COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

By
Dr. Byomakesh Mahapatra
MIT Manipal, MAHE
Syllabus
ICE 2225: Communication Systems [3 0 0 3]
Elements of communication systems; Analog Communication techniques : Amplitude
modulation Schemes, Angle (Non-Linear) Modulation; Pulse Modulation schemes ; Data
transmission using analog carriers- Shift Keying techniques ; Channel Encoding &
decoding technologies; Conceptual idea of encryption & decryption; Communication
Protocols& Networking; Internet of Things; Wireless sensor actuator networks,
Applications: Spread Spectrum & Mobile Communications - Optical fiber
communication- Digital telephony , Basic principles of Digital TV Broadcasting.
References:
1. Haykin, Simon, and Michael Moher, Introduction to analog & digital
communications, John Wiley & Sons. 2007.
2. Haykin, Simon, Communication systems, John Wiley & Sons, (4e), 2008.
3. Stallings, William, Cryptography and network security: principles and practices,
Pearson Education India, (4e), 2006.
 Introduction
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of conveying or
transferring information from one point to
another.
(Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link
between two points for information exchange.
 Elements of Communication System:
Information source:
The message or information to be communicated
originates in information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data,
symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect
the incoming message signal and modify it in a
suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be
transmitted via the chosen channel to the
receiving point.
 Elements of Communication System:
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and free
space or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming modified
version of the message signal from the channel
and processes it to recreate the original (non-
electrical) form of the message signal.
 Signal, Message, Information
Signal:
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect to
time or space or independent or dependent
variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.
Ex: m(t) = Acos(ωt+ϕ) or m(t) = A sin(ωt+ϕ)
Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude(Volts) w = Frequency ( rad/sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)
 Types of Signals
• Analog or Continuous Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of
signal continuously varies with respect to time or
if the signal contains infinite number of
amplitudes, it is called Analog or continuous
signal.
 Types of Signals
Digital Signal: If the signal contains only two
discrete amplitudes, then it is called digital signal.
• With respect to communication, signals are
classified into,
• Baseband signal
• Bandpass signal
Baseband signal: If the signal contains zero
frequency or near to zero frequency, it is called
baseband signal.
Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.
 Types of Signals
Bandpass signal: If the signal contains band of
frequencies far away from base or zero, it is called
bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.

Message: It is sequence of symbols.

Ex: Happy New Year 2020.
Information: The content in the message is called
information. It is inversely proportional to
probability of occurrence of the symbol.

• Information is measured in bits, decits, nats.

List of frequency range and their use in
communication system
List of frequency range and their use in
communication system
 Limitations of Communication System
• Technological Problems:
To implement communication systems, Tx, Rx, channel
are required which requires hardware.
Communication system is expensive and complex.
• Bandwidth & Noise:
The effect of noise can be reduced by providing
more bandwidth to stations but due to this less
number of stations can only be accommodated.
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):Noise should be low to
increase channel capacity but it is an unavoidable
aspect of communication system.
 Modulation
It is the process of varying the characteristics of
high frequency carrier in accordance with
instantaneous values of modulating or message
or baseband signal.
(Or)
It is a frequency translation technique which
converts baseband or low frequency signal to
bandpass or high frequency signal.

Modulation is used in the transmitter.

Types of Modulation
 Types of Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the carrier

is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is varied

in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.
 Benefits or Need of Modulation
• To reduce the length or height of antenna
• For multiplexing

• For narrow banding or to use antenna with single

or same length

• To reduce noise effect

• To avoid equipment limitation or to reduce the

size of the equipment.
Benefits or Need of Modulation cont…
• Relation between antenna height, wavelength,
frequency
• Theoretically for successful transmission and reception
of a signal the antenna height should be
𝜆
H= ,4
Where, 𝜆 = wavelength
and can be obtained from the relation by C= 𝜆 f
• The maximum coverage distance of the transmitting
antenna is calculated by
D = 2𝑅𝐻
Where R = Radius of earth = 6.4x 106 meter
Problems:
Q1. Find the minimum length of antenna used to
receive a signal of frequency 30 MHz. Find the
coverage distance for that antenna height.
Ans: 2.5 m

Q2. Find the minimum height of antenna used to

transmit a signal of 20 KHz.
 Amplitude Modulation
❖ The amplitude of the carrier signal varies accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

❖ It is a spectrum translation technique use to increase the power

and frequency of low-level baseband signal to a high-power
signal suitable for long distance transmission.

Types:
❖ amplitude modulation (AM)
❖ double sideband-suppressed
carrier (DSB-SC)
❖ single sideband (SSB)
❖ vestigial sideband (VSB)
 Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

Modulating or
Massage signal

+
Modulator Carrier wave

Modulated Wave
 Amplitude Modulation

Modulated Wave

The carrier signal is given by,

C(t) = Ac Coswct
Where, Ac= Maximum amplitude of the carrier signal.
Where, w= 2πfc= Frequency of the carrier signal.

Modulating or baseband signal is given by,

X(t) = Am Coswmt
Where, Am = Amplitude of the baseband signal.
 Amplitude Modulation
The standard equation for amplitude modulated
signal is expressed as,
s(t)=[Ac+ Am Cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) or
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ μ(Cos2πfmt)]
Where, μ = ma = Am/Ac = Modulation Index

Time Domain representation of AM:

S(t)=AcCos2πfct+μAc/2*Cos[2πfc+2πfm]t+μAc/2*Cos[2πfc-2πfm]t
I. term: Carrier signal with amplitude Ac and frequency fc.
II. term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc+fm , Upper sideband
frequency
III.term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc-fm , Lower sideband
frequency
 Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Domain representation of AM:
The time domain representation of AM wave is
given by,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Taking Fourier transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acma/2[M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]

Modulating (baseband) signal AM Modulated signal

 Modulation Index
Modulation index or depth of modulation is given
by,
ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]= Am/Ac

Percentage of modulation index is,

%ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]X100= [Am/Ac ]X100
Types of AM with respect to modulation index:
• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
 Modulation Index
If modulation index value is less than
1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5,
then the modulated output would look
like the following figure. It is called
as Under-modulation. Such a wave
is called as an under-modulated
wave.

In this modulation as the value of

the index increases, the carrier
experiences a 180o phase
reversal, which causes additional
sidebands and hence, the wave
gets distorted.
Numerical analysis:
Q) A modulating signal m(t)=10cos(2π×103t) is amplitude
modulated with a carrier signal c(t)=50cos(2π×105t) Find
the modulation index and determine whether this is a over
or under modulated wave.

Q2: The tuned ckt of the oscillator in a simple AM

transmitter employs a 50µH coil and 1nf capacitor. If the
oscillator o/p is modulated by audio frq. Upto 10 KHz,
what is the range occupied by the sideband.

1
Formula to find out carrier frequency : 𝑓𝑐 = 2𝜋
𝐿𝐶
Types of AM
 Generation of AM Wave
A Double Side Band Full carrier (DSB-FC) AM wave
can be generated by using two type of modulator
circuit that are :

❖Square Law Modulator

❖Switching Modulator
How I
can do this
 Generation
1) Square Law modulator:
of AM Wave
This circuit consists of,
• A non-linear device (e.g. Diode )
• Band pass filter
• Carrier source and modulating signal

(a) Square Law modulator

(a) Block diagram
(b) Circuit diagram

(b)
 Generation of AM Wave
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with each
other and their sum V1(t) is applied at the input of non-linear device
such as diode or transistor.
V1(t) = x(t) + Ac cosWct --- (1)
The input-output relation of non-linear device is,
V2(t)= aV1(t)+bV12(t) --- (2) (Where a, b are constant)
Using (1) in (2),
V2(t) = ax(t) + aAc Cos (2πfct)+ bx2(t) + 2bx(t) AcCos (2πfct) + b Ac2 Cos2 (2πfct)
(3)
Out of these 5 terms, 1,3,5 terms are unuseful terms are eliminated
by BPF.
Output of BPF is given by,
V0(t) = a Ac Cos (2πfct)+ 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)---(4)
 Generation of AM Wave
2) Switching Modulator:
 Generation of AM Wave
The carrier signal c(t) is connected in series with
modulating signal x(t).
Sum of these two signals is passed through a diode.
Output of the diode is passed through a band pass
filter and the result is an AM wave.
V1(t) = x(t) + c(t) ---(1)
Amplitude of c(t) is much greater than x(t), so ON &
OFF of diode is determined by c(t)
When c(t) is positive, V2(t) = V1(t) ---(2)
When c(t) is negative, V2(t) = 0 ---(3), Finally,
V2(t) =
 Detection of AM Wave
Demodulation or detection is the process of
recovering the original message signal from the
received modulated signal.

Types of AM Detectors:
1. Square Law detector
2. Envelope detector
3. Rectifier detector
 Detection of AM Wave
Square Law detector:

The amplitude modulated wave is given as input to the

square law device.
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t)---(1)
When this is passed through square law device,
V2(t) = aAcCoswct + aAcmx(t)Coswct+ bAc2Cos2wct+
2bAc2mx(t)Cos2wct+ bAc2m2x2(t)Cos2wct---(2)
 Detection of AM Wave
In order to extract the original message signal, V2(t)
is passed through a low pass filter .
The output of LPF is,
V0(t) = mbAc2x(t) ---(3)
Envelope Detector:
 Detection of AM Wave
• The standard AM wave is applied at the input of
detector .
• In every positive half cycle of input, diode is
forward biased which charges capacitor ‘C’.
• When capacitor charges to peak value of input
voltage, diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor discharges through ‘R’ between
positive peaks.
• This process continuous and capacitor charges
and discharges repeatedly.
 Detection of AM Wave

Rectifier detector:
• In rectifier detector, diode acts as rectifier which
allows only positive half of the modulated signal
to the filter.

• The low pass filter removes all the high frequency

components giving envelope at its output.

• This envelope will have some dc value which can

be removed by passing through capacitor ‘C’.

• The output of rectifier detector is the envelope

with zero dc value.
Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(DSB-SC)
The equation of AM wave in simple form is given
by,
S(t) = Ac Cos wct +
Here, carrier component remains constant and
does not convey any information.
Therefore, if the carrier is suppressed, only
sidebands remain in the spectrum requiring less
power.
• DSB-SC Contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB
• Power efficiency is 100%
• % Power saving in DSB-SC w.r.t AM is 66.67%.
 DSB-SC Modulation
A DSB-SC signal Can be generated by using three
type of modulator circuit
❖ Product Modulator
❖ Balance Modulator
❖ Ring Modulator

Time and Frequency domain

representation of DSB-SC
DSB-SC Modulation : Product Modulator
A DSB-SC signal is obtained by multiplying the
modulating signal x(t) with carrier signal c(t).
1. Product Modulator
❖ The product modulator is basically a mixer circuit that generate
sum and difference value by suppressing the carrier by using the
heterodyning principle

➢ Here the mixer is an active or passive

device that converts a signal from one
frequency to another.
➢ The IF frequency produce from the
mixer circuit is the sum and difference
Product Modulator
frequencies, fRF ± fLO.
DSB-SC Modulation: Balanced Modulator
2. Balanced Modulator:
It consists of two amplitude modulators arranged
in balanced configuration to suppress the
carrier completely.
DSB-SC Modulation: Balanced Modulator
Operation:
• Carrier c(t) is applied to both the modulators.
• Message signal x(t) is applied directly to
modulator 1 and with a phase shift of 1800 to
modulator 2.
Output of modulator 1 is,
S1(t) = Ac[1+ mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(1)
Output of modulator 2 is,
S2(t) = Ac[1- mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(2)
These two outputs are applied to subtractor,
whose output is, 2mAcx(t) cos 2πfct---(3)
DSB-SC Modulation: Ring Modulator
.3. Ring modulator
It operates in two modes
• Mode1: Without modulating signal x(t)
• Mode 2: With modulating signal x(t)
Mode1: c(t) is positive
• Diodes D1, D2 forward biased, D3,D4 Reverse biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
C(t) is negative
• Diodes D1, D2 reverse biased, D3,D4 forward biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
Mode2:
• When modulating signal is present, during positive half cycle D1,
D2 will be ON and secondary of T1 is directly applied to primary of
T2.
• Output will be positive
• During negative half cycle of modulating signal D3, D4 will be ON
producing positive voltage.
DSB-SC Modulation
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
Coherent Detector:
The modulating signal x(t) is recovered from DSB-
SC wave s(t) by multiplying it with a locally
generated carrier and then passing through a
LPF.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
V(t) = s(t) c(t) ---(1)
Where,
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]—(2)
C(t) = cos2πfct ---(3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)

When this is passed through a LPF,

V0(t) =
 Single Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(SSB-SC)
The modulation process in which only one side band
is transmitted and with carrier suppression is called
Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB- SC).
Modulating Signal m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier
Signal c(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct)
DSB-SC signal is generated by multiplying m(t) & c(t).
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]
Now, the SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing
DSB-SC signal through BPF.
ASSB-SC(t) = Cos2π( + )t (or)
ASSB-SC(t) = Cos2π( - )t
SSB in Time and Frequency Domain
Advantages of SSB
➢Efficient use of bandwidth
➢Better signal quality
➢Increased range of the transceiver
➢Cost-effective

Disadvantage:
➢ Chances of data loss is more
➢ Transceiver circuit is more
complex
 Generation of SSB-SC
1. Filter or Frequency Discrimination Method:

Filter method of generating DSB-SC Signal requires

product modulator and BPF as shown in figure.
Here Product Modulator generates DSB-SC Signal
which contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB.
By passing DSB-SC Signal through BPF either of
sidebands are removed for generating SSB-SC
Signal.
 Generation of SSB-SC
2.Phase Shift or Phase Discrimination Method:

In this system is used for the suppression of lower sideband.

This system uses two Product modulators M1 and M2 and
two 90o phase shifting networks.
 Vestigial Sideband Transmission
• VSB-SC is used to transmit Video Signal which is large
BW signal containing very low and very high
frequency components.
• Very low Frequencies raise sidebands near to carrier
frequency.
• It is not possible to suppress one complete sideband.
• Very low frequencies contain most of useful
information, any effect to complete suppress the one
sideband would result phase distortion at these
frequencies.
• Therefore, compromise has been made to
suppress the part of sideband. Hence VSB-SC Signal
contain one full sideband & part of other side
band.
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Modulation:
Modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) are
applied as inputs to the product modulator.
S(t) = x(t)c(t)
This is the DSB-SC wave. It is applied to a side band
filter which passes the wanted sideband
completely and vestige of unwanted sideband.
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Demodulation:
The demodulation of VSB signal can be achieved
using a coherent detector by multiplying s(t) with
a locally generated carrier.
V(t) = s(t)AcCos2πfct
This signal is then passed through a LPF which
passes low frequency message signal and rejects
carrier.
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and
generating single or constant frequency and the
output of mixer will be fixed frequency.
Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave)
: (540-1640) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1640 KHz – 540 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (fIF): 455 KHz
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into
electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
• It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
• Tuning circuit designed to select 110 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
• RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
• It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
• Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal
and locally generated signal.
• BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
• It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
• It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency to produce constant or fixed frequency.
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
IF Amplifier:
• It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
• It is cascade CE amplifier which provides 90% of total receiver
amplification.

Detector or Demodulator:
• It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from
AM signal.
• Usually Envelope detector is used.
• Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.

Audio Amplifier:
• It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
• It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.

Loud Speaker:
• It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
ANGLE MODULATION

Angle modulation is a process of varying angle of the

carrier in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.

Angle can be varied by varying frequency or phase.

Angle modulation is of 2 types.

• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
The process of varying frequency of the carrier in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the
modulating signal.

Relation between angle and frequency :

Consider carrier signal c(t)= Ac Cos (Wct+φ)

= Ac Cos (2πfct +φ)
Where, Wc= Carrier frequency
φ = Phase

C(t) = Ac Cos[ψ(t)], where, ψ(t)= wct+φ

i.e Frequency can be obtained by derivating angle and

angle can be obtained by integrating frequency.
Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulator converts input voltage into

frequency i.e the amplitude of modulating signal m(t)
changes to frequency at the output.

Consider carrier signal c(t) =Ac Coswct

The frequency variation at the output is called
instantaneous frequency and is expressed as,
wi = wc + kf m(t)
Where, kf = frequency sensitivity factor in Hz/volt
 Frequency Modulation
The angle of the carrier after modulation can be
written as,

Frequency modulated signal can be written as,

AFM(t) = Ac Cos [ψi(t)] = Ac Cos [wct + kfʃm(t)dt]

Frequency Deviation in FM:

The instantaneous frequency, wi = wc + kf m(t)

= wc + Δw
Where, Δw = kf m(t) is called frequency deviation which
may be positive or negative depending on the sign of
m(t).
Mathematical Representation of FM

(i) Modulating Signal:

It may be represented as,

em = Em cos mt (1)

Here cos term taken for simplicity

where,
em = Instantaneous amplitude
m = Angular velocity
= 2fm
fm = Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be represented as,

ec = Ec sin (ct + ) -----(2)

where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency
 = Phase angle
(iii) FM Wave:

Fig. Frequency Vs. Time in FM

FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.
From Fig. 2.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency ‘f’ of the FM
wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc =Unmodulated carrier frequency
K = Proportionality constant
Em cos mt =Instantaneous modulating signal
(Cosine term preferred for simplicity otherwise we
can use sine term also)
• The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur, when
cos mt =  1 i.e. maximum.
 Equation (2.26) becomes,
f =fc (1  K Em)  (4)
 f =fc  K Emfc  (5)
 Frequency Spectrum of FM
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus frequency.
The frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about number of
sideband present in the FM wave and their amplitudes.
The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex because it
is sine of sine function.
Only solution is to use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (2.32) may be expanded as,
eFM = {A J0 (mf) sin ct
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + m) t − sin (c − m) t]
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + 2m) t + sin (c − 2m) t]
+ J3 (mf) [sin (c + 3m) t − sin (c − 3m) t]
+ J4 (mf) [sin (c + 4m) t + sin (c − 4m) t]
+ }  (2.33)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave consists of:
(i)Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii)Infinite number of sidebands (All terms except first term are
sidebands).
The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend on ‘J’ coefficient.
c = 2fc, m = 2fm
So in place of c and m, we can use fc and fm.
Fig. : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of FM
Bandwidth of FM
From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig.
2.26, we can say that the bandwidth of FM wave is
infinite.
But practically, it is calculated based on how many
sidebands have significant amplitudes.
(i) The Simple Method to calculate the bandwidth is −

BW=2fmx Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of

significant sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also
increases.
(ii) The second method to calculate bandwidth is by
Carson’s rule.
Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is twice
the sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.

BW=2( +fmmax) (2)

Highest order side band = To be found from table 2.1 after the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm

e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ

From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.

Therefore, the bandwidth is

B.W. = 2 fm  Highest order side band
=2  5 kHz  7
=70 kHz
FM Modulation Index
Definition:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I.=Frequency Deviation
Modulating Frequency

mf = δ
fm

In FM M.I.>1

Modulation Index of FM decides −

(i)Bandwidth of the FM wave.
(ii) Number of sidebands in FM wave.
Types of Frequency Modulation

FM (Frequency Modulation)

Narrowband FM (NBFM) Wideband FM (WBFM)

Comparison between Narrowband
and Wideband FM
Sr. Parameter NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW = 2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications Ppolice wireless, Entertainment
ambulance, Radar, EEC broadcasting (can be used
communication etc. for high quality music
transmission)
Representation of FM
FM can be represented by two ways:
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain

2.FM in Frequency Domain

• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
• Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.
• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘’ and ‘’ can be increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating frequencies in
accordance with prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig.
As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter, before
applying to FM modulator.
• As modulating frequency (fm) increases, capacitive
reactance decreases and modulating voltage goes on increasing
• fm  Voltage of modulating signal applied to FM modulat
Boosting is done according to pre-arranged curve as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis Curve

•

The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.

• In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having
time constant of 75 sec are used.
• The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig.

Fig. FM Transmitter with Pre-emphasis

De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies in the
process of pre-emphasis is nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig.

Fig. De-emphasis Circuit

 Fig. De-emphasis Curve

As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-emphasis

circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm, capacitive reactance Xc
decreases. So that output of de-emphasis circuit also reduces •
Fig. 5 shows the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time
constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve
that is 3 dB down at frequency given by,
f = 1/ 2πRC
= 1/ 2π x 50x 1000
= 3180 Hz
Comparison between Pre-emphasis
and De-emphasis
Parameter Pre-emphasis De-emphasis

1. Circuit used High pass filter. Low pass filter.

2. Circuit diagram

Fig. 2.36 Fig. 2.37

3. Response curve
Fig. 2.38 Fig. 2.39

4. Time constant T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s

5. Definition Boosting of higher Removal of higher

frequencies frequencies

6. Used at FM transmitter FM receiver.

Comparison between AM and FM
Parameter AM FM
1. Definition Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is
varied in accordance with varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating the amplitude of
signal keeping frequency modulating signal keeping
and phase constant. amplitude and phase
constant.
2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.
parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec

m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on mf.

sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))
7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio
video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
FM GENERATION

There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method Indirect Method

1.Armstrong Method
1. Reactance Modulator
2. Varactor Diode
1. Reactance Method

Fig. : Reactance Method Frequency Modulator

❖The tank circuit (L and Cm) is the frequency determining section

for a standard LC oscillator.
❖Cm is a capacitor microphone that converts the acoustical energy
into a mechanical energy, which is used to vary the distance
between the plates of Cm and consequently change its capacitance.
❖as Cm is varied, the resonant frequency is varied. I.e. the oscillator
output frequency varies directly with the external sound forces (i.e.
direct FM).
Varactor Diode

Fig. : Varactor Diode working

Varactor diode modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency Modulator

❖ External modulating signal voltage added or subtracted from

the DC bias, which changes the capacitance of the diode and
consequently changes the frequency of the oscillation.
Limitations of Direct Method of FM Generation
1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order
stability in carrier frequency because in this method the
basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by
the modulating signal.

2.Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due

to non-linearity of the varactor diode.
FM Transmitter (Armstrong Method)
FM Generation using IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566 VCO

Advantages/ Disadvantages/Applications of FM
Advantages of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3.Good capture effect.
4.No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1.It uses too much spectrum space.
2.The bandwidth is wider.
3. The modulation index can be kept low to minimize the
bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high frequencies.

Applications of FM
1.FM radio broadcasting.
2.Sound transmission in TV.
3.Police wireless.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Two steps involved in FM demodulation

•Conversion of FM signal into AM signal, Tank or
parallel resonance circuit converts FM into AM
signal.
•An envelope detector is used to extract
modulating signal from modulated signal.
Slope Demodulator:
Demodulation of FM Signal
•The input signal is a frequency modulated signal. It is
applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2 combination)
which converts the incoming FM signal into AM.
•This AM signal is applied to a simple diode detector
circuit, D1. Here the diode provides the rectification, while
C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,
and R1 provides a load.
Advantages:
Simple and low cost
Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages:
Nonlinear operation
Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated
and this means that much higher levels of noise and
Demodulation of FM Signal

Foster Seeley Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

•Foster seeley demodulator contains two tuning

circuits and two envelope detectors.

•One section of tuning circuit and envelope

detector works for incoming frequency is greater
than carrier frequency and vice versa for incoming
frequency less than carrier frequency.

•Tuning circuit converts FM signal to AM signal and

Envelope detector extracts message signal from AM
signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal
Ratio Demodulator:

•Ratio detector is similar to Foster seeley

demodulator except of Diode of D2 is reversed
potential divider circuit.
•Potential divider circuit suppress the noise and this
advantage of ratio detector.
Demodulation of FM Signal
PLL Demodulator or detector:
•Phase Locked Loop is closed loop system which
contains Phase detector, VCO and loop filter or LPF
as shown in figure.

•It continuously finds the phase difference between

incoming FM signal and locally generated carrier.
•And based on Phase difference it generates
Modulating signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Zero Crossing Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

•Zero crossing detector contains hard limiter, Zero crossing detector,

Multi vibrator, and Averaging Circuit.

•Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper which converts

continuous FM signal into Digital.

•Zero crossing detector is differentiator which generates spikes

when signal crosses zero and no. of zero crossings is proportional
to modulating signal amplitude.

•Mono stable multivibrator is generates pulses with constant

amplitude and width for each spike.

•Averaging is LPF circuit which integrates pulses and generates

modulating signal.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver

Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal

into electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
Tuning circuit designed to select 100 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 20MHz or20 000 KHzband width.
RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image
signal rejection and noise reduction.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Mixer: It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass
Filter (BPF).
Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of
incoming signal and locally generated signal.
BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center
frequency is equal to = 10.7MHz.

Local Oscillator:
It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
It generates carrier frequency 10.7MHz.greater than the
incoming carrier frequency to produce constant or fixed
frequency.

IF Amplifier:
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which
provides amplification for 20 MHz band width at center
frequency of 10.7 MHz.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Limiter:
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes the noise
spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating
signal from FM signal.

De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates frequencies of Audio signal from 2
KHz to 20 KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20-
20K) Hz.

Loud Speaker:
It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
 Phase Modulation
The process of varying the phase of carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Consider modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) =

Ac Coswct

Phase modulating signal,

APM(t) = Ac Cos[ ψi(t)]

Where, ψi(t) = wct + kpm(t)

Where, kp = Phase sensitivity factor in rad/volt

APM(t) = Ac Cos[wct + kpm(t)]

 Phase Modulation
Frequency deviation in PM:

Conversion between Frequency and Phase Modulation:

Deviation Ratio
The modulation index corresponding to maximum deviation
and maximum modulating frequency is called deviation ratio.

Deviation Ratio= Maximum Deviation

Maximum modulating Frequency

= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is limited to 75

kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to 15 kHz.
Percentage M.I. of FM

The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the

actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating signal
to the maximum allowable frequency deviation.

% M.I = Actual deviation

Maximum allowable deviation


Thank You