Tr Relations and.

Functions
W Relation : If A and B ane two non-empty sets, then any subset R of AXB is called
Relation fnom set A to 8B. be R2>A7BARSAXB
If (x, yJER then we waite xRy Cnead as x is R related to y) and
If (t,y)gR then we wuite a Ky Cnead as x is not R nelated to y)
w Domain and Range of a Relation : If k is any nelation fxom Set A to SetB then,

e Domain of R is the set of all finst coondinates of elements of R and is denoted by

° Range of R is the set of all second coondinates of R and it is denoted by

A nelation R on seb A means, the nelation fnom A to A i.e, RE AKA
wi Empty Relation : A Relation R in a set A is called empty xelation, if no element of A is
nelated to any element of A, ie R= QCAXA
“ Univensal Relation : A Relation R in a set A is called univensal elation each of A is
nelated to eveny element of A, te R= AXA
“ Identity Relation : & ={(x,y) : LEA, YEA, crus oR R= $(u,x); cEAF
A Relation R in a set A is called-
wi Reflexive Relation : If (aa) eA, for eveny EA
vf Symmetnic Relation > If (a;,a,)-€ R implies Ca,,a,) € R fon all a,,a, EA

vi Tnansitive Relation: If (a,a,) € R and (a,,0;) ER implies (a),0;) ER fon all o,,0,,0; € A

wf Equivalence Relation: If R is neflexive, symmetnic and tnansitive

Antisymmetnic Relation = A nelation R in a set A is antisymmetnic.
if (o,b)€R, (b,a)ER > a=bY A,bER On ARb and bRa > a=b, V a,dER.
wMInvense Relation: If A and B ane two non -empty sets and R be a nelation fnom A to 8,
such that R= (a,b): a€A,bE8Jj, then the invense of , denoted by RY,
isa nelation from 8 to A and is defined oy R= f(b a):(a,b) eR}
wWEquivalence class > Let 8 be an equivalence nelation on a non-empty set A. Fon all aA,
the equivalence class of ‘a’ is defined as the set of all such elements of A
which ane related to ‘a’ unden R. Jt is denoted by
ie. [a] = equivalence class of ‘a’ = f EA: CH a)ER|
Function : Let X and ¥ be two non-empty sets. Then a nule f which associates
to each element x€X, a unique element, denoted by of Y, ts called
a function fnom X to Y and waitten as fi:X—-Y whene, flx) is called tmage of %
and x is called the pxe- image of f(x) and set ¥ is called the co- domain of f
and f(x)-{ f(x): xexX} is called the nange of f.:
One- One or Lnjective Function : A function f:X—Y is defined to be one-one if the
images of distinct element of X unden f ane distinctj
ie %,%, EX : flu) = fla) > x, = 2, Othenwise f is called many - one.
wf Onto ok Sunjective : A function f{:X7 VY is said to be onto if eveny element of Y
is the image of some element of X unden f ; i-e. fon every YEY,
thene exists an element x in X such that f(a) = y
WOne- One and onto or Bijective: A function f:X—Y is said to be one
- one and
onto, if f is both one-one and onto.
® note 3 fiX—7Y is onto if and only if Range of f-¥

vi Composition of function = Let f:A—B and g:8—-C be two function then the
composition of f and g denoted by and defined as
the function gof :A—*¢
gof = gl pcx] , 4+ EA
W Inventible function : A function fix—Y is defined to be inventible, if thence
exists a function g: Y—*X such that gof= Ix and fog-Iy.
The function g is called the invense of f and is denoted by
haf Binany openation 7 A binany openation * on a Set A is a function * : AXA-A.
we denote
° A binany openation * on a set A is called commutative, if a* b = b* a, fon
eveny @,b€A.
° A binany openation RiAXA—A is said to be associative if
(a*b)*c = a* (b*c), V¥ a,6,C EA identity element

° A binary openation * > AXA— A, an element (CE A, if it exists, ts called identity

fon the openation *, if a*e= e*a, ¥ aéA
eA binaxy openation * = AXA—A with the identity element e in A, an element a€A
is said to be inventible with nespect to the openation ¥ if thene exists an element
b in A such that a*b =e = b*a and 6 is called the invense of a and is
denoted by ao”,
vs NO. of function : Let f:A>B be any mapping and [(Al=-n and [6|* m whene,
[Al nepnesent no. of elements in Set A
[Bl nepnesent no. of elements in Set B
Then; Total no. of function fnom A to 8 = m”
° Cased) If n=m; then Total no. of mapping = mn
Total no. of one- one mapping =
Total no. of onto mapping = nl

e Casetii) If nem; then Total no. of mapping =m"

, m
Total no. of one-one mapping = C, ni
Total mo. of onto mapping = 0

© Casediii) If nz>m; then Total no. of mapping = m"

Total no. of one-one mapping = 0
Total no. of onto mapping
} =
>
mt
-0" nm
"C,, C-m-n) n

n=0
 J Ln S 7 * nee CTHIC TUT Lt0? }

Functions Domain (x) Range (y)

= Sinz {-1,}] -I,Z

ae | Q’ x |
y= Cos (-1,1] fo, tt]

= tanx R ~I,il
4° ( pt)
=Cosec'c} R-(-1,1) | f-r, 1} - £03
¢ , | Q’ r |
y= = Sec!
sec'x | -(-
R-C-1,1) | [0,7] - it}
y > cot'x, R (0,1)

WS Pnopenties of invense tnigonometnic functions

Sin"(Sinn) =% 2 2@E [2.2] Sin"'x (4) - Cosec'c : x21 o xe-i

2° 2 1
Cos'(cosz) = c 3: 2 € (0,7) Cos'x (t)- Sec’ :2zi oR xe-1

tan'(tanz)=t 2 ae (2.2) tan'x( - co's : 2>0

2 2 , * :
Cot'(Cotx)=2 +: 2 €(0,N) tan *() ~-M+Col es 2<0
Sec'(Secx)=% : ae fo, mI) Foy

Cosec'(coseex) = 2% $ x € Poel
2

Sinn (Sin'z) 2 a € [-1,1] Sin'Cx) = -Sin™'a x € (-1,1]

cosx (Cos'x) : 2 € [-1,1] Costin) = W-Cos'x : ze l-t,t)
tanx (tan'z) : ze R tan'(-x) = -tan's : eR
cotx (Cot'x) : 2 € R-(-1,1) Con) = TW-Cot'x : TER
sece (Sec'x) : 2 € R-C-1,1) Sec'-x) = W-Sectx : Ialzt
cosecx(Cosec'z) : 2 ER Cosec'(-%) = -Cosec'z : Ialet

Sin'x + Cos'a = i a é [-t,1]

tan'x + Cot'x = qt : aeR

Sec'x + Cosec'x = > |x] 21

 Sin'x + Sin'y S Sin {x Ti-y* + yli-x*} 2Sinta = Sin'(2x I-20") “Lene d
sz 42
Sin'x - Sin'y = sin'{
x Fi-y* - yli-n*} 2Cos'x = Cos'(ax?-1) : OF KE!
Cos'x + Cos'y = Cos'{ xy - yli-a Tie 2tan'x - ton (a =) -{¢2<1

Cos'x - Cos'y = Cos'{ xy t yli-a* Si-g J 2tan'x = Sin” (ie ) 3

tan'x + tan'y - tan'/ 2" | : xy <1 2tan'x = Cos” et)

1- ty len
2tan'x = T+ ails 7 \: : if ad
tan'x - tan"'y - tan'/* 4) : ay >-L I- x?
itty

3Sin’n = sin" (ax- 42) $ Lene d Expnession Substitution

2
Fy i z a+ x? OR Jar+ xe? “= atan0d oR X= alotd
Ztos'x = Cos '(Ux- 3x) >: isu
2 .
a’- x? on Ja’- x7 J x= aSind oR 9
3 tan'z = tan" (3-2 > -Lete td
1-32? 43 JS x°-a? on /x°- 0” SecO OR

7 Q-% oR | eK 6
Sin't = Cos (f1- x") = tan'/_« a+tH a-%
{-x*
Q-%* og fax?
= Cot” fix") = Sec'/ 1 ) = cosee'(L a+%* a x*
x {- =} x

| X oR j= L= aSin?® oR z+ 060570
Cos'x = sin'(J1- x") = ton Ex") a-% 1
4
x Q+% | x= atan’® on x- alo
. cot" 7s )- Sec” ¢ )- cree ( Ji- x,
} a+% %

tan'x Sine] = tos '/_1 )

vitx vitx

aa = gec'({itx*) = cosee" (Tea )

x x
 MA Matnices
WW Matnix): A matnic is a nectangulon annangement of numbexs on functions annanged into a fixed number
of mows and columns. fl matniz is waitten inside bnackets . Each entry in a mataix is
called an element of the matsx.
Oy yy vee Bin |—>Finst now (R) We shall whiteit A = (ailoneny
fa: > onden of Matnix

A = Qo, Ogg cree Aon |—> Second now (R,) i-th now j-th column

Om: Ima reese Amn (any onden of Matnix (No. of nows X No. of columns)

(c,) Finst Second (¢,)

column column column
a
“Column Mainix): A matnix is sald to be a column matnix if it has only one column. Ex : {
aly
v{ Row Matnix): A matnix is sald to be Q now matnix if it has only one sow. Ex [abc ie
—_—_—_>

35 | R, now
vf Squane Matniz > No. of nows(m)= No. of colums(n) al: 4 ALh
1 0 2 Mae
Gf C, by (xD)
Diagonal Matrix): A squone matniz is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non diagonal
elements ane zeno. EX le-1 (0!] 1 non- diagonal elements zero.

Mf Seaton Matxix): A diagonal matnix is said to be a scalan matnix if its diagonal elements
ane equal. EX [<3] ge
OBO
0 0 | p diagonal elements equal
WTdentity Matai): A squane matnix in which all diagonal elements ane 1 and nest ane all zeno.
Ex [1] [Ms] 1 0 1\0 °
0

00 diagonal elements (1)

vi Null oR Zeno Matnix : Sf all its elements ane zeno. We denote zeno matulx by 0. EX (0), [2 °|
60

SEqual Matai): Two matnices A> (a,] and 8 -[b,] ane said to be equal if-
w they ane of the same onden
(il) Each Element of A is equal to the connesponding clement of B ie. ay = by for
all i and j
vi Upper thiangulan Matnix : An upper tniangulan matnix , if o,=0 V inj, ie. all entnies below paincipal
diagonal ane zeno. Example : [54] [i en ino
vi Lowen thiangulan Matnix : A lowen tniangulan matnix, if o,=0 V i<j, ie. all entnies above pnincipal
diagonal ane zeno. Example: [t8] [N38
4 P [ J Na] tower tainngetan

v{Tnanspose of Q matxiz Matnix obtained by intenchanging xows and columns of A and denoted by

4 Pnopenties iy (A) = Al GD (ka)'= ka” | cto | (at g)'- Av+a™| Gy (ag)' = B'A
K is ang constant

wf Symmetnic Matnices vi Skew- Symmetanic matnices

4 Diagonal Elements of a skew symmetnic matnice ane zeno.

4 Fon any squane matrix A with neal entnies than (AtA") is a symmetnic and (A-a") és
skew symmetnic.
vf Any squane_matnix can be expnessed as the sum of a symmetnic and a skew symmetnic matnix.
A= ! CA+A) 4 £ CA-A)
“ Addition of Matsices Tf A= [0g)men and 8 CoyJmxn two motnices of the same onden mxn, then
then sum AtB is mxn matnix such that,
(A+B); = ay + by Viri2....m and f71,2,....n
“ Pnopenties of matrix addition
Commutativity AtB= BtA (itl) Existence of identity AtO= AtO=A

(ii) Assotiativity, | (A48)+C = A+(B4C) (iV) Existence of invense | At (-A)= 0° (-A)+A

(v) ‘Cancellation tows | AtB=A+C 3 B-C and BLA=C+A > B=C |

Scalon Multiplication of a matnix Let A = [Ag Jmun be a matnix and k is a scalan. Then the
Matnix obtained by multiplying each element of matnix A by
k and is denoted by on
“ Pnopenties of scalan Multiplication of a matrix If A= [aj] and 8 = (b,] be two matnices of the
same onden, say mxn, and k and t ane scalans,
then () | KC A+B) = KA +t kB Wi) | (k+t)A = KATLA
=“ Multiplication of Matnices Two matnices A and 8 ane said to be defined fox multiplication,
if the numben of columns of A (pxe- multiplier) is equal to the numben
of nows of 8 Cpost multiplier).
Rebunxn” X 8. Paap)”
oh" Mee
“Yanxp)
“ Puopenties of Multiplication of Matnices equal
() Associative law (aB)C = A(BC) ci) “Distnibutive tow @ LAC8+C) = Abt AC |
= AC + BC|
Wi) Existence of multiplicative identity TA=AI*A ) LCA+8) ¢

vf Elementary operation ( Tnansfoamation) Of @ matnix : Thene ane six operations (nansfonmation) on a

matnix 3 of which due to now and 3 of
due to column, called Elementany Tnansfonmation.
() The intenchange of any two Hows on two Column.
ay The multiplication of the elements of any now oan column by a non- zeno number.
(i) The addition to the elements of any now on column, the connesponding elements of ang
Othen now on Column ‘multiplied by any non- zeno numben.

“ Inventible matniz $f A is squane matrix of onden mxn and if thene exist anothen squane
matnix 8 of the same onden such that AB = BA = Ly
The A is inventible and B is called invense of A.
WS Invense of a squane matnix, if it exists, is unique.
“M If A and B one invertible matnices of the same onden, then (AB)= B°A™
< Trvense of a matnix by elementany openations
let X, A and 8 be matnices of, the same onden such that X*AB. In onden to apply sequence of
elementany now openations on the matnix equation X= AB, we will apply these now operations
simultaneously on X and on the finst matnix A of the paoduct on RHS.
Similanly, in onden to apply a sequence of elementany column openations on matnix eq.
X= AB, we will apply, these openations simultaneously on X and on second matnix 8 of the pnoduct
AB on RHS.
In view of the above discussion, we conclude that if A is a matnix such that A’ exists,
 then to find A” using elementary now operations, write A=IA and apply sequence of now
openntion on A=TA till we get, T= BA. The matnix B will be the invense of A. Similanly ,
if we wish to find Av using column openations, then wxite A=AI and apply a sequence of
column openations on A= AL till we get, I= AB.

“i Remonk «In case, after applying one on mone elementany now (column) openations on AIA C A= Al)
if we obtain all zenos in one on mone nows of the matnix A on LH.9. then A” does not
Cxist.
 “ Detenminant : To eveny squane matnix A=lay) of onder n, we can associate a no. (real
on complex) called detexminant of the squane matnix A, where aj * Ci)” element of A.
Denoted as : on .
W Detenminant of matnix of onden one : Let A - [A] be the matnix of onden 1, then detenminant
of A is defined to be equal to a.
. a Q a a
.
4 Determinant of matnix. of onden 2X2: let A =| “ ‘* | > det(a) = IAl = Hyg
Gay Age Qo” “Age
5 a 9X2
= Ay, Any - 5,4
Detenminant of matnix of onden 3X3: Let A= | 4 Ao Us i
Qos Ae. Ogg
Q3, 32. 433 Pe AT 2 snow and 1% 2% 5
column through +7 ace aR
Expansion along fiast now (R;) aaa&) of answen & ae some WPA TE
expansion i sit at |
2 [4s in “ta 44s
det(A) - Al = A= = vt ar 5] F [Oo Ayr Gos
31 232 gg 32 3g Q3, 3. Ass

Vy | Pero) gy JonesDes ft yg [Attys

05:0 Az, Q30

~ Ay be ~ 5, A,,) - nalts yg ~ O34 Qo5) t Ag (yy Ogp - O34 Ory

Note): «i Fox matxix A, IAL is nead as detenminant ofA and not modulus of A.
(i Only square mathices have determinants.
Pnopenties of Detenminants
(iW) The value of the detenminant nemains unchanged if its nows and columns intenchanged.
cit) If any two nows (ox columns) of a detexminant ane intenchanged, then sign of detenminant
changes.
(itt) Tf any two ows (ox columns) of a detexminant ane identical, then value of determinant
is Zeno.
(M) If each element of a now (om a column) of a detexminant is multiplied by a constant k,
then its value gets multiplied by k,
(V) If some on all elements of a now ox column of o determinant is expressed sum of two
(on mone) tenms, then the detenminant can be expnessed as sum of two (on mone) detexminants.
(vi) If , to each element of any xow on column of a detenminant, the equimultiple of connes ponding.
elements of othen sow (Con column) ane added, then the value of determinant sxemains the same
i.e. the value of detenminant hemains same if we apply the opexation R: Ri t kR; on CC,
+ kG.

vi Anea of Triangle > Anca of Taiangle with ventices Cm, ,y,),€ 4.) and (73,45) is,
O-41]% fr f
21% y f
% y; if
Note :
( Anea is a positive quantity » we always take the absolute value of A.
iy Tf Anea is given , use both positive and negative values of the detenminant fon calculation.
(iil) The anea of the tniangle fonmed by thxee collinean points ts zeno.
vi Minons = Minon of an element aj of the [Al is detenminant obtained by deleting i” now
and j™ column and is denoted by p+ minnon of 0
. itj
Cofactons: Cofacton of an element a ij» denoted by is defined by Ay = GH
Adjoint of a matnix * The adjoint of a squane matnix A = [a4] is defined as the tnanspose
of the matnix [Ai Jinx » Adjont of the matnix A denoted by
(the cofacton of the element a,)
wf Singulan matnix = A squane matnix A is said to be singulan if |Al=0
Non- Singulan matnix : A squane matnix A is said to be non- singulan if [AL#O
MTheonemi =f A be any given squane matnix of oxden n, then A(adjA) = (adjA)A = lAIT
WCheonm D> Tf A and 8 ane non-singulan matnices of the same onder, then AB and
BA ane also non- singular matnices of the same onder,
Theorems) 1ABI = IAL 18! whene A ond B ane squane matnices of same oxden.
“Gheonem’ A squane matniz A is inventible if and only if A is non- singulan matsix.
% Consistent system : Jf system of equation have solution (one on mone) exists.
“ Imcosistent system > Of system has no solution or solution does not exist.
wf System of linean equation using invense of @ matnix :

Considen the equations, x + by +c,z=d, Hene, A= | a b | X =| %1 gnd B=} a

Ox + by + C7 = dy QA, bo Cy d dy
a,x + by + Cz = d, Q; 63 ©, 2 ds

Then the system of equations can be waitten as, AX*8 9 am br 6) * = “

, Qo bo Y da
a; 53 c,{l 2 ds
CaseI If A is a non- singulan matnix, then its invense exists. Now X= A's

case Tf A is a singulan matnix, then |Al=0 (AdjA) 8 #0 sol” does not exist (incosistent)
( Adj A)8=0 infinitely many sol” on no sol”
(consistent ot inconsistent)
 Continuity. and Diffenentiabi lity
wf Continuity : Suppose f is a neal function on a subset of the neal numbens and let c
be @ point in the domain f. Then f is continuous at c if | tim
f (x)= fc)
XC

“4 Discontinuity : A function said to be discontinuous ot potnt x-a, if it is not continuous

at this point. This point x=a whene the function is not continuous is called
the point of discontinuity .
“4 Theonemi Suppose f and g be two neal functions continuous at a neal no. then,
G) ftg is continuous at x=C (3) fg is continuous at x=C
(2) f-g is continuous at x=C (4) (£) is continuous at x=C » [provided g(c) #0}
¢
4 Teonem2 Suppose f and g axe neal valued functions such that (fog) is defined at c.
If q is continuous atc and if f ts continuous at 9Cc), then (fog) is
continuous at ec.
wf Diffenentiability) + Suppose f is a meal function and c is @ point in tts domain. The
denivative off at c defined by lim f(esh)- fCcd pnovided this limit
° h
exists. Denivative of f at c is denoted by f'Cc) on a FCI, The function defined by
x
f'tx)= lim f£Ctth)- f(x) wheneven the limit exists is defined to be the dexivative
h20 h
of f. The dexivative denoted by on on if y= fCx) by on
¥ Algebxa of dexivaties : w (atv) wee
ti (uy)! = uly 4 uy! | (Leibnitz on product nule)

(iil) (4) = u'y- uv’ | wheneven v¥0 C quotient. Rule)

Vv v?
MeTheonem's) Tf a function f is diffenentiadle at a point c, then it is alse continuous
at that point.
Pate: Eveny diffenentiadle function is continuous.
“Chain Rule : Let f be a neal valued function of which is a composite of two
functions u and v ie. f = vou; Suppose t= ulx) and if dt
and dw exist,we have QE = dv. dt dx
dt dt dt dx
Suppose f is neal valued function which is a composite of thnee functions u,v
and wi ie. f= (wou)ov and if t=u(x%) and ¢s= ult) then
df = d(wou). dt . dw. ds. dt
dx dt dt ds dt dx
~ Some propenties of Logonithmic function

log, P - i Log, pq = log. P + (09,9 log Pp - log,p + log.p = 2logp

b
log,p" = nogp “a(t) : log, x ~ loony log, % = gt
~
? Note: Exponential form loganithim form
25 = 6 log,8 > 3
b' = b log,b = 1
bo = 4 log, = 0
~ Some standard denivative
ad (Cc) = 0 c= constant a ( Sinz) = Cosx a (Sinz) = _{

dx dx dx [- 2?
d(x") = nx” d_ (Cosz) = -Sinx d (cos'x) = -1
ax dx dx Jt-2?
d(e*) = e” d_(tanx) = Sec?x d (tan'x) = _1
dx dx dx 1+2?
2. (logx) = 1 _ (Cotx) = ~-Cosec’x d_(cot™') =
dx ° L dx dx 1+x°
da) = a™ toga a (Secex) = Secz. tanx a (Sec'x) =
dx ° dx dx a Jx?-1
d(t094") = (og, ¢ od (Cosecx) = -Cosecx.Cotx| | 4 (eosec'z) =
dx x a ax dx "| 02-1

4 loganithmic differentiation vw Denivative of functions in

vex) Panametnic fonms
Ye f(x) . [ucx)) = F(t) = gC t) panametnic form with¢ as @ panometen,
daking log both sides, al . dy. dx
logy = v¢x) log CuCx)] at de de
using chain nule to oliffexentiate oy
L.dy= v(x). 1. u'(n) + v'cx)- tog luca] Oy = dt [reeves ax +0]
4 dx ucx) dx dx at
dy y os u'(x) + y'cx). 9g Cuca] dy a
ax u(x) = giCt) as dy = g'(t) and dx f(t) | [provided fee ¥ 0]
dx Fe) | at dt

“ Second oxdex dexivative 9 Note: Highen onden dexivative may be defined similarly
Leb y= fx)
dy. f(x) ———w
dx
Oiffenenciate ti) again w#d to x,

aay) - O[f') x» ary = f"(x)| Denoted on

dx \dx ax ee
MRotte'smmnecnem >: If fi: lap]— R ss continuous on [a,b] and diffenentiadble on(a,b)
such that f(a) f(b) then thene exists sm C in (a,6)Such that f'Cc)=
vf Langnange Theonem on Mean value theonem : If fi Ca,bJ—+e@ ts continuous
on fa,b] and diffenentiable
on (a,b). Then thene exists some c in (Ca,6) such that

b-a
 Application’ of Desivatives
4 Rate of change): If a quantity y vanies with anothen quantity x, satisfying some nule ys f(x), then
al (on f'Cx)) nepmesents the nate of change of y with nespect to x at X= %,
Ot byey
Wf Diffenentials ¢ Let y- f(x) be any function of x which is diffenentiable in (a,b). The denivatives of this
function at some point x of (a,b) is given by the Helation
ay. lim ay. lim (x4 ax) - f(x) = f@
dx 4%70 4x A270 Ax

> ay = f '(x) > (ay) f'tvdx diffenential of the function

dx
v Ineneasing and decneasing functions 4 function f is said to be,
(@) incneasing on an interval (a,b) if %,< %, in (0,6) > fla) ¢ fla) fon all x,,% € Ca,b)

(b) decneasing on an intenval (a,b) if x,< 2, in (0,6) > fx) 2 fFCx,) fon all u,, x € Ca,b)

~ Theonemi Let f be continuous on [0,6] and diffenentiable on the open intenval (a,b). Then

(a) f is ineneasing in [0,6] if f'(x) 70 fon each x € (a,b)

(b) f is decneasing in [a,b] if f'(x)<0 fon each x € Ca,b)
(c) f is a constant function in [0,6] if f'Cx)=0 fon each xe Ca,6)
vf Tangent to a cuxve The equation of the tangent at (Xo yo) to the cunve y= fx) is given by
y- 4, . 4 (2-4) a4 OR f'Cu,) = mM = slope of tangent at (%,4)
xX (x4) (%0 + Ye)

If ay does not exist at the point (20,45), then the tangent at this point is ponaltel to the y - axis
dz
and its equation is £=%,

Tf tangent to a cunve yx fx) at x=2, is panallel to x-axis , then a] = 0

dz nen,
~\ Nonmal to the cunve
Equation of the nonmal to the cunve ys f Cx) at a point (%, Yo) is given by ,

y-¥, = a! (x- %,) a4] OR f'Ct) = mM = Slope of tangent at (%,4)

4 dx (%0 Yo)
dx C5540)

If OY at the point CXq1 Yo) is zeno. then equation of the noamal is %=%
dx
If 24 at the point CX, Yo) does not exist, then the nonmal is panallel to x-axis and its eq. Y= Yo
dx

Slope of the nonmal =~!

slope of the tangent

w Approximation — Let y= f(x), 4% be a small ineneament in x and Oy be the increment in y

connesponding to the incneament in x, i-e. Ay = f (x+Ox)~- f(x). Then approximate value
of Ay {eee
dx
“Maximum on Minimum yalue of a function ( Absolute Maxima oh Absolute Minima)
A function f is said to attain maximum value ata point ae Dy, if fla)2 flx) V xe Dp
then fla) is called absolute maximum value of f.
A function f is said to attain minimum value at a point be Dy, if f(b)< f(x) V xe Dg
then f(b) is called absolute maximum value of f.
“local Maxima and local Minima ( Relative Extnema)
Local Maxima) A function f(z) is said to attain a local maxima at «=a, if thene
exists a neighbouxhood (Ca-5,a+8) of ‘a’ such that flx)< fla) Vv
x € Ca-6,a+6), x#a, then fla) is the local maximum volue of f(x) at x=a.
Lotat Minima A function f(x) is said to attain a local minima at w=a, if there
exists a neighbounhood (a-6,a+6) of ‘a’ such that f(x) >fla) Vv
x €Ca-5 at+6), t#a, then fla) is the local minimum value of f(x) at x=a.
(a) Finst denivative test:
(i) Sf f'Cx) changes sign fnom positive to negative as x incheases thnough ¢, then ‘cis a
point of local maxima and f(c) is local maximum value.
(WW SF f'Cx) changes sign fnom negative to positive as x increases thnough ¢, then ‘cis a
point of local minima and f(c) is local minimum value.
WU) Sf f'(x) dosen't changes sign as x incneases thnough c , then c is neithen a point of local
minima non a point of local maxima. Such a point is called point of inflection.

(b) Second Denivative Test : Jet f be a function defined on an intenval I and CET. Let f be
twice differentiable at c. Then
@) x=c is a point of local maxima if f'(c)=-0 and f"(c)<0. In this case fle) is
called local maximum value.
(li) x=c is a point of local minima if f'(c)=0 and f"C)>0.In this case fc) is
called local minimum value.
il) The test fails of f'(ch=0 and f"(c)=0. In this case, we go back to finst denivative
test.
4 Wonking Rule fon finding absolute maximum on absolute minimum values
StepT): Find all the cnitical points off in the given intenval, i-e., find points x whene
ef(then f'(x)=0 on f is not adiffenentiable.
Step): Take the end points of the intenval.
Step: At all these points, Calculate the value of f.
Step): Identify the maximum and minimum value of f out of the values calculated in
Step DI. The maximum vatue will be the absolute maximum value of f and the
minimum value will be the absolute minimum value of f.
MCnitical Point) A Point C in the domain of a function f at which eithen f'(c)=0 on f is
not diffenentiable is called a cnitical point of f.
 T { j
AAT ARAHIC
x te (ECC TUACS
f
Al Tntegnation ( Anti diffenentiation) : Tntegnation is the invense pxocess of diffenentiation.
Instead of differentiating a function. we one given
the denivative of a function and asked to find its pnimitive, i-e., the oniginal
function. Such a pnocess is called integnation on anti diffenentiation. Ex : y= J fexddx.

Denivatives Integnals ( Antidenatives) |

d(x") = nx™! furde= at 16, ne-t

dx n+1
od (4) = 1 fax
= xtc
ax
a (Sinz) = Cosx J cosxdx = Sinn +¢

d_ (Cosz) > ~Sinx [sin dx = ~(Cosx tc

dx
d_(tanx) = Sees jf sectedx = tanx +
dx
d_ CCotx) > -Cosec?x [cosets dx = -Cotx +
dx
d (Seer) = Secx. tanx [ Secx tanxdx = Secx+C
dx

a Censeex) = ~ Cosecx. Cotx [eosecx Cotxdx = - Cosecz + C

ad (sin'z) = 1_ [= = Sin'x +c
dx (- x? J [-x*
d (cos'z) = -1 dx_ Leste 4 ¢
ax [-x? fi-2
d (tan'x) = _1 fae = tan'z +c
dx 1+2? [tx
d_(cot'x) - _-1 dx .-Cot'x +e
dx l+x° [+x?
d (Sec'x) = 1 —dz_ = Sec'x +e
dx “J x?-1 xi xt 4
d (Cosec'z)= _ 1 [t= = -Cosec'x +¢
dx “% i x?-1 ai x?-1
d(e*) = e* fetax = e*+¢
dx
(log x) = ft [ie = log (x! +C
dx o x
a (a) - a” [orax - a" 4¢
dx loga loga
vf Integration by substitution method

f tanx dx = log | Secx| +C J secxdx = log [ Secr + tanxl tC

J cotcax = log | Sinz] tC J cosecxdx - log | cosecx - Cotx| +C

vi Integnals. of some panticulan functions

dt . de 109 a dx _ = log |x+fx%a*| +¢

ci- a? Zta [3¢2- QQ?

dx. ote dx_ = Sin'a 4c

a? x? Jaxx? a
Ta dtan'xz4C¢ [7S = log |x+Jxa@l +c
140° a a rT

“ To find the integnal [—_

AX*+ bx+C
2
we white, ax’+ btt+c = a thet cl 4 a |(x+2) +(£- 2)
a a 20 a 4a*
Now ; put tt > dxedt and C-b - ,
Q@ ua?
The integnal becomes t
ie K*
“ To find the integnated of the type: | PX+@ dx
ax*+ bx tC
Whene p,q,4,b,c ane constants.
To find the neal numbens A,B such that,
prtq = Ad(axr+ brt+c)+ B= A(2ar+b)+B
x
“1 Integnation by pantial fraction
Fonm of Rational function | Form of pantial function
_P%+4 5 atb A_, 8B
(2-0) (2-b) 2-0 1-b

A + B :
_pety
(x-0)* t-a (x-a)

ee A, B ,¢“-C
(x-a) (x-b) (x-0) 1-0 2-6

en A, 6 ,¢ (x-b)
(x-a) (2-b) (x-a) (x-a)

put getn A, bx+e

(2-0) (x4 bx+C) (x-a) (x?+ br tc)
whene «+ bx+C cannot be factonised funthen.
wv Integration by parts | f F(ag(addx = foof glx)dx - f [feof g(x)dx| ax

vf Integnal of the type fem [fcx) + f'(x)) dx = fet flxdx

fi w-arde = x J? * ~ a*|log x+/x%a®| +e

2 2

fi x40? dx = x. Jaa + 0°} 109 x+Jxha| +c

2 2
[Taeae * zt ake Se aad
vi Fundamental theonem of Calculas
x
Anea function : |A(x) = I Flx)dx
a

Finst fundmental theonem of integnal calculas *

Theonemt) ket f be a continuous function on the closed intenval [a,b] and let A(x)
be the anea function, Then |ACx)= fCx)|, fon all xeéla,b]

Second fundmental theonem of integnal calculas:

meonemi2)? f be continuous function defined on the closed intenval [a,b] and F

be an Aantidenivative of f.
b
J f(xdx = [ecu], = F(b)- F(a)

“ Definite Integnal If Fx) is the integnal of f(x) oven the intenval Ca,b], ie.
[ f(xddx = Flx) then the definite integnal of fx) oven the interval
Ca,b] is denoted by [Fen is defined as 5
‘ uppen limit [ f(x)dx = F(b)- Fla)
Q
lowen limit ~_—~*
“ Definite integnal as the limit of the sum

fi fewax = Lim h (f(a) + f (ath) + bees f(a+(n-t)h)]

OR

fi flvds = (b-a) tim + (F(a +f Cath) +..... flar(n-t)nyj] re RO we rem

“i Some pxopenties of Definite Integrals :

b b 20 a a
p,: fi f(adx = f flat Poi fl f(ddx - [ fooas tf f (20-a)de

PB: J, #lavax --[ foodx Po: [toa ph ftddx = ftw

: if f(2a-z)

0 =! f(2a-x)=- f(x)
P J. tla - j “flaldx + [foods a a
ws

b b BR? ob J f(adx 2f f(x)dxu : f(x) is even function,

Pp: f fidx - [ flaro-nas a = FG)
ie $x)
o “a (i f f(a)dx = 0 if fx) is odd function
= J fla-x)ax 4 ie. $a)= = -§ -80)
Py : [ fax ~
 ish Applications of Integaals
(i) The anea of negion bounded by the cunve y= f(x), x-axis and the lines x-a
and a-b (67a) ts given by _ fe 76
Anea I f(x)dx = [ ydx
(2) The anea of negion bounded by the cunve x= Gly), y-axis and the lines yec
and y-d is _ pe _ fa
Anea fxdy [ dyidy

(3) Anea enclosed between; y= f(x) and y= glx) and the lines; X=a, X=b
Anea = [°[flx)- g(x)]ax j f(a) 2 glx) in [a,b]
a

(4) If f(x)2qlz) in [a,c] and F(x)

€ g(x) in [c b}, a<C<b then;
Anea nea = fi [ft(x)- gou]ax}d + [ [gl f(x)fladjd x |
c b
g(x) )-
 Diffeneritial Equations
Wi Diffenentiation :
An equation involving the independent vaniabie x (say), dependent vaniable
y (say) and the differential cofficients of dependent vaniable with
nespect to independent vaniable ie. Oy, ay | d*y peceeey G4.
dx dx? dx?
Example : 24, Wea, ty | 34y , Sy = x* ane diffenential equations.
dx dx? dx
“% Onden and Degnee of a diffenential equation
The Onden of a diffenential equation is the highest onder denivative occumning in the
differential equation
The degnee of o diffenential equation is the degnee of the highest onden denivative
occuxning in the equation, when the diffenential cofficients ane made fnee fnom
nadicals, fractions and it is wnitten as a polynomial in diffenential co- efficient.
a
3 2
Example : dy + 2 ay - ay y = 0 highest onden denivative=3 = oOnden = 3
dx? dx? dx
Ma” the degnee of the highest onden denivative octuning in the equation

degnee = 1

(-“4)+
ar we = 0 NN
Sin 44 onden= 2
dx* ax degnee= not defined ( because this differential eq” cannot
be wnitten in the fonm of polynomial in diff" co- efficient )
9 Note: onden and degnee of a differential eq” ane always positive integers.
¥% Genenal Solution : he solution which contains anbitnany constants is called the
genenal solution Cpnimitive) of the differential equation.
“ Panticulan solution * The solution obtained fxom the genenal solution by giving
ponticulan values to the anbitnany constants is called a
panticulan solution of the diffenential equation.
vi Equations in vaniable sepanable form :
Considen the equation dy 2 X.Y whene X is a function of x only and Y is a function
dx of y only.
UU) Put the equation in the foum Lt dy = X.dx
y
ql) Integnoting both the sides, we get dy = / Xdx +C€ whene c is an anbitnany constant.
Y
Thus the Hequixed sol" is obtained.
“ Equations Reducible to vaniables Sepenable fonm :
() Write the given equation in fonm dy= flaxt by +c)
dx
(uy Put axtbytce =z, so that = L (de.- a
4 at b \dx
(iy Putting this dy in the given equation, we get 1 (dz - a) « f(z). this eq" is
dx dx
neduced in the fonm : dz _ = dx. Aften integnating, we get the Hequined
nesult. at bf(z) ,
wv Momo genous diffenential Equation A diffenential equation of the foxm ra FC 4,4)

is said to be homogenous diffenential equation if FCx,y) is a homogenous function of deqnee Zeno.

(0 Suppose y=vx and so dy = vt rd.
% dz
(WW The value y-vx and dy = vt xdv is substituted in given eq". The eq" xeduces to
dx
vasuable sepanable fonm, which can be solved by integnating both Sides.
(W) Finally v is neplaced by 4 to get the nequined solution.
x
9 Note: rf the homogenous differential equatron is in the fonm dx= F(x,y) then we
d
Substitute x= vy and so “ Say and pxoceed as above. d

% Finst onden linean siparell Duis

oy + Py=9Q (i) dx. Pxr=9¢ )

ax dy
whene P and Q ane constants on function of x only Bwhene P and @ ane constants on function of y only.

d d
I. Ff. = @ [Pde CIF. * Integnating facton) I.f. = @ fp f (re Integrating factor)

Solution of (i) is ; Solution of (i) is ;

y.( I F.) = Sox (TF)dz +e .(I-F)= [ox (TA) dy +C

 Vecton Algebna
4 Vecton: A quantity that has magnitude as well as dixection is called a vecton.
denoted by on A ain gg
“ Tnitial point : The point A where fuom the vecton AB stants is known as initial point.

¥ Tenminal point > The point 8, whene it ends is said to be the tenxminal point.
a Magnitude * The distance between initial and tenminal points of a vecton is called the magnitude
(on length) of the vecton.
M Scalan + Those physical quantities which have only magnitude ane called scalan, ¢.9-, anea, volume,
mass etc.
“ Dinection cosines > If n= ai +b + ck makes angle %,B,Y with +ve dinection of x-axis, y-axis
and z-axis sespectively, then Cosa, CosB and Cost ane the dinection cosines
of # and ane denoted by l,m and n whene, Z _p(0,b,¢)
t+ cosa=__@ _|,/m = cosp =_b _|, [n= Cos¥= __¢__
Jats b4¢? Jats o4c2 Ja?+b24+c8

“ Dinection natios : Tf numbers @,b,C ane pnopotional to dinection cosines 1, m and n

nespectively of hn, then a,b,c ane called dinection natios of fh.
z Pl x,y,z)
% Position vecton : Considen a point (x,y,z) in space. The vecton OP with initial point,
onigin O and texminal point P, is called the position vecton of P. ° ’
Mi zeno vector * A vecton whose initial and tenminal points coincide is known as zeno vecton.
a . . . 2 a . . x

“ Unit vecton : A vecton whose mag nitude iG unity is said to be unit vecton. denoted

yo. eee
. la
¥ Co-tnitial Vectons : Two on mone vectons having the same initial point ane called coinitial
vectons.
“4 Collinean Vectons : Two on mone vectons ane said to be collinean if they ane panallel
| to the same line, innespective of thein magnitudes and dinections.
vi Equal vectons : Two vectons @ and 6 ane said to be equal, if they have the same
magnitude and dinection megandiess of the positions of thein initial
points, and whitten as a+b
a Negative of a vecton : A vecton whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vecton,
but dinection ts opposite to that of it, és called negative of
the given BA
vecton, | BA ==-A
-AB c

( Triangle law of vecton addition) ff

rie Addition of vectons : Ac = AB + BC

A 8
“ Pnopenties of vecton addition: di \(@+b)+¢ = &+(b+0)

i . , 23> >

% Multiplication of a vecton by a scalan + |lAal = [All al] “°" ~ Midpoint H- Otd

Note : Fox any scalan k, |kO= 0
9 ( wvecton component
ao ad
wf Component fonm : KH = ablyp eck) I) =Jo2+ ytezzs %,Y,z = scalan components of
 vectox joining two points : | 1 = 8 (%,- 4+ Yya-yid + (2-2
> >
W Section fonmula : CaseT When ® divides PQ intennally n= _mbtnal ,
mtn ? °
Case When R divides PQ extennally rar mb-na a Ne
m-nN 0 -
-
“ Scalan (on dot) pnoouct of two vectons : z .
= 7 =>
ab = IRIE cose Cosé = db 6 = cos'|_a@-o | %
6 is the angie between @ and 6, 0<0<T allo] ea 6
a
4 Pnopenties : @.b = b-a (3) |(Aa)-b = [email protected])=- @CAdb)
, ~ > > PR - 7D) = a >

2) | a@-(Bte)= Gb+aAC |] @)|2.0-0%

@=0, 0-0 male
() |Tf @= at+aj+ ak and B= t+ bjt bk, then Gb= a,b,+ a,b,+ 036,
2 Plo
(6) Projection of @2 on 6 = G-b and position vecton of @ on B abit
lol 1b
—

vecton of B on @ | a: |. a
; ; > 4 n > > b >
(#) |Puojection of 6 on @ = G-b_ and position
lal Ja
@wote : sf two vectors @ and B- ane given in component foamas a,l+a,/+a,k and t+ bft 8
a. B S Q, 6, + 4,6, + 3b,

“ Obsenvations :
1) @-6 is a neal numben.
2) Let @ and @ be two non- zeno_vectons , then @-B=0 if and only if @ and 6 ane
pexpendiculan to each othen i.e. frees f15]
3) If 0-0 then @-O=-1011bl. In panticulan @-@= (Wl, as 6 in this case is 0.
H)If O=M then @-B= -1@I1b1. In panticulan ve “lel, as 6 in this case is Tl.
5) In view of the Obsenvations 2 and 3 , fon mutually penpendiculan unit vectons i, j and K , we have
btepp} thet Lfepee kE=0
6. the angle between two non-zeno vectons @ and Bb is given by Cos6 = ab

f) The scalan pnoduct is commutative.i-e. | @.b-0b-a@ lal il

“ Projection of a vecton on a line * The P is called ihe pnojection vecton and its magnitude lp! is
simply called as the projection of the vecton AB on the dinected
tine t.

47. ' N
: Ne : ———_.Fe.
C.F > i?
G&S Cc > !
K ‘ : Ne 6 < i A ——™ " :
19 > _ sf & be ot | “A N\
A . Cc Cc r4 A : . o oN i:

(0°< 6 < 90") (90°< 6 < 180") (180’< 6 < 270") (270°< 0 < 360")
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
4
Obsenvations +
L If P is the unit vecton along a line |, then the pxojection of a vecton @ on the line lL is given by
> A
ap.
 aB
|
= =
2) Projection of a vecton @ on othen vecton b, is given by OR A. leb ok 4 (@.)
lol lol
3. If 6=°9, then the€ Puojection vecton of AB will be AB itself and if O=T1, then the pnojection vector
of AB will be BA.
4. If 6-H on 0-3, then the pnojection vecton of AB will be zeno vecton.
2 2
9 Note : If &, B and 7 ane the dinection angles of vecton d= at a,j + a; k , then its dinection
cosines may be given as

cosa= Gt . O1=> |, | cosp- and (057 =

Q;, 4), 3; = scalan components
l@iltl la iI ia a > unit vecton

= cosat+ CosBf + Coo7K

¥ vecton (on enoss) product of two vectons xb = [161 Sine n OR Sind = faxbl
8 isthe angle between
He unit vecton penpendiculan
@and b,0<02T
to the plane & and 6
lallol
“% Pnopenties :
W | axb =-bxa
(2 |Tf @xb=0 @ a=0, b=0 maile
t 7k
(3) |tf O= a, t+ a,f +05k and = b+ bf+ bk , AXE =] % % 4%
by b, bs

wf Obsenvations $ 4. Oxb is a vecton.

2. If O=IL then |@xb= I@llol
3. Angle °between two vectons @ and >& | SING|sing == l@xbl
———s
Iwliel
4. |ixts= bi .
taf-R, paket, Retefj]
a a A 4a A A A S
-_ k

5 [frt--k], ae ona [txkaj] KX4

x 4

~ fAnea of tniangle ABC - £1B11@! sing > |ilexol

2

YAnea of panallelognam ABCD = [B1/@l sino =[1exol

% Projection foxmulae :
(1)| @ = bCosC + cCosB (2)| b = cCosA + alosc (3)|C= aosC + bCosa
 Thxee Dimensional hreometny
QS
’ . oo. . ar TZ ZA dinection cosines
“ Relation between the dinection eosines of a line | l + m4 n’=i
W Dinection cosines of a line seqwent joining two points P(x,,y,,z,) and OC x,,4,,%,)
ane My-%, | fet. 22-%s whene PQ* J(a,- 4) + Cy,-y)°# C%-24)"
Pq PQ PQ
Vecton Equation of @ line that passes _thnough the given point whose position vectors
a’ and parallel to a given vecton 6 is HR -atAe | Cvecton foxm)
Cantesian Equation,
U=% 2 ¢7Gt | 274% | og | RH. deh 2-4
l m N @)_ (b_ @__| dinection natios

MS Vecton Equation of @ line that passes thnough two points n = + A(o-@)|, AER
position vectors

Cantesian Equation poi ints i-—- (4%, Yrs z,) Oe Yor Z z,) t-% 2 Goh Ll 2-2
X,-% Ya Ys 2-2,

MW If o,; b3 cy and @,; by; c, ane the dinection natios of two lines and O is the
acute angle between two lines then; Cos =| 91%+ d:b,+ GC,
Jats b+ 2 faze b+ ec,
Two lines with dinection satios ,,6,,¢, and 4,b,,¢, ane
(i) penpendieulan 0 = 90° G, 0, + bb, + G0, =0
(i) panaltel 0:0 wo blo
% %» 6
If O is the acute angle between the line n= a, + Ab; and n= a, + Ab,
then 6 is given by : s
oe d Cos6 = a ox 16 = Cost [bib 1
[byl le! [byl le!
(vectoh f fonm)
v4 the shontest | distance _betmeen the lines bxb.)-(a-a
H* 0, + Ab, and w= 0,
+ Ab, is lo. x 6, |

Cantesian foam, tines 22% - ¢°Ht 2 2-4 and 2% . CoH. 274% fg

Ho-%1 Ya-Ye Zy~Zy

Qy b; Ct

Qy b, C,

J (b, ¢, - boty)t (C, a, - C104)+ (0, by- 4 by)”

“ Distance between Panallel tines H- O,+ uband w= a+ ud is | bX (a,-a,)
lp!
wf Equation of a plane in a@ nanmal form Hea (vecton fonm)
distance fnom onlgin
Cantesian fonm, (x + my *+nZ= a position J acton nit nonmal vetlon t
“The equation of a plane thnough a point whose position vecton is @ and penpendiculan
to the vecton Nis (w-@). 2-0

ACx-%,) + BCy-y,)+ C(2-%,)> 0

“ Equation of a plane passing though thnee non collinean points

(x-a)|(B-@)x(@- 2)] = 0
H-% YY Zz,
XX Yay, 7-2, | = 0
%3-% Yar Ye 23-2

Mi Plane passing thnough the intensection of wo given planes |H- (1) + An,)> dit Ad,

Cantesian fonm, (Ax t By + Gz -d,)t A (A,x + By + Cz -d,)=0

~~ =
Angle between two planes | Coso = N,N; |
lating |

Cos6 = A, A, + 8,8, + CC;

J Ay?+ B,?+ 6; JAS + 8) + Cy

4 Angle between a line and o plane | Cos® =|_b-n

lollal
the angle @ between the line and the plane is given by 90-6, i-e. SinQo’-
6) = cose
~~
sing = b-n ; ok |b = sin! _b-n
|_»-
lol-li lol-lnl
 Lineax Programming
¥ Linean programming* Linea pxognamming CLP) iS an optimisation technique in which a linean function is
optimisied (i.e. minimised on maximised) subject to centain constraints which ane in the fonm
of linean inequalities and equations. The function to be optimised is called objective function.

ws Applications of lineax programming : Linean programming optimum combination of sevenol vaniables subject to
centoin constnaints on nestnictions.
“\ formation of linear phognamming problem (LPP): The basic problem in the formulation of a linean
programming problem is to set-up some mathematical
model. This can be done by asking the following questions :
(a) what ane the unknown Cvaniables)?
(b) what is the objective7
(€) What ane the nestnictions?
Fox this, let x, 4%, %y...... Xn be the vaniables. Let the objective function to be optimized
Ci-e. minimised on maximised) be given by Z.
W) Z* Cj Hpt Cty tn...t+ Cn whene cx; (i= 1,2,.....n) ane constraints,
(i) Let thene be mn constants and let a be a set of constants such that

Qy Xi t 04%, + ae meet eeee t AnIn (<,=0n2) b,

My, Xp + Qyy Ly toe

ee t Ontn (S$,
= 9" 2) 6,

Ot%y + Qypy%y t evseecee + Om tn S, = % 2) 6,

The problem of detenminating values Of %),%,,....,%, Which makes Z, 0 minimum on maximum
and which satisfies Ui) and (iii) is called the genenal lineax programming pxoblem
Yi Genenal LPP
(a) Decision vaniables : The vaniables 2, %_y gy... 1%, whose values ane to be decided , ane called decision
vaniables.
(b) Objective function: The linear function Z* e%,+¢,%+.....+Cy%n which is to be optimized (maximised on minimised)
is called the objective function on pmefenence function of the genenal linean programming.
pxoblem.

(C) Stnuctunal constraints : [he inequalities given in (iy ane called the stnuctunal constaaints of the genenal
{inean phognamming puoblem. The stnuctunal constnaints ane genenally in the fonm
of inequalities of 2 type on < type, but occasionally , a stnuctunal constnaint may be in the form of
an equation.
(d) Non- negative constnaints : The set of inequalities (iii) is usually known as the set of non- negative
constnaints of the genenal LPP. These constraints imply that the
Voniables %,,%,.....,%p, Cannot take negative values.

(2) Feasible Solution : Any solution of a genenal LPP which satisfies all the constnaints, stnuctuxal and non
negative, of ihe pnoblem, is called a fesidle solution of general LPP.

(f) Optimum Solution : Any feasible solution which optimizes (i-e. minimize on maximises) the objective function
of the LPP is called optimun solution.
¥\ Requinements fon Mathematical fonmulation of LPP : Befone getting the mathematical fonm of a
linean programming pnoblem, it is impontant
to necognize the problem which can be handled by linean programming problem. Fon the
fonmulation of a linean programming pnoblem, the pnoblem must satisfy the following
nequinements +
(i) Thene must be an objective to minimise oh maximise something. The objective must be capable of being
cleanly defined mathematically as a linean function.
(i) Thene must be altennative sounces of action so that the pnoblem of selecting the best Counse of actions
may anise.
(iil) The nesounces must be in economically quantifiable limited supply. The gives the constnaints to LPP
(iv) The constnnints (nestnictions) must be capable of being expnessed in the fonm of linean equations
on inequalities.
wi Solving linean Puognamming problem : Jo solve lineah prognamming pnoblems, Connen Point method
is adopted . Unden this method following steps ane penfonamed:
% step I 2 At finst, feasible negion is obtained by plotting the gnaph of given linean constraints and
its connen points ane obtained by solving the two equations of the lines intensecting at that
point,
% step I > The value of objective function Z= axt by is obtained fon each connen point by putting its
% and y- coordinate in place of x and y in Z+ax+ by. Let M and m be langest and
smallest value of Z nespectively.

faseI : If the feasible is bounded , then M and m one the maximum and minimum values of Z.
Case : If the feasible is unbounded , then we pxocced as follows:

% step mT : The open half plane detenmined by axt by >M and axt by <m ane obtained.
CaseT : If thene is no common point in the half plane detenmined by ax+ by? M and feasible
negion, then M is maximum value of Z, othenwise Z has no maximum value.
Case I: If thene is ne common point in the half plane detenmined by ax+ by<M and feasidle
negion, then m is minimum value of Z, othenwise Z has no minimum value.
 Puobability
¥ Conditional Probability If E and F ane two events associated with the same somple space of a
nondom expeniment , then the conditional probability of the eventE unden
the condition that the event F has occunned whitten as P(£) is given by ,
(E) - P(ENF) | ; Plr) #0 F
F P(F)
“i Pnopenties of Conditional Probability Let E and F be events associated with the sample space
5 of an expeniment. Then,
(i (s) . °(e) 1] ai P| ava) . (A). (a). (ane (i °(£)- 1 °(€)
F F F F F
“i Multiplication Theonem on Probability
Let E and F be two events associated with a If £, F and tr ane 3 events associated
sample space of an expeniment. Then, with a sample space. then,

P(ENF)= P(e) rE) + P(e) #0 P(ENFA) = P(e) i "le

E E E nF
> PF) fz) ; PCA) #0
F

wi Independent Events): let € and F be two events associated with the same nandom experiment, then
E and F ane said to be independent if, | PCenF) = PLE). PCF)
% Dependent Events : Two events E and F ane said to be dependent if they ane not independent, i.e. lf
PCENF) # PLE). PF)
Thnee events A, 8 and C ane said to be independent of all the following conditions hold :
P(AanB) = P(a) PCB)
P (Anc) = P(A) PCC)
P (Bnc) = (8) PCC)
and P (anBnc)= Pa) P C8) Plc)
wo Bayes’ Theorem Tf §,6,....E, ane mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a
Sample space and A as any event of non-zeno pnobability . then ;

fe ? (E;) |

4 >. PC) ra)

int j
“ Theonem of total Pnobability Let {6,,&,....E)} be a pantition of the sample space S. Let A be
any event associated with S$ , then :

PCA) = y® lg) 9/4.)

i i
¥ Random vaniable and its probability Distni bution A nandom voniable is a neal valued
whose domain is the sample space of
a nandom expeniment. The Probability distnibution of a nandom vaniable X is the
system of numbers: .
x 2%) Kye Hy _ a ;
Dt 12 Bum Pe whene P20 5 ) Piet i= 1,2...
is]
 Mean of a xandom vaniable Let X be a mandom vaniable assume 1,,%,..... Ly
[The expectation of X OR E(X)] with probabilities P,,),,-.--- Pn nespectively - Mean of X,
denoted by u is the numben > Pi -

E(x)= u = 2 %Pi = Hypy t Upp t..--.

+ InPy

“i Vaniance of a sondom vaniable

2. of 2 n A a
ee 2 (e-H) Pi = >. UP,-
i ivf

on equivalently ms E(X-y)

Standand deviation of the nandom variable X is defined as :

if

w Bennoulli Trials Tnials of a nandom expeniment ane called Bennuolli tnivals , if they
Satisfy the following conditions :
(i) Thene should be finite no. of tnials.
(i) The trials should be independent.
(iit) Each tnial has exactly two outcomes * success on failure.
(1) The probability of success (on failune) nemains the same in each tnial.
¥% Binomial Distnidution A nandom vaniable xX taking values 0,1,2....,n Us Said
to have binomial distribution with panametens n and P of
tts pnobability distnidution is given by:

PCX=n) = "Cy p™gr whenre q=1i-p and n=0,1,2....1