents over time. The upper layer of the
crust is broken down into large slabs called plates, which sit on a fluid level of molten rock. The
movement of this lower molten layer, called plate tectonics, causes the plates to shift.

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Watch it in
Continental Drift: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5q8hzF9VVE
Introduction to Plate Tectonics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fzhPmemffII
Plate Tectonics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZTRu620bIsE

Plate Tectonics and Plate Movements

Largest Minor Plates

Seven Major Plates • Arabian Plate
• Caribbean Plate
• African Plate
• Cocos Plate
• Antarctic Plate
• Juan de Fuca Plate
• Eurasian Plate
• Nazca Plate
• Indo-Australian Plate
• Philippine Plate
• North American Plates
• Scotia Plate
• Pacific Plates
• South American Plates

Plate Tectonics
• The Earth’s crust is divided into different plates which are moved in various directions.
• This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other.
• Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or “tectonic”
features.

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• The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of the crust as a consequence of plate
interaction.

1. Divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along
these boundaries, lava is expelled from long fissures, and geysers spurt hot water.

Spreading ridges - As plates move apart new material is erupted to fill the gap.
The magma from the mantle solidifies into basalt rocks. Thus, at divergent boundaries, oceanic
crust is created.

Did you know that Iceland is a country located right on top of a divergent boundary?
Iceland is an example of continental rifting. It has a divergent plate boundary running through
its middle. As the North American and Eurasian plates were pulled apart (see map) volcanic
activity occurred along the cracks and fissures (see photographs).
With many eruptions over time the island grew out of the sea!

2. Convergent boundary is when two plates come together. As two plates collide, one or both
buckles into a rugged mountain range or bends into a deep seafloor trench. Powerful
earthquakes occur around wide areas on both sides of the boundary.
There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries
• Continent-continent collision
• Continent-oceanic crust collision
• Ocean-ocean collision
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a. Continent-Continent collision forms mountains. When

continental crust pushes against continental crust both
sides of the convergent boundary have the same
properties (think back to the description of continental
crust: thick and buoyant). Neither side of the boundary
wants to sink beneath the other side, and as a result the
two plates push against each other and the crust
buckles and cracks, pushing up (and down into the mantle) high mountain ranges. For
example, the European Alps and Himalayas formed this way. India is a land mass that collided
with Eurasian plate millions of years ago.

Figure 5 A mountain range

b. Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision

At a convergent boundary where continental crust
pushes against oceanic crust, the oceanic crust which
is thinner and more dense than the continental crust,
sinks below the continental crust.
This is called a Subduction Zone.
The oceanic crust descends into the mantle at a rate
of centimeters per year. This oceanic crust is called the “Subducting Slab”.
When the subducting slab reaches a depth of around 100 kilometers, it
dehydrates and releases water into the overlying mantle wedge.
The addition of water into the mantle wedge changes the melting point
of the molten material there forming new melt which rises up into the
overlying continental crust forming volcanoes.
Subduction is a way of recycling the oceanic crust. Eventually the
subducting slab sinks down into the mantle to be recycled. It is for this
reason that the oceanic crust is much younger than the continental
crust which is not recycled.
c. Ocean-Ocean Plate Collision
When two oceanic plates collide, one runs Figure 6 subduction zone
over the other which causes it to sink into
the mantle forming a subduction zone. The subducting plate is bent
downward to form a very deep depression in the ocean floor called a
trench. The world’s deepest parts of the ocean are found along
trenches, e.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep!

3. Transform boundary is when two plates sliding past each other. The fracture zone that forms
a transform plate boundary is known as a transform fault. Most transform faults are found in the
ocean basin and connect offsets in the
mid-ocean ridges. A smaller number
connect mid-ocean ridges and subduction
zones. As the plates interact, earthquakes
rattle through a wide boundary zone.

Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs

at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic
crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
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Seafloor spreading and other tectonic activity processes are the result of mantle convection.
Mantle convection is the slow, churning motion of Earth’s mantle. Convection currents carry
heat from the lower mantle and core to the lithosphere. Convection currents also “recycle”
lithospheric materials back to the mantle.
Seafloor spreading occurs along mid-ocean ridges—large mountain ranges rising from the
ocean floor. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for instance, Figure 8 San Andreas Fault
separates the North American plate from the Eurasian
plate, and the South American plate from the African plate. The East Pacific Rise is a mid-
ocean ridge that runs through the eastern Pacific Ocean and separates the Pacific plate from
the North American plate, the Cocos plate, the Nazca plate, and the Antarctic plate. The
Southeast Indian Ridge marks where the southern Indo-Australian plate forms a divergent
boundary with the Antarctic plate.

B. CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

1. Why does earth have plate boundaries?

2. How does seafloor spread?

III. PRODUCTIVE COLLABORATION

Continental Drift
Instructions:
1. You will be working with your pair.
2. See the attached activity sheet.
3. Scan or take a picture of the completed activity sheets.
4. Only one output will be submitted for each pair. Submit it via email to your teacher following
the correct format.

IV. ANALYSIS QUESTION(S)

1. How do volcanic eruptions and earthquakes move and shake the rocks of the earth?

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V. SYNTHESIS

1. Why is it important for you to learn about the different plate boundaries?

VI. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE

Answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. The occurrences of earthquakes and volcanoes around the world gave support to
Wegener’s ideas. Where do most earthquakes and volcanoes occur?
a. along hot spots
b. along tectonic plates
c. at the boundaries between lithospheric plates
d. at the boundary between the upper mantle and lower mantle
2. Which of the following best describes a convergent plate boundary? Two plates …
a. collide with each other
b. that move away from each other
c. that slide horizontally
d. that are sinking together
3. Which is the best match for divergent plate boundaries?
E. Two plates move away from each other.
F. Two plates move towards each other.
G. Two plates slip past each other.
H. One plate moves in, the other moves out.
4. What type of plate boundary does not produce mountains or volcanoes?
a. convergent
b. divergent
c. transform
d. oceanic-oceanic
For questions 5 and 6, refer to the figure below.

5. According to the figure, what type of plate boundary occurs between the North American
Plate and the Eurasian Plate?
a. transform boundary
b. divergent boundary
c. convergent oceanic-continental plate boundary
d. convergent oceanic-oceanic plate boundary
6. According to the figure, what type of plate boundary occurs between the Nazca Plate and
the South American Plate?
a. convergent oceanic-continental plate boundary
b. convergent oceanic-oceanic plate boundary
c. convergent continental-continental plate boundary
d. transform boundary
7. The Himalayas in South Asia are an example of what type of plate boundary?
a. convergent oceanic-continental boundary
b. divergent boundary
c. convergent continental-continental boundary
d. transform fault boundary
8. How is a trench formed in the ocean?
a. When two plates collide, a trench is formed.
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b. When oceanic plates collide, one subducts under the other.
c. When two continental plates collide, a trench is formed.
d. When two oceanic plates move apart, a valley forms in the ocean
9. The process occurring in the mantle that is thought to be the force behind plate tectonics is
the _____.
a. plate boundary
b. compression forces
c. normal fault
d. convection current
10. What type of force creates mountains?
a. tension force
b. compression force
c. horizontal force
d. convection force

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WEEK 5
PRE-TEST

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST
Directions: Answer each of the following questions. Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. Which rock layer in the diagram seems to be the oldest?

a. A
b. C
c. F
d. E

2. This rock was formed by smaller pieces of rock that settled at the bottom of a lake millions of
years ago. What type of rock is this?
a. Sedimentary
b. Igneous
c. Metamorphic
d. Basalt

3. Why are isotopes with short half-lives not useful for dating very old rocks?
a. because not enough of the parent isotope remains to measure accurately
b. because not enough of the daughter product has formed to be detectable
c. because neither the parent isotope nor the daughter product will be detectable
d. because very old rocks would never have contained these isotopes
4. The length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay is its
a. Era
b. Age
c. half-life
d. eon
5. The original element that undergoes radioactive decay is known as the
a. daughter
b. element
c. half-life
d. parent element
e. carbon-14
6. What were the dominant animals of the Mesozoic Era?
a. fish
b. reptiles
c. mammals
d. bacteria
7. During which era did the earliest dinosaurs appear?
a. Cenozoic
b. Paleozoic
c. Mesozoic
d. Precambrian
8. The smallest divisions of the geologic time scale are referred to as
a. epochs
b. eons
c. eras
d. periods
9. The "Cambrian Explosion" refers to
a. a meteorite impact off the northwest coast of Australia
b. lava flows of the Siberian traps
c. a late Paleozoic mass extinction
d. increased marine biodiversity
10. The Cenozoic is best known as the
a. Age of Dinosaurs
b. Age of the Mammals
c. Age of Reptiles
d. Age of Amphibians
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Subject Area Earth and Life Teacher Jay Farofaldane Gabata
Science
Grade Level 11 Consultation schedule
Activity Sheet no. 1 Week no. 5
Topic: History of Earth and Relative and Absolute Dating

LEARNING TARGETS

1. At the end of the lesson, the students CAN describe how layers of rocks are formed, describe
the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the age of the stratified rocks

IV. PRIMING ACTIVITIES

A. ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

The diagram above shows the evolutionary history of life.

How did humans come up with the graph even before our existence?

B. LINKING STATEMENT

The key to understanding the past is by understanding the present.

II. GUIDED INSTRUCTIONS

A. CONCEPT DIGEST

Uniformitarianism is a theory based on the work of James Hutton and made popular by
Charles Lyell in the 19th century. This theory states that the forces and processes observable at
earth’s surface are the same that have shaped earth’s landscape throughout natural history.
The present is the key to the past.

Relative dating is used to determine whether an object or event is older or younger than other
objects or events. Sedimentary rocks are useful if relative dating because:
• They are formed from fragments of other types of rocks.
• New sedimentary rock layers are almost always flat
• Fossils are deposited in the sedimentary rocks.

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Law of Horizontality
The Law of Original Horizontality was first proposed
by Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno in
the 17th century. The law states that layers of
sediment were originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity. Any rock layers that
are now folded and tilted have since been altered
by later outside forces. This is a fundamental law in
geology and especially important for the
understanding of plate tectonics.

Figure 1 Law of Horizontality

Law of Superposition
It states that in any undisturbed sequence layers of rock, the oldest layer would be at the
bottom, and the youngest would be at the top.

Principle of Crosscutting Relations

This idea states that any rock or fault that cuts across other rocks is younger than those it cuts
across. When layers of rocks are cut by another event, maybe a lava flow, the original rock
layers are older and the intrusion is younger. Sills, batholiths, dike, laccoliths

Idea of Unconformities
Unconformities are surfaces of erosion that separate younger rocks from older ones. For
example, if a sedimentary rock forms and is exposed to the elements, it any would begin to
wear away. The eroded surface would eventually from a new rock, as new sediments begin to
pile up. In an unconformity, the existing rock is lost and unrecoverable. It is difficult to
determine the degree of erosion that took place or what kind of rocks were worn away.

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Watch it in
Laws of Relative Rock Dating: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2Ex5DIjtfU
Relative Dating of Rock Layers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fYSeM63Fv0s

Absolute Dating is the method of measuring the absolute age of an object or event. To
determine the absolute ages of rocks and fossils, scientist analyze isotopes of radioactive
elements. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have similar number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.

Unstable isotopes break down into stable isotopes or other elements. They are called
radioactive.

In radioactive decay, an unstable radioactive isotope break down into a stable isotope. The
unstable isotope is called the parent isotope while the stable isotope produced by the
radioactive decay of the parent isotope is called the daughter isotope.

The rate of radioactive decay is constant, that is why comparing the amount of parent
material with the amount of daughter material is important in dating rocks. Therefore, the
more daughter material there is, the older the rock.

Half-life is the time needed for half of the sample of a radioactive substance to undergo
radioactive decay. After every half-life, the amount of parent material decreases by one-half.

Radiometric dating is another dating method achieved by determining the absolute age of a
sample based on the ratio of parent material to daughter material. Therefore, knowing the
rate of decay for any radioactive element could help in figuring out the absolute age of the
rock.

Four Radiometric-dating Methods

• Potassium-argon method
• Uranium-lead method
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• Rubidium-strontium method
• Carbon-14 method

The potassium-argon method uses potassium-40, which has a half-life of 1.3 billion years and as
it decays, it leaves its daughter material argon. This method is used mainly to date rocks, which
are older than 100 000 years.

Carbon-14 Method

In August 2014, a dinosaur fossil was discovered in the Philippines for the very first time in
Palawan. The fossils belong to Megalosaurus which is believed to be a meat-eating dinosaur
that lived on earth around the middle of Jurassic period, or about 166 Mya.

Watch it in
Radiometric or Absolute Rock Dating: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4AZbX_cZl0
Relative Dating of Rock Layers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fYSeM63Fv0s

B. CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

Answer the following.

1. How do relative dating and absolute dating differ from each other?

2. What does the law of uniformitarianism tell us about the history of the earth?

III. PRODUCTIVE COLLABORATION

Telling Relative Time

Instructions:
1. You will be divided into groups with 2-3 members each.
2. Answer the activity found in your Student’s Worksheet.
3. Only one output will be submitted for each group. Submit it via email to your teacher
following the correct format.

IV. ANALYSIS QUESTION(S)

1. How do layers of rocks explain the history of earth?

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V. SYNTHESIS
1. Why is it important for us to study the past?

VI. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE

Test I. Multiple-Choice Test

Answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. Which of the following statements on sedimentary rocks is not correct?

a. Old rock layers are almost always flat.
b. Fossils are not deposited in these rock layers.
c. Sedimentary rocks are formed from fragments of other types of rocks.
d. All of the above
2. It states that when an area of land is forced to bend, this force usually comes from beneath
the earth.
a. Horizontality
b. Superposition
c. Unconformities
d. Cross-cutting relations
3. It is a principle which states that the existing rock is lost and cannot be discovered.
a. Horizontality
b. Superposition
c. Unconformities
d. Cross-cutting relations
4. It is an example of parent isotope.
a. Argon
b. Lead
c. Strontium
d. Uranium
5. This method is used to date rocks older than 100 000 years.
a. Uranium-lead method
b. Carbon-14 method
c. Potassium-argon method
d. Rubidium-strontium method
6. According to the law of superposition, the oldest fossils are found
a. At the top of the rock layers
b. Near the bottom of the rock layers
c. In the middle of the rock layers
d. Somewhat near the surface
7. Gaps in rock layers caused by erosion or plate tectonics are called
a. law of superposition
b. unconformities
c. uniformitarianism
d. relative dating
8. Which type of dating method can be used on rock layers by applying the Law of
Superposition?
a. relative dating
b. absolute dating
c. radioactive dating
d. radiometric dating
9. The ________ states that layers of sediment were originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity.
a. law of superposition
b. law of horizontality
c. uniformitarianism
d. unconformities
10. What happens during radioactive decay?
a. A stable isotope of one element changes into an unstable isotope of a different
element.
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b. A stable isotope of one element changes into an unstable isotope of the same
element.
c. An unstable isotope of one element changes into a stable isotope of a different
element.
d. An unstable isotope of one element changes into a stable isotope of the same
element.

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Subject Area Earth and Life Teacher Jay Farofaldane Gabata
Science
Grade Level 11 Consultation schedule
Activity Sheet no. 2 Week no. 5
Topic: Geologic Time Scale

LEARNING TARGETS

1. At the end of the lesson, the students CAN describe how earth’s history can be interpreted from
geologic time scale.

V. PRIMING ACTIVITIES

A. ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

(Left) Hadean Earth (right) Mesozoic earth

What are the striking differences of the Hadean earth and the Mesozoic earth?

B. LINKING STATEMENT

The geologic time scale indicates the life forms present in different periods.

II. GUIDED INSTRUCTIONS

A. CONCEPT DIGEST

A fossil is the remnant of any ancient animal or plant that has been preserved in crystallized
rocks. The age of the fossil is equal to the age of the rock from where it was found.

Index fossils serve as guide or indicators of certain geologic periods. If two rocks anywhere on
the planet contain the same index fossil, then it can be said that those rocks are from the
same period.

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Sample index fossils of different era and period

Geologic time scale is the system used by scientists to relate stratigraphy and time to any
geologic events.

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Eons
Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and are
hundreds of millions of years in duration. In the time
scale above you can see the Phanerozoic Eon is the
most recent eon and began more than 500 million
years ago.

Periods
Eras are subdivided into periods. The events that
bound the periods are widespread in their extent but
are not as significant as those which bound the eras. In
the time scale above you can see that the Paleozoic is
subdivided into the Permian, Pennsylvanian,
Mississippian, Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and
Cambrian periods.

Epochs
Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and the periods
of the Cenozoic are frequently subdivided into
epochs. Subdivision of periods into epochs can be
done only for the most recent portion of the geologic
time scale. This is because older rocks have been
buried deeply, intensely deformed and severely
modified by long-term earth processes. As a result, the
history contained within these rocks cannot be as
clearly interpreted.

Watch it in
A Brief History of Geologic Time: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWp5ZpJAIAE

The Hadean Eon, named after the Greek god and ruler of the underworld Hades, is the oldest
eon and dates from 4.5–4.0 billion years ago. This time represents Earth's earliest history, during
which the planet was characterized by a partially molten surface, volcanism, and asteroid
impacts.

The Archean Eon is one of the four geologic eons of Earth's history, occurring 4,000 to 2,500
million years ago. During the Archean, the Earth's crust had cooled enough to allow the
formation of continents and the beginning of life on Earth
It was early in the Archean that life first appeared on Earth. Our oldest fossils date to roughly
3.5 billion years ago, and consist of bacteria microfossils. In fact, all life during the more than
one billion years of the Archean was bacterial. The Archean coast was home to mounded
colonies of photosynthetic bacteria called stromatolites.

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Proterozoic Eon, the younger of the two divisions of Precambrian time, the older being the
Archean Eon. The Proterozoic Eon extended from 2.5 billion to 541 million years ago and is
often divided into the Paleoproterozoic, the Mesoproterozoic, and the Neoproterozoic (1
billion to 541 million years ago) eras. Proterozoic rocks have been identified on all the
continents and often constitute important sources of metallic ores, notably of iron, gold,
copper, uranium, and nickel. During the Proterozoic, the atmosphere and oceans changed
significantly. Proterozoic rocks contain many definite traces of primitive life-forms—the fossil
remains of bacteria and blue-green algae, as well as of the first oxygen-dependent animals,
the Ediacara fauna. Cyanobateria -

The Paleozoic Era, which ran from about 542 million years ago to 251 million years ago, was a
time of great change on Earth. The era began with the breakup of one supercontinent and
the formation of another. Plants became widespread. And the first vertebrate animals
colonized land.

The Mesozoic Era is an interval of geological time from about 252 to 66 million years ago. It is
also called the Age of Reptiles and the Age of Conifers. The Mesozoic is one of three geologic
eras of the Phanerozoic Eon, preceded by the Paleozoic and succeeded by the Cenozoic.
The major divisions of the Mesozoic Era are, from oldest to youngest, the Triassic Period, the
Jurassic Period, and the Cretaceous Period. The ancestors of major plant and animal groups
that exist today first appeared during the Mesozoic, but this era is best known as the time of
the dinosaurs.

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Cenozoic Era, third of the major eras of Earth’s history, beginning about 66 million years ago
and extending to the present. It was the interval of time during which the continents assumed
their modern configuration and geographic positions and during which Earth’s flora and fauna
evolved toward those of the present.
Derived from the Greek for recent life, it reflects the sequential development and
diversification of life on Earth from the Paleozoic (ancient life) through the Mesozoic (middle
life).
The Cenozoic has seen the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and the rise of mankind. It is
marked by the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period and
the end of the Mesozoic Era. This era is the era of new life. Mammals may not have risen from
the oceans at this time, but they did evolve into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and
avian forms.
The major geological happenings of the Cenozoic Era are that the continents moved into their
current positions. After splitting with Gondwana during the early Cretaceous, Australis-New
Guinea drifted north and collided with Southeast Asia. Antarctica moved into its current
position over the South Pole and the Atlantic Ocean widened. Eventually, South America
became attached to North America.
India collided with Asia between 55 and 45 million years ago; Arabia collided with Eurasia,
closing the Tethy’s Ocean around 35 million years ago.

B. CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

Answer the following.Biosphere
Hydrosphere

1. What is the importance of fossils?

2. What is the significance of the extinction of dinosaurs for the lives today?

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III. PRODUCTIVE COLLABORATION

Ages of Rock

Instructions:
1. You will be working with your group.
2. Create your own representation of the Geologic Time Scale.
3. Your output can be digital. Be creative! The rubric and sample output is given below.
4. Answer the Analysis Question as a group.
5. Answer the Synthesis individually. Include your answers in your final output.
4. Only one output will be submitted for each group. Submit it via email to your teacher
following the correct format.

IV. ANALYSIS QUESTION(S)

1. What surprised you about the Earth’s time scale and how it’s organized? Explain.

V. SYNTHESIS

1. If there is something you want to change about the history of the earth, what would it be?
Why?

VI. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE

Test I. Multiple-Choice Test

Answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of your choice.

1. The Geologic Time Scale is a record of what?

a. old geologists
b. sweet geology music
c. the known history of rocks and fossils
d. a list of every living thing ever
2. How old do Paleontologists believe the Earth is?
a. 2015 years old
b. billion years old
c. 4.6 billion years old
d. 4.6 million years old
3. Paleozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic are all
a. Epochs
b. Eras
c. Periods
d. Eons
4. Which is the most recent era of time- the one that we are currently in?
a. Mesozoic
b. Paleozoic

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c. Cenozoic
d. Precambrian
5. Name the 4 time frames in order from oldest to youngest.
a. Precambrian Time, Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era, Cenozoic Era
b. Mesozoic Era, Precambrian time, Cenozoic Era, Paleozoic Era
c. Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era, Precambrian Time, Cenozoic Era
d. Mesozoic Era, Cenozoic Era, Precambrian Time, Paleozoic Era
6. The Era with the largest extinction we know of is the...
a. Mesozoic era
b. Precambrian era
c. Paleozoic era
d. Cenozoic era
7. The Era when humans first appeared was...
a. Cenozoic
b. Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic
d. Precambrian
8. "age of reptiles"
a. Paleozoic Era
b. Cenozoic Era
c. Mesozoic Era
d. Precambrian Era
9. The single land mass that existed about 245 million years ago is named what?
a. Fossil
b. Pangea
c. Bob
d. Tectonic plates
10. Trilobites were alive during the _____________
a. Cenozoic
b. Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic
d. Cretaceous

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Subject Area Earth Science Teacher Jay Farofaldane Gabata

Grade Level 11 Consultation schedule
Activity Sheet no. 1 Week no. 6
Topic: Soil Conservation

LEARNING TARGETS

1. At the end of the lesson, the students CAN describe identify human activities, such as farming,
construction of structures, and waste disposal, that affect the quality and quantity of soil.

A. ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

How does deforestation affect soil quality?

B. LINKING STATEMENT

Many human activities affect the soil and soil quality.

II. GUIDED INSTRUCTIONS

A. CONCEPT DIGEST

Soil is a material composed of five ingredients — minerals, soil organic matter, living organisms,
gas, and water. Soil minerals are divided into three size classes — clay, silt, and sand; the
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percentages of particles in these size classes is called soil texture. The most common mineral in
soils is quartz; it makes beautiful crystals but it is not very reactive. Soil organic matter is plant,
animal, and microbial residues in various states of decomposition; it is a critical ingredient — in
fact the percentage of soil organic matter in a soil is among the best indicators of
agricultural soil quality. Soil colors range from the common browns, yellows, reds, grays, whites,
and blacks to rare soil colors such as greens and blues.

Soil Profile
Horizons are first assigned to one of the following master horizons as designated by a single
capital letter:

• O - Horizon containing a high percentage of soil organic matter.

• A - Horizon darkened by the accumulation of organic matter.
• E - Horizon formed through the removal (eluviation) of clays, organic matter, iron, or
aluminum. Usually lightened in color due to these removals.
• B - Broad class used for subsurface horizons that have been transformed substantially by
a soil formation process such as color and structure development; the deposition (illuviation)
of materials such as clays, organic matter, iron, aluminum, carbonates, or gypsum; carbonate
or gypsum loss; brittleness and high density; or intense weathering leading to the accumulation
of weathering-resistant minerals.
• C - A horizon minimally affected or unaffected by the soil formation processes.
• R - Bedrock. Hard water

Soils are the among the great ecosystem service providers on earth (Haygarth & Ritz 2009).
They store and provide water for plants. They prevent floods by transferring water slowly to
streams and groundwater. They filter and remediate pollutants. They cycle and recycle
nutrients and wastes — transforming them into biologically available forms, storing them away
for later use, and preventing their leaching to ground and surface waters. Soils provide habitat
for a vast diversity of life. They take up and release important gases, including oxygen and
greenhouse gases, a service called gas regulation. Many of these ecosystem services are
being lost through the degradation and loss of soils. The conservation, restoration, and
optimization of ecosystem services provided by soils is among the great challenges for
humanity in the 21st century.

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Activities Affecting the Quality and Quantity of Soil

1. Agricultural Activities
2. Overgrazing Animals
3. Deforestation
4. Mining
5. Development and Expansion
6. Recreational Activities

A. Agricultural Depletion
• Farming can degrade the topsoil and lead to
an increase in erosion.
• To plant a field, a farmer must first till the soil,
breaking it up and loosening it so the new plants
can take root.
• Once the plants are harvested, the loose soil
remains and wind or rain can easily wash it away.
Strategies for Prevention
• Leave leaf litter on the ground
• Grow cover crops, special crops grown in the dry season to cover the soil
• Plant tall trees around fields to buffer the effect of wind
• Drive tractor as little as possible
• Use drip irrigation that puts small amounts of water in the ground frequently
• Avoid watering crops that make big water drops on the ground
• Keep fields as flat as possible to avoid soil eroding downhill

B. Overgrazing Animals
Grazing animals are animals that live on large areas of
grassland. They wander over the area and eat grasses
and shrubs. They can remove large amounts of the
plant cover for an area. If too many animals graze the
same land area, once the tips of grasses and shrubs
have been eaten, they will use their hooves to pull
plants out by their roots

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Strategies for Prevention
• Move animals throughout the year, so they don’t consume all the vegetation in one
spot
• Keep animals away from stream banks, where hills are especially prone to erosion

C. Deforestation
• Deforestation is another practice that can greatly
increase the rate of erosion in a region.
• Logging kills these plants, and even if the
operation plants new trees to replace the old ones, the
younger plants require years to put down the kind of
root system that once protected the soil.
• Timber companies utilize a variety of different
techniques, such as partial clearing and replanting, to
prevent soil degradation and erosion in their work zones.

D. Mining
• Mining operations are major contributors to erosion, especially on a local level. Many
mining techniques involve shifting large amounts of earth, such as strip mining or mountaintop
removal. These operations leave large amounts of loose soil exposed to the elements, and
they often require large amounts of water, which can exacerbate the erosion process.
• Plants take time to grow after mining or deforestation.
Strategies for Prevention
• Reduce the amount of land we logged and mine
• Reduce number of roads that are built to access logging areas
• Avoid logging and mining on steep lands
• Replant the logged areas with new seedlings

E. Development and Expansion

• Construction of a building often begins by
clearing the area of any plants or other natural
defenses against soil erosion.
• Some landscapers replace natural ground
cover with plant species unsuited to the climate, and
these plants may not be as effective at preventing
erosion.

Strategies for Prevention

• Reduce the amount of land that we turn into cities,

urban areas, parking lots, etc.
• Keep as much as “green space” as possible, such as
strips of trees where plants can grow.
• Avoid building on steep hills.
• Landscape with plants to avoid erosion.

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F. Recreational Activities
• Humans also cause erosion through recreational
activities, like hiking and riding off-road vehicles. An
even greater amount of erosion occurs when people
drive off-road vehicles over an area. The area
eventually develops bare spots where no plants can
grow. Erosion becomes a serious problem in these
areas.
Strategies for Prevention
• Avoid using off-road vehicles on hilly lands
• Stay on designated trails

B. CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING

Answer the following.

1. How important soil is for the biosphere?

III. PRODUCTIVE COLLABORATION

Poster

Instructions:
1. You will be grouped with your
classmates.
2. Communicate with your group and
come up with ideas.
3. Create a poster about Soil
Conservation.
4. Your work can be digital or hard
copy. If you choose to have the card
copy, take a picture and scan your
work and submit it to your teacher via
email.
5. Attach a description of your poster.
The description must not be more
than 150 words.
6. Your poster will be rated using the
following rubrics.

IV. ANALYSIS QUESTION(S)

1. How do layers of rocks explain the history of earth?

V. SYNTHESIS
1. Why is it important for us to study the past?

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