Data Analytics

Data Analytics
Concepts, Techniques, and ­Applications

Edited by
Mohiuddin Ahmed and Al-Sakib Khan Pathan
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ahmed, Mohiuddin (Computer scientist), editor. | Pathan, Al-Sakib

Khan, editor.
Title: Data analytics : concepts, techniques and applications / edited by
Mohiuddin Ahmed, Al-Sakib Khan Pathan.
Other titles: Data analytics (CRC Press)
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2018. |
Includes bilbliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018021424 | ISBN 9781138500815 (hb : acid-free paper) |
ISBN 9780429446177 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Quantitative research. | Big data.
Classification: LCC QA76.9.Q36 D38 2018 | DDC 005.7—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018021424

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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 Dedicated to
My Loving Parents
—Mohiuddin Ahmed

My two little daughters: Rumaysa and Rufaida

—Al-Sakib Khan Pathan
Contents

Acknowledgments...............................................................................................ix
Preface.................................................................................................................xi
List of Contributors........................................................................................... xv

Section I  DATA ANALYTICS CONCEPTS

1 An Introduction to Machine Learning....................................................3
MARK A. NORRIE

2 Regression for Data Analytics...............................................................33

M. SAIFUL BARI

3 Big Data-Appropriate Clustering via Stochastic Approximation

and Gaussian Mixture Models..............................................................55
HIEN D. NGUYEN AND ANDREW THOMAS JONES

4 Information Retrieval Methods for Big Data Analytics on Text...........73

ABHAY KUMAR BHADANI AND ANKUR NARANG

5 Big Graph Analytics..............................................................................97

AHSANUR RAHMAN AND TAMANNA MOTAHAR

Section II  DATA ANALYTICS TECHNIQUES

6 Transition from Relational Database to Big Data and Analytics........131
SANTOSHI KUMARI AND C. NARENDRA BABU

7 Big Graph Analytics: Techniques, Tools, Challenges,

and Applications..................................................................................171
DHANANJAY KUMAR SINGH, PIJUSH KANTI DUTTA PRAMANIK,
AND PRASENJIT CHOUDHURY

8 Application of Game Theory for Big Data Analytics...........................199

MOHAMMAD MUHTADY MUHAISIN AND TASEEF RAHMAN

vii
viii ◾ Contents

9 Project Management for Effective Data Analytics..............................219

MUNIR AHMAD SAEED AND MOHIUDDIN AHMED

10 Blockchain in the Era of Industry 4.0.................................................235

MD. MEHEDI HASSAN ONIK AND MOHIUDDIN AHMED

11 Dark Data for Analytics......................................................................275

ABID HASAN

Section III  DATA ANALYTICS APPLICATIONS

12 Big Data: Prospects and Applications in the Technical and
Vocational Education and Training Sector.........................................297
MUTWALIBI NAMBOBI, MD. SHAHADAT HOSSAIN KHAN,
AND ADAM A. ALLI

13 Sports Analytics: Visualizing Basketball Records in

Graphical Form��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 317
MUYE JIANG, GERRY CHAN, AND ROBERT BIDDLE

14 Analysis of Traffic Offenses in Transportation: Application

of Big Data Analysis........................................................................... 343
CHARITHA SUBHASHI JAYASEKARA, MALKA N. HALGAMUGE,
ASMA NOOR, AND ATHER SAEED

15 Intrusion Detection for Big Data........................................................375

BIOZID BOSTAMI AND MOHIUDDIN AHMED

16 Health Care Security Analytics...........................................................403

MOHIUDDIN AHMED AND
ABU SALEH SHAH MOHAMMAD BARKAT ULLAH

Index�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������417
Acknowledgments

I am grateful to the Almighty Allah for blessing me with the opportunity to work
on this book. It is my first time as a book editor and I express my sincere gratitude
to Al-Sakib Khan Pathan for guiding me throughout the process. The book e­ diting
journey enhanced my patience, communication, and tenacity. I am thankful to
all the contributors, critics, and the publishing team. Last but not least, my very
best wishes for my family members whose support and encouragement contributed
significantly to the completion of this book.

Mohiuddin Ahmed
Centre for Cyber Security and Games
Canberra Institute of Technology, Australia

ix
Preface

Introduction
Big data is a term for datasets that are so large or complex that traditional data
processing applications are inadequate for them. The significance of big data has
been recognized very recently and there are various opinions on its ­definition.
In layman’s terms, big data reflects the datasets that cannot be perceived, acquired,
managed, and processed by the traditional information technology (IT) and
software/­hardware tools in an efficient manner. Communities such as s­ cientific
and technological enterprises, research scholars, data analysts, and technical
­practitioners have different definitions of big data. Due to a large amount of data
­arriving at a fast speed, a new set of efficient data analysis techniques are required.
In ­addition to this, the term data science has gained a lot of attention from both the
academic research community and the industry. Therefore, data analytics becomes
an ­essential component for any organization. For instance, if we consider health
care, financial trading, Internet of Things (IoT) smart cities, or cyber-physical sys-
tems, one can find the role of data analytics. However, with these diverse applica-
tion domains, new research challenges are also arising. In this context, this book on
data analytics will provide a broader picture of the concepts, techniques, applica-
tions, and open research directions in this area. In addition, the book is expected to
serve as a single source of reference for acquiring knowledge on the emerging trends
and a­ pplications of data analytics.

Objective of the Book

This book is about compiling the latest trends and issues of emerging technolo-
gies, concepts, and applications that are based on data analytics. It is written
for graduate students in the universities, researchers, academics, and industry
practitioners working in the area of data science, machine learning, and other
related issues.

xi
xii ◾ Preface

About the Target Audience and Content

The target audience of this book is comprised of students, researchers, and
­professionals working in the area of data analytics and is not focused on any s­ pecific
application. This book includes chapters covering the fundamental ­concepts, rel-
evant techniques, and interesting applications of data analysis. The chapters are
categorized into three groups with a total of 16 chapters. These chapters have been
contributed by authors from seven different countries across the globe.

SECTION I: Data Analytics Concepts

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Machine Learning
Chapter 2: Regression for Data Analytics
Chapter 3: Big Data-Appropriate Clustering via Stochastic Approximation
and Gaussian Mixture Models
Chapter 4: Information Retrieval Methods for Big Data Analytics on Text
Chapter 5: Big Graph Analytics

SECTION II: Data Analytics Techniques

Chapter 6: Transition from Relational Database to Big Data and Analytics
Chapter 7: Big Graph Analytics: Techniques, Tools, Challenges, and Applications
Chapter 8: Application of Game Theory for Big Data Analytics
Chapter 9: Project Management for Effective Data Analytics
Chapter 10: Blockchain in the Era of Industry 4.0
Chapter 11: Dark Data for Analytics

SECTION III: Data Analytics Applications

Chapter 12: Big Data: Prospects and Applications in the Technical and
Vocational Education and Training Sector
Chapter 13: Sports Analytics: Visualizing Basketball Records in Graphical
Form
Chapter 14: A nalysis of Traffic Offenses in Transportation: Application of
Big Data Analysis
Chapter 15: Intrusion Detection for Big Data
Chapter 16: Health Care Security Analytics

Section I contains six chapters that cover the fundamental concepts of data
­analytics. These chapters reflect the important knowledge areas, such as machine
learning, regression, clustering, information retrieval, and graph analysis. Section II
has six chapters that cover the major techniques of data analytics, such as t­ ransition
from regular database to big data, big graph analysis tools and techniques, and
game theoretical approaches for big data analysis. The rest of the chapters in this
­section cover topics that lead to newer research domains, i.e., project management,
 Preface ◾ xiii

Industry 4.0, and dark data. These topics are considered as the emerging trends in
data analytics. Section III is dedicated to the applications of data analytics in differ-
ent domains, such as education, traffic offenses, sports data visualization and, last
but not the least, two interesting chapters on cybersecurity for big data analytics
with specific focus on the health care sector.

Mohiuddin Ahmed and Al-Sakib Khan Pathan

List of Contributors

Mohiuddin Ahmed  obtained his PhD from UNSW

Australia and is currently working as a lecturer in the
Canberra Institute of Technology at the Centre for Cyber
Security and Games. His research interests include big data
mining, machine learning, and network security. He is
working to develop efficient and accurate anomaly detection
techniques for network traffic analysis to handle the emerg-
ing big data problems. He has made practical and theoretical
contributions toward data summarization in network traffic
analysis. His research also has high impact on critical infra-
structure protection (SCADA systems, smart grid), information security against
DoS attacks, and complicated health data (heart disease, nutrition) analysis. He
has published a number of journals and conference papers in reputed venues of
computer science. Dr. Ahmed holds a bachelor of science degree in computer sci-
ence and information technology with high distinction from Islamic University of
Technology, OIC.

Adam A. Alli received his PhD in computer science and

engineering from the Islamic University of Technology,
Dhaka, Bangladesh. He completed his MSc in computer sci-
ence (2008) from the University of Mysore, India, and his
BSc in computer science (2002) from the Islamic University
in Uganda. He also received a Postgraduate Diploma in
Management and Teaching at Higher Education (2015) from
the Islamic University in Uganda and a Graduate Diploma
in ICT Leadership and Knowledge Society (2013) from the
Dublin City University through the GeSCI program. He was
Dean, Faculty of Science at the Islamic University in Uganda from 2011 to 2016.
He is a lecturer of computer science and engineering at both Islamic University in
Uganda and Uganda Technical College in Bushenyi.

xv
xvi ◾ List of Contributors

C. Narendra Babu graduated with a BE in computer sci-

ence engineering (CSE) from Adichunchanagiri Institute
of Technology, Chikmagalur, in 2000. He received his
MSc in MTech (CSE) from M. S. Ramaiah Institute of
Technology, Bangalore, in 2004. He received a PhD
degree from JNT University, Anantapur. He is an associ-
ate professor in the department of CSE at M. S. Ramaiah
University of Applied Sciences, Bangalore. His research
interests include time series data analysis and mining
and soft computing. He has published four papers in reputed international
journals and in two international conferences, and has also received the best
author award from IEEE-ICAESM International Conference in 2012 held at
Nagapattinam. He has been a member of IEEE since 2009. His email address is
[email protected].

M. Saiful Bari likes to solve mathematical problems and

build intelligent systems. He completed his bachelor of sci-
ence from the Islamic University of Technology (IUT) in
2016. His undergraduate life at IUT was spent participating
in different programming contests and in coaching univer-
sity students for competitive programming. After his gradu-
ation, he started his job as a lecturer at Southeast University,
Bangladesh. He is currently (March 2018) working as a
research assistant at Nanyang Technological University
under the supervision of Dr. Shafiq Joty. His research objec-
tive involves developing models by deep learning that have the notion of humanity.
Currently, he is working on deep learning-based adversary models. He wants to
explore the application of deep learning in an unsupervised manner. In the future,
he wants to explore the possibility of combining reinforcement learning and deep
learning for a more robust intelligent system.

Abu Saleh Shah Mohammad Barkat Ullah is working as

senior lecturer in the Canberra Institute of Technology with
the department of ICT and library studies. He obtained his
PhD from UNSW, Australia, with significant contribution
in the areas of computational intelligence, genetic comput-
ing, and optimization. He is currently the principal inves-
tigator of a health care cyber security research project. He
has published in reputed venues of computer science and is
actively involved in both academia and industry. He holds
a bachelor of science degree in computer science with out-
standing results and has achieved a Gold Medal for such
 List of Contributors ◾ xvii

performance. He is also one of the pioneers in introducing false data injection

attacks in the health care domain.

Abhay Kumar Bhadani holds his PhD (decision and

data sciences in telecom) from the Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi, India. He has more than 6 years of
experience in industry and research in the government as
well as the IT sector. Currently, he is associated with Yatra
Labs, Gurgaon, as the senior tech lead—data sciences. He
has more than ten publications in top international com-
puter science and decision sciences conferences and jour-
nals. In his spare time, he conducts different meetings,
loves to teach, and also mentors different technology start-
ups. His interests are in Natural Language Processing,
Machine Learning, Decision Sciences, Recommender Systems, Linux, Open
Source, and working for social causes. He can also be contacted at his personal
email: [email protected].

Robert Biddle  is Professor of Human–Computer

Interaction at Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada,
where he is appointed both at the School of Computer
Science and the Institute of Cognitive Science. His quali-
fications are in Mathematics, Computer Science, and
Education, and he has worked at universities and with the
government and industry partners in Canada and New
Zealand. His recent research is primarily on human factors in cybersecurity
and software design, especially in creating and evaluating innovative designs for
computer security software. In particular, his research projects have addressed
novel forms of authentication, user understanding of security, security operation
centers, and tools for c­ ollaborative security analysis. He has led research themes
for cross-Canada research networks on human-oriented computer security, for
software engineering for surface applications, and for privacy and security in
new media environments.

Biozid Bostami  finished his Bachelor of Science in

Computer Science and Information Technology with High
Distinction from the Islamic University of Technology,
OIC. He is working in the area of Big Data Mining,
Machine Learning, and Network Security in collaboration.
He is working to develop efficient and accurate Anomaly
Detection techniques for network traffic analysis to handle
the emerging Big Data problems.
xviii ◾ List of Contributors

Gerry Chan is a PhD student in the School of Information

Technology at Carleton University located in Ottawa, Canada.
He has a background in human–computer interaction and
psychology. His research interests include visual analytics,
computer-aided exercise, and player pairings in digital games.
Recently, he has been working on the research involving the
use of wearable technologies, gamification principles, and
matchmaking methods for encouraging a more active lifestyle.
Chan is particularly interested in the social and motivational
aspects of the gaming experience. He believes that games are valuable learning tools
and offer ways for building stronger social relationships with others.

Prasenjit Choudhury is an assistant professor in the depart-

ment of computer science and engineering at the National
Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India. He has completed
his PhD in computer science and engineering from the same
institute. He has published more than 40 research papers in
international journals and conferences. His research interests
include wireless network, data analytics, complex networks,
and recommendation systems.

Malka N. Halgamuge is a researcher in the department of electrical and electronic

engineering at the University of Melbourne, Australia. She has also obtained her
PhD from the same department in 2007. She is also the adjunct senior lecturer
(casual) at the Charles Sturt University, Melbourne. She is passionate about research
and teaching university students (life sciences, big data/data science, natural disas-
ter, wireless communication). She has published more than 80 peer-reviewed tech-
nical articles attracting over 780 Google Scholar Citations with h-index = 14 and
her Research Gate RG Score is 31.69. She is currently supervising two PhD stu-
dents at the University of Melbourne—three PhD students completed their theses
in 2013 and 2015 under her supervision. She successfully sought seven short-term
research fellowships at premier universities across the world.

Abid Hasan is a final year student in the Institute of Business

Administration, Dhaka University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He is
studying bachelor of business administration there. He com-
pleted his secondary and higher secondary education from
Jhenidah Cadet College. His research interests include dark data,
health sector data, business analytics, and survey research. As a
business student, he is studying data analytics with practical busi-
ness value. He has published a journal in the 1st International
Conference on Business and Management (ICBM 2017) in
BRACU.
 List of Contributors ◾ xix

Charitha Subhashi Jayasekara graduated in 2017 from Charles Sturt University,

with a master’s degree in information technology specializing in networking.
Also, in 2014, she obtained her bachelor’s degree in software engineering from the
Informatics Institute of Technology, Sri Lanka, collaborated with the University
of Westminster, London. She is currently working as a project-based developer at
Spatial Partners Pvt. Ltd, Melbourne, Australia. Her work is focused on maps and
spatial data analysis and geographic information system. She is passionate about
data science and big data analysis. Also, she has published one book chapter review-
ing security and privacy challenges of big data.

Muye Jiang is a master of computer science student at the

University of Ottawa, Canada, supervised by Dr. Jochen Lang
and Dr. Robert Laganiere. His major research field is com-
puter vision, specifically in improving object tracking tech-
niques’ speed and accuracy. Currently, he is using traditional
methods for object tracking, such as correlation filter, but he
is also learning some new popular methods, such as Machine
Learning with Convolutional Neural Network.

Andrew Thomas Jones received a bachelor of engineering (mechatronics) degree

with honors in 2010, a bachelor of arts in mathematics with first-class honors in 2011,
and a PhD in statistics in 2017, all from the University of Queensland, St. Lucia,
Australia. His main areas of research interest include the efficient implementation
of statistical algorithms in the context of big data, image clustering and analysis,
statistical models for differential gene expression, and population genetics modeling.
He is also an accomplished programmer in a number of languages including C++, R,
Python, and Fortran, and is the author of a number of R packages. Since late 2016, he
has been working as a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Queensland.

Md. Shahadat Hossain Khan  completed his PhD at

the University of Sydney, Australia. He has been working
as an assistant professor of the department of Technical
and Vocational Education, at the Islamic University of
Technology, Bangladesh, since 2006. He was awarded the
Australian Leadership Award Scholarship (Australia) and
Skill-Road Scholarship (Seoul University, South Korea) based
on his outstanding academic results, teaching, and research
expertise. His research area mainly includes ICT-enhanced
teaching and learning, professional development with a par-
ticular focus on scholarship in teaching (student-centered
teaching, ICT integration), Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) pedagogy, technology integration in TVET sectors, and Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge in national and international contexts.
xx ◾ List of Contributors

Santoshi Kumari graduated with a BE in computer sci-

ence engineering (CSE) from Rural Engineering College,
Bhalki, India, in 2009. She received her MTech degree
in software engineering from AMC Engineering College,
Bangalore, in 2011. She is an assistant professor in
the department of CSE, M. S. Ramaiah University of
Applied Sciences, Bangalore. She is currently pursuing
her PhD degree from the department of computer sci-
ence. Her research interests are in the areas of big data
and data stream analytics, with an emphasis on data mining, statistical analysis/
modeling, machine learning, and social media analytics. Her email address is
[email protected].

Tamanna Motahar is a lecturer at the electrical and computer engineering depart-
ment of North South University. She completed her master’s degree in electri-
cal engineering from the University of Alberta, Canada. She graduated summa
cum laude with a BSc in computer engineering from the American International
University, Bangladesh. Her high-school graduation is from Mymensingh Girls’
Cadet College, Bangladesh. Her interdisciplinary research works are based on opti-
cal electromagnetics and nano optics. Her current research areas include Internet
of Things, human–computer interaction, and big data. She is taking Junior Design
classes for computer science engineering students in the North South University
and is also mentoring several groups for their technical projects. Her email address
is [email protected].

Mohammad Muhtady Muhaisin attained his bachelor of science

degree from the Islamic University of Technology, Bangladesh,
in 2016. He has coauthored two research publications on signal
processing. His undergraduate thesis was on the application of
game theory in devising a custody transfer mechanism in wireless
sensor networks. His research interest includes ­game-theoretic
approach in modeling energy transaction in smart grids and
microgrids.

Nambobi Mutwalibi is a research member at the department

of technical and vocational education, Islamic University of
Technology, Gazipur, Bangladesh. He specialized in com-
puter science and engineering. He has published and presented
papers on big data and learning analytics, skill development,
MOOCs, and online learning tools.
 List of Contributors ◾ xxi

Ankur Narang holds a PhD in computer science engineering

(CSE) from the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India.
He has more than 23 years of experience in senior technology
leadership positions across MNCs including IBM Research
India and Sun Research Labs & Sun Microsystems (Oracle),
Menlo Park, California, USA. He leads the Data Science
& AI Practice at Yatra Online Pvt. Ltd, Gurgaon, India, as
senior vice president for Technology & Decision Sciences.
He has more than 40 publications in top international computer science confer-
ences and journals, along with 15 approved US patents, with five filed patents
pending approval. His research interests include artificial general intelligence,
machine learning, optimization, approximation and randomized algorithms,
distributed and high-performance computing, data mining, and computational
biology and computational geosciences. He is a senior member of IEEE and a
member of ACM (including the Eminent Speaker Program), has held multiple
Industrial Track and Workshop Chair positions, and has spoken in multiple
conferences. He completed both BTech and PhD in CSE from IIT, Delhi, India,
and MS from Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, USA.

Hien D. Nguyen holds a bachelor of economics degree and a bachelor of science

(statistics; first-class honors) degree, both granted by the University of Queensland.
He obtained his PhD in image analysis and statistics from the University of
Queensland in 2015. Also, in 2015, Dr. Nguyen was the recipient of the presti-
gious A. K. Head Travelling Scholarship from the Australian Academy of Science,
which he utilized to build collaborations with the SIMEXP group at the Centre
de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de gériatrie de Montreal, Canada. In 2017,
Dr. Nguyen was appointed lecturer at La Trobe University, Australia, and was the
recipient of an Australian Research Council (ARC) DECRA Fellowship. In the
same year, he also spent time as a visiting scholar at the Lab of Mathematics, Nicolas
Oresme, Universite de Caen Normandie, France. Starting from 2018, Dr. Nguyen
will commence work on his ARC Discovery Project, entitled “Classification meth-
ods for providing personalized and class decisions.” Dr. Nguyen’s work revolves
around the interplay between artificial intelligence, machine learning, and sta-
tistics. To date, he has published more than 30 research articles and software
packages.

Asma Noor graduated in 2017 from Charles Sturt University with a master’s degree
in information technology, specializing in networking and system analysis. In 2011,
she obtained her master’s degree in international relations from the University of
Balochistan, Pakistan. In 2007, she obtained a bachelor’s degree in business adminis-
tration from Iqra University, Pakistan, specializing in marketing. Her hobbies include
reading and writing. Her interests in the field of information technology include cloud
computing, information security, Internet of Things, and big data analytics.
xxii ◾ List of Contributors

Mark A. Norrie has over 35 years of experience in research,

statistics, administration, and computing. He specializes in
consulting, statistical programming, data management, and
training. He has spent (as have other experienced data scien-
tists) half his life on data munging and preparation, but it has
all been worth it. Clients he has worked with are numerous,
including the Shanghai Stock Exchange, Citibank, and the
Australian Taxation Office. His current work includes pre-
diction of workplace accidents, natural language processing
for client sentiment analysis, and building a decision support
system to classify injuries using semantic methods for icare, the social insurer for
the State of New South Wales.

Md. Mehedi Hassan Onik is a master’s degree student

and is working as a research assistant in the Computer and
Communication Lab at Inje University, South Korea. His
research focuses particularly on blockchain technology,
multipath transmission (MPTCP), and energy-efficient
communication. He also worked as a software engineer in
Bangladesh. He holds a bachelor of science degree in com-
puter science and engineering from the Islamic University of
Technology, OIC.

Pijush Kanti Dutta Pramanik is a PhD research scholar

in the department of computer science and engineering at
the National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India. He
has acquired a range of professional qualifications in the
core and allied fields of information technology, namely,
MIT, MCA, MBA (information technology), MTech
(computer science engineering), and MPhil (computer sci-
ence). He is actively engaged in research in the domains
of the Internet of Things, grid computing, fog computing,
crowd computing, and recommendation systems, and has
published a number of research articles and book chapters in these areas.

Ahsanur Rahman is an assistant professor of the electrical and computer engi-
neering department at the North South University. He completed his PhD
in computer science from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA. Before that he has
worked as a lecturer in the computer science and engineering department at
the American International University Bangladesh. He obtained his bachelor’s
degree in computer science and engineering from Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology. His research interest lies in the areas of compu-
tational systems biology, graph algorithms, hypergraphs, and big data. He is
 List of Contributors ◾ xxiii

mentoring several groups of NSU for their research projects. His email address
is [email protected].

Taseef Rahman completed his BSc in electrical and

electronics engineering from the Islamic University of
Technology, Bangladesh, in 2016. He is currently work-
ing at a sister concern of Axway Inc. as a cross platform
support engineer. His research interests include big data
analytics, human–computer interaction, and mobile
computing.

Ather Saeed is the course coordinator for CSU (network-

ing programs) at the Study Centre Melbourne, Australia.
Currently, he is pursuing his PhD (thesis titled “Fault-Tolerance in the Healthcare
Wireless Sensor Networks”). He has a master’s degree in information technology and
a graduate diploma (information technology) from the University of Queensland,
Australia, along with a master’s degree in computer science (Canadian Institute of
Graduate Studies). He has been involved in the tertiary education since 1999 (prior
to joining CSU, he was the course coordinator at the Federation University for IT
Program) and has published several research papers in journals and international
conferences (held in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany).

Munir Ahmad Saeed is currently enrolled in the professional

doctorate of project management at the University of New
South Wales, Australia. His research is focused on investi-
gating project benefits realization practices. He is working
as lecturer at the College of Business, Canberra Institute
of Technology, Canberra, Australia. Saeed has worked as a
journalist in Pakistan for 10 years and has abiding interest
in politics and current affairs. He holds a bachelor of arts,
bachelor of business, master of English literature, and mas-
ter of project management (with distinction) degrees from
Pakistani and Australian universities.

Dhananjay Kumar Singh  received his MTech degree in

computer science and engineering from the department of
computer science and engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Silchar, India, in 2016. He is currently pursuing
his PhD degree in computer science and engineering at the
National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, India. His pri-
mary research interests include complex networks, social net-
working, graph mining, and recommendation systems.
DATA ANALYTICS I
CONCEPTS
Chapter 1

An Introduction to
Machine Learning
Mark A. Norrie
icare

Contents
1.1 A Definition of Machine Learning................................................................3
1.1.1 Supervised or Unsupervised?..............................................................4
1.2 A rtificial Intelligence.....................................................................................5
1.2.1 Th  e First AI Winter...........................................................................8
1.3 ML and Statistics..........................................................................................9
1.3.1 R  ediscovery of ML..........................................................................13
1.4 Critical Events: A Timeline.........................................................................14
1.5 Types of ML................................................................................................19
1.5.1 Supervised Learning........................................................................19
1.5.2 Unsupervised Learning....................................................................20
1.5.3 Semisupervised Learning.................................................................21
1.5.4 R  einforcement Learning..................................................................21
1.6 Summary....................................................................................................22
1.7 Glossary......................................................................................................23
References............................................................................................................29

1.1 A Definition of Machine Learning

It is useful to begin with the definition of machine learning (ML). ML is, in effect,
a computer program or system that can learn specific tasks such as discrimination

3
4 ◾ Data Analytics

or classification without being explicitly programmed to do so. Learning is the key

word here.
So how did it all start?
There are many strands for this particular story. The modern discipline of data
science (of which supervised learning is a part) has grown in a complex and interest-
ing way and has had inputs from numerous other disciplines and fields. These days,
ML is thought of as a distinct Computer Science subject or discipline.
Another way to look at ML is that it is a process that involves the use of a
computer (machine) to make decisions (or recommendations) based on (usually)
multiple data inputs.
We can see the overall relationships shown in Figure 1.1.
Data science has a substantial overlap with computer science that subsumes
artificial intelligence (AI). AI includes ML and the learning types, supervised and
unsupervised. Data science also includes ML, but not AI as such.

1.1.1 Supervised or Unsupervised?

Some ML methods are effective statistical modeling such as various types of regres-
sion (the dependent variable is also known in ML parlance as the target, while the
independent variables are the predictors that determine the value of the target).
These are among the supervised methods. Other methods can involve determining

Figure 1.1 Data science, ML, and related disciplines.

 An Introduction to Machine Learning ◾ 5

the structure or group membership (e.g., classification and/or clustering). Such

methods are also known as unsupervised learning.
There also exists a hybrid method, which is known as semisupervised ML.
Currently, this hybrid method is of great research interest. It is useful especially
when only a modest set of identified or labeled data exists as part of a much larger
dataset. Cost is frequently a factor. Lastly, some programs use an algorithm to
learn by being presented with examples, much like a human being does. This is the
­so-called reinforcement learning.
A number of important algorithms or methods are involved and statistical ana-
logs for this process exist and, in reality, constitute a substantial part of ML because
ML essentially emerged from the field of statistics. Disciplines that have contrib-
uted to the field as well as the research problems that stimulated people to look for
solutions in the first place are well worth examining as they will round out our
understanding and allow us to make the best and most appropriate use of what we
have available to us.

1.2 Artificial Intelligence
The two main disciplines involved predate computers by quite a margin. They are
artificial intelligence (AI) and classical statistics. Interest in AI extends historically
all the way back to classical antiquity. Once the Greeks convincingly demonstrated
that thought and reason are basic physical processes, it was hoped that machines
could also be built to demonstrate thought, reason, and intelligence.
One of the key milestones in the development of AI came from the well-known pio-
neer of information systems, Alan Turing. In 1950, Turing suggested that it should be
possible to create a learning machine that could learn and become ­artificially intelligent.
A couple of years after this, people began to write programs to play games
with humans, such as checkers on early IBM computers (rather large computers
at that, as the transistor hadn’t been invented yet, and Integrated Circuits (ICs)
and Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductors (CMOS) were so far ahead in
the future that nobody had given the matter much thought).
Leading thinkers, such as John von Neumann, long advocated thinking of (and
designing) computer and information systems architectures based on an under-
standing of the anatomy and physiology of the brain, particularly its massively
parallel nature. In the Silliman lectures of 1956, which the dying von Neumann
was too ill to give, this approach is set out in detail. The lectures were published
posthumously as The Computer and the Brain, (1958) by Yale University Press, New
Haven and London [1].
In the year 1957, Frank Rosenblatt, a research psychologist, invented the
Perceptron, a single layer neural network while working at the Cornell Aeronautical
Laboratory. In Figure 1.2, we can see Dr. Rosenblatt’s original Perceptron design.
6 ◾ Data Analytics

Figure 1.2 Frank Rosenblatt’s original Perceptron.

Figure 1.3 The architecture of a Perceptron.

The components of the Perceptron are as follows:

1. Input pattern—a letter or shape, such as a triangle or a circle

2. Random Boolean Units
3. Linear threshold gate (LTG)
4. Bipolar binary output function
5. Decision/classified instance

This design is shown as a basic schematic in Figure 1.3.

Naturally, this invention created an enormous amount of excitement and arti-
cles appeared in both The New York Times [2] and The New Yorker. The New York
Times article [2] is quoted in Box 1.1:
 An Introduction to Machine Learning ◾ 7

BOX 1.1 AN EARLY EXAMPLE OF HYPE

NEW YORK TIMES, 1958
NEW NAVY DEVICE LEARNS BY DOING
Psychologist Shows Embryo of Computer Designed to Read and Grow
Wise
WASHINGTON. July 7 (UPI)—The Navy revealed the embryo of an
electronic computer today that it expects will be able to walk, talk, see, write,
reproduce itself and be conscious of its existence.
The embryo—the Weather Bureau’s $2,000,000 “704” computer—
learned to differentiate between right and left after fifty attempts In the
Navy’s demonstration for newsmen.
The service said it would use this principle to build the first of its Perceptron
thinking machines that will be able to read and write. It is expected to be
­finished in about a year at a cost of $100,000.
Dr. Frank Rosenblatt, designer of the Perceptron, conducted the demon-
stration. He said the machine would be the first device to think as the human
brain. As do human beings, Perceptron will make mistakes at first, but will
grow wiser as it gains experience, he said.
Dr. Rosenblatt, a research psychologist at the Cornell Aeronautical Lab­
oratory, Buffalo, said Perceptrons might be fired to the planets as mechanical
space explorers.

WITHOUT HUMAN CONTROLS

The Navy said the Perceptron would be the first non-living mechanism
“­capable of receiving, recognizing and identifying its surroundings without
any human training or control.”
The brain is designed to remember images and information it has
­perceived itself. Ordinary computers remember only what is fed into them on
punch cards or magnetic tape.
Later Perceptrons will be able to recognize people and call out their names
and instantly translate speech in one language to speech or writing in another
language, it was predicted.
Mr. Rosenblatt said in principle it would be possible to build brains that
could reproduce themselves on an assembly line and which would be conscious
of their existence. In today’s demonstration, the “704” was fed two cards, one
with squares marked on the left side and the other with squares on the right side.

LEARNS BY DOING
In the first fifty trials, the machine made no distinction between them.
It then started registering a Q for the left squares and O for the right squares.
8 ◾ Data Analytics

Dr. Rosenblatt said he could explain why the machine learned only in highly
technical terms. But he said the computer had undergone a self-induced
change in the wiring diagram.
The first Perceptron will have about 1,000 electronic association cells
­receiving electrical Impulses from an eye-like scanning device with 400
photo-cells. The human brain has 10,000,000.000 responsive cells, ­including
100,000,000 connections with the eyes.

Interestingly, the IBM 704 computer they were using was state-of-the-art and would
be worth over $17M USD in today’s money. Five months later, in the December
6th issue of the New Yorker an article appeared where Dr Rosenblatt was also
interviewed [3]. The article was imaginatively entitled Rival. He was quoted saying
similar things to what had appeared in the earlier New York Times article. This was
the first true hype around AI. This hype when it finally came off the rails was also
the cause of the first AI Winter.
There is absolutely no doubt that the Perceptron was an astonishing ­intellectual
and engineering achievement. For the first time ever, a non-human agent (and non-
biological for that matter) could actually demonstrate learning by trial and error.
Rosenblatt published a paper (1958) [4] and a detailed report, later ­published as
a book on the Perceptron and used this in his lecture classes for a number of years
(1961, 1962) [5,6].

1.2.1 The First AI Winter

Seven years after that, in 1969, Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert published
a book on the Perceptron [7], and this was widely quoted. They proved that the
Perceptron could not perform an XOR function and was therefore severely limited
in its functions.
This shortcoming was partly used by James Lighthill, in 1973, to recommend
the withdrawal of funding by the British Government for the United Kingdom’s
AI research [8]. As is common in science and engineering, all funding in AI came
from public sources, so when the funding plug was pulled, it really was the end for
most of this research work.
Only three UK universities were allowed to continue with AI research:
Edinburgh, Essex, and Sussex. Lighthill’s report is somewhat controversial these
days, as it appears he did not understand the primary aim of AI researchers, which
was to actually understand problem solving completely divorced from living
­systems, that is to say, as an abstract process.
Since the early days of computing, there has been a close association between
the United Kingdom and the United States, and Lighthill’s report had a profound
effect on the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA or DARPA as it is known
 An Introduction to Machine Learning ◾ 9

these days), and they also pulled the plug on major research funding. In the 1960s,
enormous amounts of money had been given to various AI researchers (Minsky,
Rosenblatt, etc.) pretty much to spend as they liked.
In 1969, the Mansfield Amendment was passed as part of the Defense
Authorization Act of 1970. This required the DARPA to restrict its support for basic
research to only those things that were directly related to military functions and
operational requirements. All major funding for basic AI research was withdrawn.
While it is true that there had been a number of high profile failures, in hindsight
it can be seen that the optimism was partly correct. Today almost all the advanced
technologies have elements of AI within them, as Ray Kurzweil has remarked in his
2006 book The Singularity Is Near: “many thousands of AI a­ pplications are deeply
embedded in the infrastructure of every industry.” [9]
To Kurzweil, the AI winter has ended, but there have been two very highly sig-
nificant ones, the first from 1974 to 1980 and the second from 1987 to 1993. There
have also been a host of minor incidents or episodes, e.g., the failure of machine
translation in 1966 and the abandonment of connectionism in 1970.
It is still the case, apparently, that venture capitalists as well as government
officials get a bit nervous at the suggestion of AI, and so most of the AI research
undertook a rebranding exercise. They also refocused research on smaller, more
tractable problems. This reminds one of what Dennis Ritchie said about why he
invented the UNIX operating system–to concentrate on doing one thing at a time
and doing it well.

1.3 ML and Statistics

ML and Statistics are closely related fields. According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas
of ML, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long prehis-
tory in statistics [10]. He has also suggested the term data science as a p ­ laceholder
to call the overall field, at least for the stage that we are in right now.
You could say that (in relation to ML) statistics is running on a parallel track.
Although there are many similarities between ML theory and statistical infer-
ence, they use different terms. This can be quite important and will be more fully
explored later on.
In terms of the statistical element of our story, the timeline extends as far back
as the early 19th century and starts with the invention of the least squares linear
method. It is impossible to overstate the importance of the least squares method as
it is the single most important technique used in modern statistics.
In 1805 and 1806 [11], Adrien-Marie Legendre published Nouvelles Méthodes
pour la Détermination des Orbites des Comètes (Courcier, Paris).
He was studying cometary orbits and on the bottom of page 75 stated: On voit
donc que la méthode des moindres carrés fait connaître en quelque sorte le centre autour
duquel viennent se ranger tous les résultats fournis par l’expérience de manière à s’en
10 ◾ Data Analytics

écarter le moins possible. This sentence translates to English as “This shows that the
least squares method demonstrates the center around which the measured values
from the experiment are distributed so as to deviate as little as possible.”
Gauss also published on this method in 1809 [12]. A controversy erupted (simi-
lar to the one between Newton and Leibnitz about the primacy of invention of
the calculus). It turns out that although it is highly likely that Gauss knew about
this method before Legendre did, he didn’t publish on it or talk about it widely,
so Legendre can be rightly regarded as the inventor of the least squares method
(Stigler, 1981) [13].
Stigler also states: “When Gauss did publish on least squares, he went far beyond
Legendre in both conceptual and technical development, linking the method to
probability and providing algorithms for the computation of estimates.”
As further evidence of this, Gauss’s 1821 paper included a version of the Gauss–
Markov theorem [14].
The next person in the story of least squares regression is Francis Galton. In
1886, he published Regression towards Mediocrity in Hereditary Stature, which was
the first use of the term regression [15]. He defined the difference between the height
of a child and the mean height as a deviate.
Galton defined the law of regression as: “The height deviate of the offspring
is on average two thirds of the height deviate of its mid-parentage” where mid-
parentage refers to the average height of the two parents. Mediocrity is the old term
for average. Interestingly, it has taken on a vernacular meaning today as substan-
dard; however, the correct meaning is average. For Galton, regression was only ever
meaningful in the biological context.
His work was further extended by Udny Yule (1897) [16] and Karl Pearson
(1903) [17]. Yule’s 1897 paper on the theory of correlation introduced the term
­variables for numerical quantities, since he said their magnitude varies. He also used
the term correlation and wanted this to be used instead of causal relation, presaging
the long debate that correlation does not imply causation. In some cases, this debate
still rages today.

As an interesting sidenote, Pearson’s 1903 paper was entitled “The Law of

Ancestral Heredity,” and it was published in the then new journal, Biometrika,
which he had cofounded. There was a debate on the mechanics of evolution
raging at that time, and there were two camps, the biometricians (like Pearson
and Raphael Weldon) and the Mendelians (led by William Bateson, who
had been taught by Weldon). There exists a fascinating letter from Raymond
Pearl written to Karl Pearson, about their robust disagreement on hereditary
theory and Pearl’s removal as an editor of Biometrika (1910). This contro-
versy ­continued until the modern synthesis of evolution was established in
the 1930s [18].
 An Introduction to Machine Learning ◾ 11

Yule and Pearson’s work specified that linear regression required the variables to
be distributed in a Gaussian (or normal) manner.
They assumed that the joint distribution of both the independent and depen-
dent variables was Gaussian; however, this assumption was weakened by Fisher, in
1922, in his paper: The goodness of fit of regression formulae, and the distribution of
regression coefficients [19].
Fisher assumed that the dependent variable was Gaussian, but that the joint
distribution needn’t be. This harkens back to the thoughts that Gauss was express-
ing a century earlier.
Another major advance was made by John Nelder and Robert Wedderburn
in 1972, when they published the seminal paper “Generalised Linear Models” in
the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society [20]. They developed a class of general-
ized linear models, which included the normal, poisson, binomial, and gamma
distributions.
The link function allowed a model with linear and nonlinear components. A
maximum likelihood procedure was demonstrated to fit the models. This is the way
we do logistic regression nowadays, which is the single most important statistical
procedure employed by actuaries and in modern industry (particularly the finance
industry).
The multiple linear regression model is given by

yi = β0 + β1x1i + β 2 x 2i +  + βk xki + i (1) (1.1)

where
yi is the dependent variable for the ith observation
β 0 is the Y intercept
β1, β2,…, βk are the population partial regression coefficients
x1i, x 2i,…,xki are the observed values of the independent variables x1, x 2,..., xk
and k = 1, 2, 3,..., K are the explanatory variables
The model written in vector form is shown as

y = Xθ + ε (1.2)

where y is an (n × 1) vector of observations, X is an (n × k) matrix of known coef-

ficients (with n > k), θ is a (k × 1) vector of parameters, and ε is an (n × 1) vector of
error random variables εj, shown as,

E (ε ) = 0 (1.3)

This embodies the assumption that the εj are all uncorrelated, i.e., they have zero
means and the same variance σ2.
12 ◾ Data Analytics

If we assume that a set of n observations comes from distributions with differing

means, such that

µj = ∑x θ ,
i =1
ij i j = 1, 2,…, n (1.4)

We now have to minimize

2
 
∑ j
 yj −

∑
i
xijθi 

(1.5)

which is the sum of squares (Eq. 1.5) in the least squares method [21].
Figure 1.4 graphically demonstrates a line of best fit, i.e., the line which mini-
mizes the squared distance between all the points and the line. This is the basis of
linear regression. The slope of the line corresponds to the regression coefficients and
the intercept is the first term in our model above. Note that this corresponds to the
well-known equation of a straight line: y = ax + b, where the slope is given by a and
b is the intercept.

Figure 1.4 LSR graphical plot.

 An Introduction to Machine Learning ◾ 13

Regression methods have been a continuing part of statistics and, even today,
they are being used and extended. Modern extensions include things such as ridge
regression and lasso regression.

1.3.1 Rediscovery of ML
In a sense to take up the slack, expert systems came into vogue during the first
AI Winter. By the end of it, they were waning in popularity and are hardly used
these days.
After about a 15-year hiatus, ML was revived with the invention of backpropa-
gation. This took the Perceptron model to a new level. This helped break the logjam
where it was assumed that neural nets would never amount to anything. The key
paper in 1986 was by David Rumelhart, Geoff Hinton, and Ronald J Williams [22].
It was entitled “Learning Representations by Back-Propagating Errors” and was
published in Nature, the world’s most prestigious scientific journal.
In Figure 1.5, the essential architecture and the process of backpropagation
are shown. The network topology has three layers (there may be more than this,
but three layers is a fairly common arrangement). The weights propagate forward

Figure 1.5 The architecture and process of backpropagation.

14 ◾ Data Analytics

through the layers. Each node in the network has two units: a summing function
(for the weights) and an activation unit that uses a nonlinear transfer function.
Common transfer functions include the log-sigmoid which outputs 0 to 1 and the
tan-sigmoid which outputs –1 to 1.
The weights are rolled up to predict y, and this is compared with the actual
target vector z. The difference is known as the error signal, and it is transmitted
back through the layers, which cause re-weighting that runs forward for another
comparison. The algorithm proceeds to find an optimal value for the output by
means of gradient descent. Sometimes, local minima in the error surface can
disrupt the process of finding a global minimum, but if the number of nodes is
increased, this problem resolves, according to Rumelhart, Hinton, and Williams
(1986).
Research on neural nets exploded. Three years after that, Kur Hornik, Maxwell
Stinchcombe, and Halber White published Multilayer Feedforward Networks Are
Universal Approximators [23]. As they said, “backpropagation is the most common
neural net model used today it overcomes the limitations of the Perceptron by using
a combination of a hidden layer and a sigmoid function.”
Development in neural nets has expanded enormously, and today the current
interest is in deep belief networks, which are neural networks with multiple hid-
den layers and are topologically quite complex. They have enjoyed recent success
in allowing images to be classified accurately as well as in many other use cases.
Today, it is fair to say that Google makes an extensive use of neural nets (almost
exclusively) and they have also open-sourced such important technologies as
TensorFlow and Google Sling, which are natural language frame semantics parsers
of immense power.

1.4 Critical Events: A Timeline

This list of critical events (Table 1.1) is by no means exhaustive; readers who want
to know more can find a huge amount of material on the web about the history of
­computers and ML.
Table 1.1 Critical Events: A Timeline
Year Event Details

1945 von Neumann A draft report that John von Neumann wrote on Eckert and Mauchly’s EDVAC proposal was
architecture widely circulated and became the basis for the von Neumann architecture. All digital
electronic computers today use this architecture [24].

1950 Turing test In a famous paper, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” published in the journal, Mind,
Alan Turing introduces what he calls The Imitation Game [25]. Later on, this becomes a more
generalized proposition which in effect states that if a person were unable to tell a

An Introduction to Machine Learning

machine apart from a human being though a remote terminal, then we could say that
artificial intelligence has been achieved.
In his paper, Turing proposed a learning machine, which could learn as much as a child does
with rewards and punishments. This becomes a stimulus to develop genetic algorithms
and reinforcement learning.

1952 Computer checkers Arthur Samuel created a program to play checkers at IBM’s Poughkeepsie Laboratory.
programs

1957 Perceptron Frank Rosenblatt invents the Perceptron. This is the first time that a machine can be said to
learn something. This invention creates a massive amount of excitement and is widely
covered in influential media (The New York Times, The New Yorker magazine, and many
others).
Some of the claims made are quite extraordinary examples of hyperbole and this will be the
direct cause of the first AI Winter.

(Continued)

◾
15
An Introduction to Machine Learning
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Anonymous (1958) New Navy Device Learns by Doing; Psychologist Shows Embryo of
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Rosenblatt, Frank (1962) Principles of Neurodynamics: Perceptrons and the Theory of Brain
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Big Data-Appropriate Clustering via Stochastic Approximation and

Gaussian Mixture Models
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Big Data: Prospects and Applications in the Technical and Vocational

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