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Evolution

The document discusses the evolution of operating systems from serial processing to modern time-sharing systems. It begins with the earliest computers which had no operating system and users interacted directly with hardware. Simple batch systems were developed using a monitor to improve utilization by running jobs sequentially. Later, multiprogrammed batch systems allowed multiple jobs to reside in memory simultaneously to further improve processor usage. Finally, time-sharing systems emerged to share processor time among multiple active users by rapidly switching between user programs.

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tomasina
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12 views

Evolution

The document discusses the evolution of operating systems from serial processing to modern time-sharing systems. It begins with the earliest computers which had no operating system and users interacted directly with hardware. Simple batch systems were developed using a monitor to improve utilization by running jobs sequentially. Later, multiprogrammed batch systems allowed multiple jobs to reside in memory simultaneously to further improve processor usage. Finally, time-sharing systems emerged to share processor time among multiple active users by rapidly switching between user programs.

Uploaded by

tomasina
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.9 EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM


An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and
the computer hardware.
The evolution of operating system is explained at various stages.
• Serial Processing
• Simple Batch Systems
• Multi programmed batch systems.
• Time sharing systems

1.9.1 Serial Processing


• With the earliest computers, from the late 1940s to the mid-1950s, the programmer
interacted directly with the computer hardware; there was no OS.
• These computers were run from a console consisting of display lights, toggle switches,
some form of input device, and a printer.
• Programs in machine code were loaded via the input device (e.g., a card reader).
• If an error halted the program, the error condition was indicated by the lights.
• If the program proceeded to a normal completion, the output appeared on the printer.
These early systems presented two main problems:
• Scheduling: Most installations used a hardcopy sign-up sheet to reserve computer
time. A user might sign up for an hour and finish in 45 minutes; this would result in
wasted computer processing time. On the other hand, the user might run into
problems, not finish in the allotted time, and be forced to stop before resolving the
problem.
• Setup time: A single program, called a job, could involve loading the compiler plus the
high-level language program (source program) into memory, saving the compiled
program (object program) and then loading and linking together the object program
and common functions. Thus, a considerable amount of time was spent just in setting
up the program to run.
• This mode of operation could be termed serial processing, reflecting the fact that users
have access to the computer in series.

1.9.2 Simple Batch Systems

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

To improve utilization, the concept of a batch OS was developed.


• The central idea behind the simple batch-processing scheme is the use of a piece of
software known as the monitor.
• With this type of OS, the user no longer has direct access to the processor.
• Instead, the user submits the job on cards or tape to a computer operator, who
batches the jobs together sequentially and places the entire batch on an input device,
for use by the monitor.
• Each program is constructed to branch back to the monitor when it completes
processing, at which point the monitor automatically begins loading the next program.

Monitor point of view: The monitor controls the sequence of events. For this to be so, much of
the monitor must always be in main memory and available for execution. That portion is
referred to as the resident monitor. The rest of the monitor consists of utilities and common
functions that are loaded as subroutines to the user program at the beginning of any job that
requires them. The monitor reads in jobs one at a time from the input device (typically a card
reader or magnetic tape drive). As it is read in, the current job is placed in the user program
area, and control is passed to this job. When the job is completed, it returns control to the
monitor, which immediately reads in the next job. The results of each job are sent to an output
device, such as a printer, for delivery to the user.

Processor point of view: At a certain point, the processor is executing instructions from the
portion of main memory containing the monitor. These instructions cause the next job to be
read into another portion of main memory. Once a job has been read in, the processor will
encounter a branch instruction in the monitor that instructs the processor to continue
execution at the start of the user program. The processor will then execute the instructions in
the user program until it encounters an ending or error.

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

• With each job, instructions are included in a primitive form of job control language (JCL).
• This is a special type of programming language used to provide instructions to the monitor.
Certain other hardware features are also desirable
• Memory protection
• Timer
• Privileged instructions
• Interrupts
• user program executes in a user mode, in which certain areas of memory are protected
from the user’s use and in which certain instructions may not be executed.
• The monitor executes in a system mode, or what has come to be called kernel mode, in
which privileged instructions may be executed and in which protected areas of memory may
be accessed.

1.9.3 Multi programmed Batch Systems


• Even with the automatic job sequencing provided by a simple batch OS, the processor
is often idle.
• The approach used to improve processor utilization is known as multi programming,
or multitasking.
• It is the central theme of modern operating systems.

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Multiprogrammed with two programs

1.9.4 Time-Sharing Systems:


• In time sharing systems the processor time is shared among multiple users.
• In a time-sharing system, multiple users simultaneously access the system through
terminals, with the OS interleaving the execution of each user program in a short burst
or quantum of computation.
• If there are n users actively requesting service at one time, each user will only see on
the average 1/n of the effective computer capacity.

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Batch Multiprogramming Vs Time Sharing systems

1.10 COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANIZATION:


Computer system organization deals with the structure of the computer system.

Computer system operation:


• A modern general-purpose computer system consists of one or more CPUs and a
number of device controllers connected through a common bus that provides access
to shared memory.
• For a computer to start running when it is powered up or rebooted—it needs to have
an initial program to run. This initial program is called as the Bootstrap program.
• It is stored within the computer hardware in read-only memory (ROM) or electrically
erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), known by the general term
firmware.
• The bootstrap loader: It initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to
device controllers to memory contents.
• The bootstrap program loads the operating system and start executing that system.
• Once the kernel is loaded and executing, it can start providing services to the system
and its users.

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Storage structure:
• The CPU can load instructions only from memory, so any programs to run must be
stored in main memory.
• Main memory commonly is implemented in a semiconductor technology called
dynamic random-access memory
• ROM is a read only memory that is used to store the static programs such as bootstrap
loader.
• Ideally, we want the programs and data to reside in main memory permanently.
• Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs and data permanently
• Main memory is a volatile storage device that loses its contents when power is turned
off or otherwise lost.
• Most computer systems provide secondary storage as an extension of main memory.
• Volatile storage loses its contents when the power to the device is removed so that
the data must be written to nonvolatile storage for safekeeping.
• Caches can be installed to improve performance.

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

I/O Structure:
A large portion of operating system code is dedicated to managing I/O, both
because of its importance to the reliability and performance of a system.
• A general-purpose computer system consists of CPUs and multiple device controllers
that are connected through a common bus. Each device controller is in charge of a
specific type of device.
• The device controller is responsible for moving the data between the peripheral
devices that it controls and its local buffer storage
• Operating systems have a device driver for each device controller.
• To start an I/O operation, the device driver loads the appropriate registers within the
device controller.
• The controller starts the transfer of data from the device to its local buffer. Once the
transfer of data is complete, the device controller informs the device driver via an
interrupt that it has finished its operation. This is called as interrupt driven I/O.

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

• The direct memory access I/O technique transfers a block of data directly to or from
its own buffer storage to memory, with no intervention by the CPU. Only one interrupt
is generated per block, to tell the device driver that the operation has completed,

CS8493-OPERATING SYSTEMS

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