Tractor functions

 The provision of up to full power in the form of a large drawbar pull, at low speeds. The
highly variable loading that occurs in agricultural work requires consideration of tractor
performance at part load, particularly with respect to fuel consumption.
 The provision of power for driving and control of a range of implements and machines
performing various tasks and attached in a variety of ways.
 The provision of power as the basis for a transport system in both on- and off-road
conditions

Power train of tractor

TRACTOR DRAWBAR PERFORMANCE

Is also known as drawbar pull which is defined as the amount of horizontal force available for
accelerating or pulling a load.
Generally, it tends to decreases as the speed of the tractor or any vehicle increases. Drawbar pull
is also the difference between tractive effort available and tractive effort required to overcome
resistance at a specific speed.
Factors affecting drawbar performance of a tractor
 Engine speed
 Gear ratio
 Weight on the wheel related to the tractor
 Implement width related to the implement

Power losses occur when transmitting engine power through the drive wheels, the PTO shaft,
and the hydraulic system. If Flywheel power is known, multiply it by 0.9 to estimate PTO power.
Drawbar power is the power transferred through the drive wheels or tracks to move the tractor
and implement. You can estimate Drawbar power by multiplying the PTO power by the
appropriate value from the table below:

Tractor Type Concrete Firm Soil Tilled Soil Soft Soil

2-wheel drive 0.87 0.72 0.67 0.55
Front wheel assist 0.87 0.77 0.73 0.65
4-wheel drive 0.88 0.78 0.75 0.70
Tracks 0.88 0.79 0.80 0.78

Slippage of drive wheels on soil surfaces is a power loss. Travel reduction, or slip (s), is
calculated from:

S = ((An - A1)/An) * 100

where:

 S is slip, percent;
 An is the advance under no load conditions per wheel or track revolution, m(ft);
 A1 is the advance under actual load conditions per wheel or track revolution, m(ft).

Tractive efficiency (TE) is the ratio of drawbar power to axle power and can be estimated when
slip is known. TE (and hence tire efficiency) of a wheel can be predicted using a series of
equations that take into account tire dimensions, soil conditions, slip, etc. Tractor performance is
calculated by summing the individual wheel performances. Maximum TE is obtained with slip
ranges of:

4-8% for concrete;

8-10% for firm soil;
11-13% for tilled soil;
14-16% for soft soils and sands.

Implement (machine) power requirements

Draft (D) is the total force parallel to the direction of travel that is required to pull the
implement. Both functional draft (soil and crop resistance) and draft required to overcome rolling
resistance of the implement are included.

Draft force required to pull many seeding implements and minor tillage tools operated at shallow
depths is primarily a function of the width of the implement and the speed at which it is pulled.
For tillage tools operated at deeper depths, draft also depends upon soil texture, depth, and
geometry of the tool. Typical draft requirements can be calculated as:

D = F*I [ A + B + C(S)2] W*T

where:

 D is implement draft, N (lbf);

 F is a dimensionless soil texture adjustment parameter (table 1);
 i = 1 for fine, 2 for medium and 3 for coarse textured soils;
 A, B and C are machine-specific parameters (table 1);
 S is field speed, km/h (mile/h).
 W is machine width, m (ft) or number of rows or tools (table 1);
 T is tillage depth, cm (in.) for major tools, or equals one for minor tillage tools
and seeding implements.

Motion resistance becomes appreciable when heavy implements are used in soft or loose soils.
Tire parameters and wheel loadings must be known or assumed to calculate this value. Total
implement motion resistance is computed as the sum of the individual wheel values.

Drawbar power for tractor-powered implements (and propulsion power for self-propelled
implements) is computed as:

Pdb = Ds / 3.6

where: Pdb is drawbar power required for the implement(kW), D is implement draft(kN) and s is
travel speed(km/h).

or,

Pdb = Ds / 375

where: Pdb is drawbar power required for the implement(hp), D is implement draft(lb), and s is
travel speed(mph).

Power-takeoff (PTO) power is power required by the implement from the PTO shaft of the
tractor or engine. Typical PTO power requirements can be determined using rotary power
requirement parameters available from a number of sources. Implement power take-off power
can be calculated as

Ppto = a + bw + cF

where:

 Ppto is power-takeoff power required by the implement kW (hp);

 w is implement working width, m (ft);
 F is material feed rate, t/h(ton/h) wet basis;
 a, b, and c are machine specific parameters (Table 2)
Hydraulic power is the fluid power required by the implement from the hydraulic system of the
tractor or engine. Implements hydraulic power can be computed as

Phyd = pF/1000

where:

 Phyd is hydraulic power required by the implement, kW;

 F is fluid flow, L/s;
 p is fluid pressure, kPa;

or,

Phyd = pF/1714

where:

 Phyd is hydraulic power required by the implement, hp;

 F is fluid flow gal/min;
 p is fluid pressure, psi.

Electric power is required to operate components of some implements. To compute implement

electric power

Pel = IE/1000

where:

 Pel is electric power required by the implement, kW;

 I is electric current, A;
 E is electric potential, V;

or,

Pel = IE/746

where:

 Pel is electric power required by the implement, hp;

 I is electric current, A;
 E is electric potential, V;

Total power requirement for operating implements (drawn or selfpropelled) is the sum of
implement power components converted to equivalent PTO power. Total implement power
requirement can be computed as
PT = (Pdb/ EmEt) + Ppto + Phyd + Pel

where:

 PT is total implement power requirement, kW (hp);

 Et is traction efficiency (expressed as a decimal);
 Pdb is drawbar power required for the implement, kW (hp);
 Phyd is hydraulic power required by the implement, kW (hp);
 Ppto is power-takeoff power required by the implement, kW (hp);
 Pel is electric power required by the implement, kW (hp);
 Em is mechanical efficiency of the transmission and power train.
 This coefficient is typically 0.96 for tractors with gear transmissions.

NOTE: Additional power is required to accelerate and overcome changes in topography, soil and
crop conditions. Additional power is also required for operator-related equipment such as
hydraulic control systems, air conditioning, etc.

Field machine performance

Field efficiency is the ratio between the productivity of a machine under field conditions and the
theoretical maximum productivity. Field efficiency accounts for failure to utilize the theoretical
operating width of the machine, time lost because of operator capability and habits and operating
policy, and field characteristics.

Travel to and from a field, major repairs, preventive maintenance and daily service activities are
not included in field time or field efficiency. Field efficiency is not a constant for a particular
machine, but varies with the size and shape of the field, pattern of field operation, crop yield,
moisture, and crop conditions.

Effective field capacity is a function of field speed, machine working width, field efficiency, and
unit yield of the field. Area capacity is expressed as

Ca = swEf/10

where:

 Ca is area capacity, ha/h;

 s is field speed, km/h;
 w is implement working width, m;
 Ef is field efficiency, decimal;

or,

Ca = swEf/8.25

where:
  Ca is area capacity, acre/h;
 s is field speed, mile/h;
 w is implement working width, ft;
 Ef is field efficiency, decimal.

Material capacity is expressed as

Cm = swyEf/10

where:

 Cm is material capacity, t/h;

 s is field speed, km/h;
 w is implement working width, m;
 Ef is field efficiency, decimal;
 y is unit yield of the field, t/ha;

or,

Cm = swyEf/8.25

where:

 Cm is material capacity, ton/acre;

 s is field speed, mile/h;
 w is implement working width, ft;
 Ef is field efficiency decimal.
 y is unit yield of the field, ton/acre.

NEBRASKA LAW AND TESTING

Provision for testing tractor are made in the Nebraska Tractor Test Law, first passed in 1919 and
mostly recently changed in 1971. This law requires that a stock tractor of each agricultural model
(new or used) of 20 or more horsepower offered for sale in Nebraska be tested. In addition, a
permit for sale shall be obtained a full supply of replacement parts be maintained within the
state.
The Nebraska department of agriculture administers the tractor test law. This department may
issue temporary permit for sale if testing cannot be scheduled before a model is offered for sale.
Only a tractor for each model is tested. This tractor is chosen by the manufacturer and is certified
as being a production tractor. This procedure ensures that a tractor is one of the better performing
units. Random choice of tractor is not required in order to keep tractor variation to a minimum.
This help to ensure that the results are comparable.
Some tractors do not meet the manufacturers expectations. These tractors can be withdrawn from
testing where a missing number in the sequence of test numbers indicates that a tractor was
withdrawn and no test report was published.
The Nebraska Tractor Test evaluated the power outlet and drawbar performance of agricultural
tractors. From 1920 to1958, belt tests were used to determine maximum, rated, and varying
powers of tractor engines at the belt pulley and to measure fuel consumption at each power level.
The belt test was replaced by PTO performance tests in 1959. Rated PTO power was measured at
the tractor standard PTO speed of 540 or 1000 rpm and a maximum PTO power test was also
conducted. The test method for the drawbar performance was also changed in 1959.
The former maximum drawbar power measured at the gear known as the plow gear was changed
to the maximum power measured at manufacturer’s specified engine speed in each gear of the
tractor. Tests for the varying drawbar performance remained the same.
The NTTL expanded its testing capacity by including sound level measurement in 1970, three-
point hitch performance in 1988, and replacement of the lugging ability test by the maximum
torque rise test in 1992.
In 1988, the NTTL adopted a new numbering system called the Nebraska Summary Number.
The earlier numbering system was used from 1920 for tractors tested at Nebraska under the
Nebraska Test Code. Numbers under the new system were assigned to tractors tested at Nebraska
under the OECD Test Code and also to tractors tested elsewhere submitted for sale in Nebraska.
Tractors tested at Nebraska under the Nebraska and OECD Test Codes were given both a
Nebraska Test Number and a Nebraska Summary Number. Between 1988 and 2002, a total of
179 test reports carried both numbers.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
The tests considered in this study included all 1113 tests conducted at the NTTL from 1959
through 2002 (Univ. Of Nebraska, 1960-68, 1969-79, 1980-87, 1988-2002). Since the test
methods changed in 1959 as mentioned earlier, it was impractical to compare the test results
before and after 1959. Of the 1113 tractors considered 926 were diesel tractors, 149 were
gasoline tractors, and 38 were LPG tractors. No LPG tractors were tested after 1969 and no
gasoline tractors after 1979. For comparison purposes, five chassis types were considered: four-
wheel drive (4WD), front-wheel assisted (FWA), standard (STD), crawler, and tricycle. The
rear-wheel drive tractors with smaller front and larger rear wheels were classified as STD.
Tractors having front and rear wheels of the same size or constant-mesh front axle were
classified as 4WD. Tractors where the front-wheel drive can be engaged or disengaged from the
operator’s station were classified as FWA. Tracked and three-wheeled tractors were classified as
crawler and tricycle, respectively All 926 diesel tractors were considered as fully ballasted. The
front-wheel drive was considered engaged for FWA
tractors. Tractors were compared for fuel consumption, power per unit weight, tractive
coefficient, maximum torque rise, and sound level.

FUEL CONSUMPTION
Fuel consumption was compared using specific volumetric consumption, defined as the ratio
between the measured power and the corresponding volume of fuel consumed per
unit of time (ASAE Standards, 2003).
From 1959 to 2000, fuel economy improved 20.5% for the PTO test and 23.4% for the drawbar
test.
POWER PER UNIT WEIGHT
From a traction standpoint, heavier tractors yield more traction. However, heavier tractors
consume more fuel and cause compaction.
Therefore, tractor weight must be heavy enough to generate the necessary traction force while
minimizing the fuel consumption. The average power per unit weight of ballasted tractors
increased 72.1% to 1.48kW/ kN for the PTO power and 66.2% to 1.28kN/kW for the
drawbar power.
TRACTION COEFFICIENT
The average traction coefficient increased by 24.1%, to 0.98 in 2002. Many tractors were
evaluated in 2002 with a traction coefficient greater than 1.0 on the test track.
The highest traction coefficient was found to be 1.07. The recent high traction coefficient may be
a result of replacing bias ply tires with radial tires in most tractors. The concrete test track of the
NTTL is 150 m long and has two180 degree turns with a radius of 15 m.

In the 1960s and ’70s, little progress was made on traction performance. Since 1980, the average
traction coefficient increased steadily and remained constant in a range of 0.96 to 0.98 after
1990. The greatest increase in average traction coefficient was for tractors of 75- to 112-kW PTO
power.

After the mid-90s, many tractors with the PTO power greater than 75kW had average traction
coefficients near or above 1.0 on the test track, possibly due to the replacement of bias tires by
radial tires. Tractors with more than 75 kW PTO power had average traction coefficients about
20% to 25% greater than those with less than 75 kW.

In the 1990s, the traction performance of the tractors in a PTO power range of 37 to 75 kW
decreased. Before the mid-1980s, there was a significant difference in the average traction
coefficient among the tractors of different chassis types. The highest traction coefficient was
found to be 1.0 for crawler tractors and the lowest was 0.71 for tricycle tractors. The 4WD and
STD tractors had ranges of 0.82-0.93 and 0.73-0.78, respectively. However, after 1990, the
difference was reduced and the average traction coefficient increased to values greater than 0.95
regardless of the chassis type.

From 2001, the 4WD tractors had an average traction coefficient greater than 1.0 possibly due to
advanced technology and radial tires. The traction coefficient increased from 1960 through 2002
by 24.4% for 4WD tractors and 27.4% for STD tractors. The average traction coefficient of
FWA tractors was 0.83 in 1971 and increased by 13.3% to a value of 0.94 in 2001. After 1996,
the highest traction coefficient was obtained with 4WD tractors, followed by the crawler and
FWA tractors.

SOUND LEVEL
The maximum sound level was measured at the operator’s ear position inside the cab of the
tractor while pulling the maximum drawbar load.
However, the difference in the maximum sound level between the tractors
of different PTO power ranges was not significant. For smaller tractors, the maximum sound
level with cab was often greater than the sound level at the bystander’s position outside the cab.
The maximum sound levels decreased by 8% to 15% from 1972 through 2002. However, after
1990, the maximum sound level of the tractors less than 75 kW increased.

MAXIMUM TORQUE RISE

Since 1988, tractors were tested according to the OECD Test Code. The OECD Test Code
required the evaluation of torque rise of the tractor engine. Before the OECD Test at the NTTL,
all tractors were tested only to the Nebraska Test Code that required evaluation of the lugging
ability of tractor by measuring power at 80% of the rated engine speed. During the 1986-1990
period, tractors were subjected to either lugging ability or torque rise tests depending upon the
test code requested by the tractor manufacturers.

In general, the tractors of greater PTO power had larger lugging ability or torque rise. The
largest difference in the torque rise between the tractors of the PTO power greater and less than
75 kW was approximately 32.8%. The lugging ability and torque rise also increased steadily
from 1972-2002 although they experienced a partial up-and down trend for the 2001-2002
period, the average torque rise of the tractors in a PTO power range of 37 to 75 kW was 27.7%,
which was an 18.4% increase in10 years. The tractors with PTO power greater than 187 kW had
an average torque rise of 50.8%, up 30.9% over the same time period.

A similar enhancement was also made on the tractors in other PTO power ranges. However, in
the 2001-2002 period, average torque rises of the tractors with the PTO power less than 75 kW
and of 149- to 187-kW range decreased.

Other type of Tests includes

a). Essential test
b). Optional test
Essential Test:
In essential tests there are a number of tests:
 Main power take-off test
 Belt or pulley shaft test

 Drawbar test
 Centre of gravity
 Visibility for the driver’s seat
 Turning space
 Turning circle
 Hydraulic power lift
 Brake test and
 Air cleaner oil pull-over test
 Test at the Main Power Take-Off:
(a) Test at Maximum Power:
This test is done with the help of a suitable dynamometer. The tractor is operated for a period of
about two hours after the engine has warmed up. Several readings are taken at almost equal
intervals during the two-hour test. Temperature and pressures are also noted invariably.

The maximum power quoted in the report should be the average of the readings taken during the
two hours test. If the power variation exceeds 2% from average value, the test should be
repeated. If the same condition persists in further tests, it should be recorded in the report.

(b) Test at Varying Speeds at Full Load:

The torque, power, speed and hourly fuel consumption are noted and suitable curves are plotted.

(c) Tests at Varying Load:

In the governor-controlled zone, the torque, speed and hourly fuel consumption should be noted,
corresponding to the power of the engine. Engine speed at no load is also recorded. The readings
are taken at no load, one quarter load, half load, three quarter load, and full load, corresponding
to maximum power and at 85% of the torque.

Belt or Pulley Shaft Test:

The tractor pulley is coupled to a dynamometer by a belt. The belt slip should not exceed about
2%. The hourly fuel consumption, specific fuel consumption and engine power should be
recorded corresponding to engine speed.

Engine Tests:
In this test, sufficient data should be obtained to relate specific fuel consumption with power,
torque and engine speed throughout the working period. The results should be presented
graphically.

Drawbar Test:
Drawbar pull is determined by means of suitable dynamometer, inserted at the hitch between the
tractor and the pulling load. For drawbar testing, the load on the back of the tractor has to be
varied and hence a loading car is used. Loading car is a device on which any amount of load can
be applied.

In drawbar testing, the important things to be noted are:

(a) Drawbar pulls
(b) Wheel slip
(c) Fuel consumption and
(d) Time for a given test.
Drawbar performance curves are obtained by applying a large number of known loads in each
forward gear and measuring the distance travelled and the time taken for a fixed number of
wheel revolution. Fuel consumption is measured directly by means of special apparatus.

Position of Centre of Gravity:

The slope of the land has got effects on tractive effort and stability of the tractor. To evaluate this
effect, the center of gravity of the tractor should be determined with and without ballast with fuel
tank full, and lubricating oil up to desired mark. A weight of 75 kg is put on the seat of the driver
to replace the driver.

Visibility from the Driver’s Seat:

This test is done to find whether sufficient visibility is there from the seat of the driver or not.

Turning Space:
The diameter of the smallest circle, described by the outermost point of the tractor at a speed not
exceeding 2 km/hour is called turning space. The diameter of the circle described by the
outermost part of the tractor is measured with accuracy. Tests should be done turning right and
left, with and without using the steering brakes.

Turning Circle:
The diameter of the circle described by the median plane of the outermost steered wheel while
moving at speed not exceeding 2 km/hr. with the steering wheel in full locks, is called turning
circle. The turning circle is also measured with accuracy. It is desirable to move the tractor
slowly with steering wheels in full lock. The speed should not exceed 2 km/hr.

Hydraulic Power Lift:

The engine is run with the governor control lever fully open. The specifications of the hydraulic
fluid should confirm the specifications of the manufacturer. Power lift and the hydraulic pump
are tested to see whether these items are functioning well according to the requirements.

Brake Test:
Brake test is done in cold conditions as well in hot condition. A brake is considered cold when its
temperature is lower than 80°C. An artificial horizontal track is prepared, which gives good grip
for the tyres. It is desirable to test the brake at maximum speed or at 25 km/hr., whichever is
lower. Test should be done in ballasted and un-ballasted conditions.

Air Cleaner Oil Pull-Over Test:

The tractor shall be put on a level ground. The air cleaner should be cleaned and filled with
normal oil. The engine shall be operated at full governed speed for 15 minutes with continuous
acceleration and decelerations. The air-cleaner assembly shall be weighed before and after the
test.

The loss of weight of oil will be recorded. If there is no oil pull-over with the tractor in level
position the tests shall be repeated with tractor tilted 15° to either side and then 30° forward and
backwards with direction of travel.

(B) Optional Test:

Optional test includes noise measurement and some special tests