Learning Chemistry

Activities to help you learn

chemistry successfully:
• attend class regularly
• study and work problems every day
• form a study group of students to discuss problems
and their solutions
• Read notes/instructions carefully
• Go to office hours if you need help
• Do not leave it to the last minute/late at night
 Learning Chemistry
• Learn Incrementally
• Overlearn
• Space your learning
• Focus on core skills
• Effort counts
• Self-testing builds memory
• Use parallel processing
• Sleep!
 How to study chemistry?
1. Read the lesson and re-work the questions from
class (without looking at the answers).
2. First learn the rules, then do the Practice.
3. How many Practice problems should you do?
4. Work Practice problems at least three days a
week.
5. Memorize what must be memorized.
You will also need a notebook.
6. Flash cards are recommended.
 Foundations

•Numeracy
•Measurements
•Rounding off
•Significant Figures
•Scientific Notation
•Dimension Analysis
Measurements
and Calculations
in Chemistry
 In 1628, crowds in Sweden watched in
horror as a new warship, Vasa, sank less
than a mile into her maiden voyage, with
the death of 30 people on board.
 Air Canada Flight 143 was a scheduled
domestic passenger
flight between Montreal and Edmonton that ran out of
fuel on July 23, 1983 at an altitude of 12,500 meters
(41,000 ft), midway through the flight.
 Measurements
• How many eyes do you have?

• How tall are you?

 Measurements – The Basics
➢Essential for characterizing the
physical/chemical properties of matter
➢Three parts to every measurement
➢Size
➢Unit Uncertainty
➢Uncertainty
5280 feet
Unit
Size
 Exact Numbers
An exact number is obtained
• when objects are counted
Example: counting objects
2 baseballs
4 pizzas
• from numbers in a defined relationship
Example: defined relationships
1 foot = 12 inches
1 meter = 100 cm
Examples of Exact Numbers
 Measurement

You make a measurement

every time you
• measure your height
• read your watch
• take your temperature
• weigh a cantaloupe
 Measurement
• A measuring tool is used
to compare some
dimension of an object
to a standard.
• An electronic balance is
the measuring tool used
to determine the mass
of a nickel.
 Measurement in Chemistry
In chemistry we
• measure quantities
• do experiments
• calculate results
• use numbers to report
measurements
• compare results to
standards
 Stating a Measurement
In every measurement, a number is followed by a unit.
Observe the following examples of measurements:

Number Unit
35 m
0.25 L
225 lb
3.4 h
 The Metric System (SI)

The metric system and SI (international

system) are:

• decimal systems based on 10

• used in most of the world
• used everywhere by scientists
 Units in the Metric System

In the metric and SI systems, one unit is used for each type of
measurement:

Measurement Metric SI_______

Length meter (m) meter (m)
Volume liter (L) cubic meter (m3)
Mass gram (g) kilogram (kg)
Time second (s) second (s)
Temperature Celsius (C) Kelvin (K)
 Length Measurement
Length
• is measured using a
meter stick
• has the unit meter (m)
in both the metric and
SI systems
 Inches and Centimeters

The unit of an inch (in.)

• is equal to exactly
2.54 cm in the
metric and SI systems.

1 in. = 2.54 cm
 Volume Measurement
Volume
• is the space occupied by a
substance
• has the unit liter (L) in the
metric system
1 L = 1.057 qt
• has the unit m3(cubic
meter) in the SI system
• is measured using a
graduated cylinder
 Mass Measurement
The mass of an object
• is the quantity of material
it contains
• is measured on a balance
• has the unit gram(g) in the
metric system
• has the unit kilogram(kg) in
the SI system
 Temperature Measurement

The temperature
• indicates how hot or cold it is
• is measured on the Celsius (C) scale
in the metric system
• is measured on the Kelvin(K) scale in
the SI system
• on this thermometer is 18 ºC or 64 ºF
The Fahrenheit (F), Kelvin (K) and
Celsius (C) conversion equations
are:

𝟓
𝑪= × (𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗

𝑲 = 𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
 Time Measurement
Time measurement
• uses the unit second(s) in
both the metric and SI
systems
• is based on an atomic
clock that uses a frequency
emitted by cesium atoms
 Uncertainty in Measurements
• A measurement is a number with a unit attached.
• It is not possible to make exact measurements,
thus all measurements have uncertainty.
• We will generally use metric system units. These
include:
– The meter, m, for length measurements
– The gram, g, for mass measurements
– The liter, L, for volume measurements
 Length Measurements
• Let’s measure the length of a candy cane.
 Uncertainty in Length
• Ruler A: 4.2 ± 0.1 cm; Ruler B: 4.25 ± 0.05 cm.
• Ruler A has more uncertainty than Ruler B.
• Ruler B gives a more precise measurement.
 Mass Measurements
• The mass of an object is
a measure of the
amount of matter it
possesses.
• Mass is measured with
a balance and is not
affected by gravity.
• Mass and weight are
not interchangeable.
• Almost all measurements contain
some uncertainty
– Different instruments can have
different degrees of uncertainty
– A digit that must be estimated is
called uncertain (last recorded digit)
(± 0.0001 g)

(± 0.01 g)
 Volume Measurements
• Volume is the amount of space occupied by a
solid, a liquid, or a gas.
• There are several instruments for measuring
volume, including:
– Graduated cylinder
– Syringe
– Buret
– Pipet
– Volumetric flask
Measurements – Uncertainty

21.5 mL (± 0.1 mL)

Metric Equalities for Length
Metric Equalities for Volume
 Metric Equalities for Mass
• Several equalities can be
written for mass in the
metric (SI) system.
Example:
1 gram is the same mass as
1000 mg and 0.001 kg.
1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 1000 mg
1 mg = 0.001 g
1 mg = 1000 µg
 Density
Density is defined as
the amount of
matter in a given
amount of space.
d = m/V
The density of copper
is 8.94 g/cm3.
Metric Prefixes
 Calculations with Units

3 apples + 3 apples = 6 apples

3 apples + 3 bananas = 3 apples AND

3 bananas
 Examples:

•1g+2m=

• 1 m + 12 cm =
 Reminders

• Discussion tomorrow at CW 325 at 6 PM!

–LIT-1 will be delayed to next
Wednesday
–Groupwork tomorrow
• LONCAPA Homework 01 is open!
–Only 6 students have opened it so far…
 Basic Math Operations with units
• Addition and Subtraction
The units must be the same in
quantities being added and subtracted,
and those same units must be added to
the answers.
• Multiplication and Division
When multiplying and dividing units,
the units multiply and divide.
• Order of Operations : PEMDAS
Math in Chemistry
(Parentheses -> Exponents ->
Multiplication/Division ->
Addition/Subtraction)

7 * 9 + (8 - 9) * 8 =
7*9+8-9*8=

0.04672 / (0.0069242 + 1.46) =

• Order of Operations :
Math in Chemistry
What about when solving for x?
SADMEP
9.33 −𝑥 3
− 4.24 = 12.9
2.2
Direct vs. Indirect
Variables
𝑚
𝑑=
𝑉
When m increases, d increases – Direct (proportional)

When V increases, d decreases – Indirect (inverse)

Density vs. Volume Density vs. Mass

(constant mass) (constant volume)
8 6

Density (g/mL)
7 5
Density (g/mL)

6 4 Direct
5
3
4 Indirect
3 2
2 1
1 0
0 0 2 4 6
0 2 4 6 Mass (g)
Volume (mL)
 Variables
Dependent vs. Independent
𝑚
𝑑=
𝑉
Mass and volume are independent variables

Density depends on mass and volume, so it is a dependent variable

Graphically, dependent variables are on the y-axis, independent variables are on
the x-axis.

Density vs. Volume Density vs. Mass (constant

(constant mass) volume)
8 6
7
Density (g/mL)

Density (g/mL)
5
6
4
5
4 3
3 2
2 1
1 0
0 0 2 4 6
0 2 4 6
Mass (g)
Volume (mL)
 Learning Check
Use the graph below and assume that the best linear fitted equation for this
data set is y = 0.048x + 35.133 to answer the questions below:
a) What is the predicted solubility of KCl at 40oC?
B) What is the predicted solubility of KCl at 0oC?

Solubility of KCl in Water

38.0

37.5
solubility (g KCl/100 g water)

37.0

36.5

36.0

35.5

35.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Tempreature (Degree Celsius)
 Significant Figures

Any digit that is actually measured or

estimated will be considered significant.
Placeholders, or digits that have not been
measured or estimated, are not considered
significant. The rules for determining the
significance of a digit will follow.
 Counting Significant Figures
All nonzero numbers in a measured number are
significant.

Measurement Number of
Significant Figures
38.15 cm 4
5.6 ft 2
65.6 lb 3
122.55 m 5
 Sandwiched Zeros
Sandwiched zeros
• occur between nonzero numbers
• are significant

Measurement Number of Significant Figures

50.8 mm 3
2001 min 4
0.0702 lb 3
0.40505 m 5
 Trailing Zeros
Trailing zeros
• follow nonzero numbers in numbers without
decimal points
• are placeholders
• are not significant
Measurement Number of Significant
Figures
25 000 cm 2
200 kg 1
48 600 mL 3
25 005 000 g 5
 Leading Zeros
Leading zeros
• precede nonzero digits in a decimal number
• are placeholders
• are not significant

Measurement Number of
Significant Figures
0.008 mm 1
0.0156 oz 3
0.0042 lb 2
0.000262 mL 3
Review of Significant Figures Basic Rules

1. Digits from 1-9 are always significant.

2. Zeros between two other significant digits are
always significant
3. One or more additional zeros to the right of
both the decimal place and another
significant digit are significant.
4. Zeros used solely for spacing the decimal
point (placeholders) are not significant.
Examples of Significant Figures

453 - _3 sig figs - All non-zero digits are

always significant.
5057 - _4 sig figs - Zeros between 2 sig. fig.
are significant.
5.00 - _3 sig figs - Additional zeros to the
right of decimal and a sig. fig. are significant.
0.007 - _1 sig fig - Placeholders are not sig.
 Rounding Off Answers
In calculations
• answers must have the same
number of significant figures as
the measured numbers
• calculated answers are usually
rounded off
• rounding rules are used to
obtain the correct number of
significant figures
 Rounding Off Calculated
Answers
• When the first digit dropped is 4 or less, the retained numbers
remain the same.
to round off 45.832 to 3 significant figures
drop the digits 32 = 45.8
• When the first digit dropped is 5 or greater, the last retained digit is
increased by 1.
to round off 2.4884 to 2 significant figures
drop the digits 884 = 2.5 (increase by 0.1)
• If a calculation has two or more operations, retain all the
nonsignificant digits until the final operation and then round off the
answer.
 Rounding Off and Placeholder Zeros

• Round the measurement 151 mL to two significant digits.

– If we keep two digits, we have 15 mL, which is only about
10% of the original measurement.
– Therefore, we must use a placeholder zero: 150 mL
• Recall that placeholder zeros are not significant.
• Round the measurement 2788 g to two significant digits.
– We get 2800 g.
• Remember, the placeholder zeros are not
significant, and 28 grams is significantly less than
2800 grams.
 Multiplying and Dividing Measurements

• When multiplying or dividing measurements, the answer is

limited by the value with the fewest significant figures.

• Let’s multiply two length measurements:

(5.15 cm)x(2.3 cm) = 11.845 cm2

• The measurement 2.3 cm has the fewest significant digits—

two.

• The correct answer is 12 cm2.

 Multiplication and Division
Example
110.5 x 0.048 =

110.5 x 0.048 = 5.304 = 5.3 (rounded)

4 SFs 2 SFs calculator 2 SFs
 Scientific Notation
Scientific notation
• is used to write very large or very small numbers
• for the width of a human hair (0.000 008 m) is written as
8 x 10-6 m
• for a large number such as 4 500 000 s is written as
4.5 x 106 s
 Comparing Numbers in Standard and
Scientific Notation
Here are some numbers written in standard format and in
scientific notation:

Number in Standard Format Scientific Notation

Diameter of the Earth

12 800 000 m 1.28 x 107
Mass of a human
68 kg 6.8 x 101 kg
Length of a virus
0.00003 cm 3 x 10-5 cm
 Scientific Notation
• A number written in scientific notation contains a
coefficient and a power of 10.
coefficient power of ten coefficient power of ten
1.5 x 102 7.35 x 10-4

• To write a number in scientific notation, the decimal point

is moved after the first digit.

• The spaces moved are shown as a power of ten.

52 000. =

0.003 78 =
 Scientific Calculators

• A scientific calculator has an exponent

key (often “EXP” or “EE”) for
expressing powers of 10.
 Word Problems
Read the problems!
Identify what you want, the data given
and design a strategy!
 Let’s practice:
There are 26,800,000,000,000,000,000,000
helium atoms in 1.00 L of helium gas.
Express the number in scientific notation.
 Another problem:
The typical length between two carbon
atoms in a molecule of benzene is
0.000000140 m. What is the length
expressed in scientific notation?
 Practice at home!

Work on Homework set 1 (LON-CAPA)

Come to help hours!