SHIP DESIGN

Detail
design

DESIGN SPIRAL
DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-355/BUET 1
 The very first effort, concept design translates the mission requirements
into naval architecture and engineering characteristics. Essentially, it
embodies technical feasibility studies to determine such fundamental
elements of the proposed ship as length, beam, depth, draft, fullness,
power, or alternative sets of characteristics, all of which meet the required
speed, range, cargo cubic, and deadweight.
Alternative designs are generally analyzed in parametric studies during this
phase to determine the most economical design solution. The selected
concept design then is used as a talking paper for obtaining approximate
construction costs, which often determine whether or not to initiate the next
level of development, the preliminary design.
A concept design should, from the objectives, provide sufficient information
for a basic techno-economic assessment of the alternatives to be made.
Economic criteria that may be derived for commercial ship designs and
used to measure their profitability are net present value, discounted cash
flow or required freight rate.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 2

A ship's preliminary design further refines the major ship characteristics
affecting cost and performance. Certain controlling factors such as length,
beam, horsepower, and deadweight would not be expected to change upon
completion of this phase. Its completion provides a precise definition of a
vessel that will meet the mission requirements; this provides the basis for
development of contract plans and specification.

Preliminary design refines and analyses the agreed concept design, fills
out the arrangements and structure and aims at optimizing service
performance. At this stage the builder should have sufficient information to
tender.

When the preliminary design has been selected the following information is
available:

Dimensions
Displacement
Stability
Propulsive characteristics and hull form
Preliminary general arrangement
3
Principal structural details
The contract design stage encompasses one or more
loops around the design spiral, thereby further refining the
preliminary design. This stage delineates more precisely
such features as hull form based on a faired set of lines,
powering based on model testing, seakeeping and
maneuvering characteristics, the effect of number of
propellers on hull form, structural details, use of different
types of steel, spacing and type of frames. Paramount,
among the contract design features, is a weight and center
of gravity estimate taking into account the location and
weight of each major item in the ship. The final general
arrangement is also developed during this stage. This fixes
the overall volumes and areas of cargo, machinery, stores,
fuel oil, fresh water, living and utility spaces and their
interrelationship, as well as their relationship to other
features such as cargo handling equipment, and machinery
components. Total design is not complete at this stage, it
has only just started. 4
 The final stage of ship design (detail design) is the
development of detailed working plans. These plans are the
installation and construction instructions to the ship fitters,
welders, outfitters, metal workers, machinery vendors,
pipefitters, etc. As such, they are not considered to be a part
of the basic design process. One unique element to consider
in this stage of design is that up to this point, each phase of
the design is passed from one engineering group to another.
At this stage the interchange is from engineer to artisan, that
is, the engineer's product at this point is no longer to be
interpreted, adjusted, or corrected by any other engineer.
This engineering product must unequivocally define the
desired end result and be producible and operable.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 5

 COMMERCIAL VESSELS SERVICE VESSELS
General Cargo Ships Tugboats without barges
Container ships Offshore Supply Boats
Tankers INDUSTRIAL VESSELS Crewboats
Liquefied Gas Carriers Suction Dreddges Crane Support Ships
Bulk Carriers Pipe-laying Vessels Diving Support Ships
Ore/Bulk/Oil (OBO) Drilling Vessels Fire Boats
Carriers Semi-Submersibles Pilot Boats
Integrated Tug/Barges Incinerator Vessels Towboat without tow
Roll-on/Roll-off Ships Hopper Dredges
Ferries Fish Processing Vessels
Barge Carriers Fish Catching Vessels
Heavy-Lift Ships Fisheries Research Vessels
Chemical Tankers Oceanographic Research Vessels
Lumber Carriers Hydrographic Survey Vessels
Towboats with barges Ocean Mining Vessels
Passenger Ships Seismic Exploration Vessels

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 6

Barge Carrier
7
Lumber Carrier
8
 Ship Contracts
The successful tendering shipbuilder will prepare a building specification
for approval by the owner or his representative which will form part of the
contract between the two parties and thus have legal status. This technical
specification will normally include the following information:

Brief description and essential qualities and characteristics of ship.

Principal dimensions.
Deadweight, cargo and tank capacities, etc.
Speed and power requirements.
Stability requirements.
Quality and standard of workmanship.
Survey and certificates.
Accommodation details.
Trial conditions.
Equipment and fittings.
Machinery details, including the electrical installation, will normally be
produced as a separate section of the specification.

9
 SHIP CONTARCT
The AWES standard form of contract includes:
1. Subject of contract (vessel details, etc.).
2. Inspection and approval.
3. Modifications.
4. Trials.
5. Guarantee (speed, capacity, fuel consumption).
6. Delivery of vessel.
7. Price.
8. Property (rights to specification, plans, etc.). Contract between
9. Insurance.
shipbuilder and
10. Defaults by the purchaser.
11. Defaults by the contractor.
owner.
12. Guarantee (after delivery).
13. Contract expenses. AWES: Association of West
14. Patents. European Shipbuilders.
15. Reference to expert and arbitration.
16. Conditions for contract to become effective.
17. Legal domicile (of purchaser).
18. Assignment (transfer of purchaser’s rights to third party).

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 10

 SHIP CONTARCT CONT..
Payment to the shipbuilder is usually made as progress payments which are
stipulated in the contract under item 7 above. A typical payment schedule may have
been as follows:

• 10 per cent on signing contract.

• 10 per cent on arrival of materials on site.
• 10 per cent on keel laying.
• 20 per cent on launching.
• 50 per cent on delivery.

Given modern construction techniques, where the shipbuilder’s cash flow during
the building cycle can be very different from that indicated above with traditional
building methods, the shipbuilder will probably prefer payments to be tied to
different key events. Also of concern to the shipbuilder employing modern building
procedures is item 3 in the standard form of contract where modifications called for
at a late date by the owner can have a dramatic effect on costs and delivery date
given the detail now introduced at an early stage of the fabrication process.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 11

 History of Classification society
Lloyd's Register Issued the first wood rules in 1835, based on a tonnage
numeral. Most British sailing ships were similar and relatively short
about 100 ft long. These rules worked out satisfactorily.

Lloyd's Register classed the first iron ship in 1832 and in 1855 published
its Rules for building iron ships. These were of a simple form and
patterned after those for wood. Ships complying with these rules were
assigned the character A. The retention of this character was dependent
on the results of periodic surveys. Lloyd's Register explained that
because of the lack of experience with iron ships, the new Rules were
based to some extent on experience with wooden ships.

The first iron Rules of the American Shipmasters' Association (renamed

American Bureau of Shipping in 1898) were published in 1872.
It was remarked that, "these Rules are based upon the belief that
properly constructed iron vessels of good materials, of sufficient
strength, by the use of cement inside, and with necessary attention to
the outside coating, accidents excepted, will last, in good condition, for a
period of 20 years."
DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 12
 CLASSIFICATIO SOCIETIES

• Great Britain—Lloyd’s Register of Shipping

• France—Bureau Veritas
• Germany—Germanischer Lloyd
• Norway—Det Norske Veritas
• Italy—Registro Italiano Navale
• United States of America—American Bureau of Shipping
• Russia—Russian Register of Shipping
• Japan—Nippon Kaiji Kyokai

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 13

 Lloyd’s Register Classification Symbols
The majority of ships are assigned the characters
100A1or 00A1.
The character figure 100 is assigned to all ships considered
suitable for sea-going service. The character letter A is assigned
to all ships which are built in accordance with or accepted into
class as complying with the Society’s Rules and Regulations.
The character figure 1 is assigned to ships carrying on board
anchor and/or mooring equipment complying with the Society’s
Rules and Regulations. Ships which the Society agree need not
be fitted with anchor and mooring equipment may be assigned
the character letter N in lieu of the character figure 1.
The Maltese Cross mark is assigned to new ships constructed
under the Society’s Special Survey, i.e. a surveyor has been in
attendance during the construction period to inspect the
materials and workmanship.
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The class notation LMC indicates that the machinery has
been constructed, installed and tested under the Society’s
Special Survey and in accordance with the Society’s Rules
and Regulations. Various other notations relating to the
main and auxiliary machinery may also be assigned.

Vessels with a refrigerated cargo installation constructed,

installed and tested under the Society’s Special Survey
and in accordance with its Rules and Regulations may be
assigned the notation Lloyds RMC.

A classed liquefied gas carrier or tanker in which the cargo

refrigeration equipment is approved, installed and tested in
accordance with the Society’s Rules and Regulations may
be assigned the notation Lloyds RMC (LG).
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Where additional strengthening is fitted for navigation in ice
conditions an appropriate notation may be assigned. The
notations fall into two groups: those where additional
strengthening is added for first-year ice, i.e. service where
waters ice up in winter only; and those where additional
strengthening is added for multi-year ice, i.e. service in Arctic
and Antarctic.
Notations are:
FIRST-YEAR ICE
Special features notations are:
Ice Class 1As unbroken level ice with thickness of 1m.
Ice Class 1A unbroken level ice with thickness of 0.8m.
Ice Class 1B unbroken level ice with thickness of 0.6m.
Ice Class 1C unbroken level ice with thickness of 0.4m.
Ice Class 1D same as 1C but only requirements for
strengthening the forward region, the rudder and steering
arrangements apply. 16
MULTI-YEAR ICE
The addition of the term ‘icebreaking’ to the ship type
notation, e.g. ‘icebreaking tanker’ plus the following special
features notation:

Ice Class AC1: Arctic or Antarctic ice conditions equivalent to

unbroken ice with a thickness of 1m.

Ice Class AC1.5: Arctic or Antarctic ice conditions equivalent

to unbroken ice with a thickness of 1.5m.

Ice Class AC2: Arctic or Antarctic ice conditions equivalent to

unbroken ice with a thickness of 2m.

Ice Class AC3: Arctic or Antarctic ice conditions equivalent to

unbroken ice with a thickness of 3m.
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PURPOSE OF CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES
These classification societies publish rules and regulations which are principally
concerned with the strength of the ship, the provision of adequate equipment,
and the reliability of the machinery. Ships may be built in any country to a
particular classification society’s rules, and they are not restricted to classification
by the relevant society of the country where they are built. Classification is not
compulsory but the shipowner with an unclassed ship will be required to satisfy
governmental regulating bodies that it has sufficient structural strength for
assignment of a load line and issue of a safety construction certificate.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 18

Periodic survey by the CS to maintain assigned
class
ANNUAL SURVEYS

All steel ships are required to be surveyed at intervals of approximately one year. At the survey
the surveyor is to examine the condition of all closing appliances, the freeboard marks and
auxiliary steering gear particularly rod and chain gear.

Watertight doors and other penetrations of watertight bulkheads are also examined and the
structural fire protection verified. The general condition of the vessel is assessed, and anchors
and cables are inspected where possible at these annual surveys. Dry bulk cargo ships are subject
to an inspection of a forward and after cargo hold.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 19

Periodic survey by the CS to maintain assigned
class cont…..
INTERMEDIATE SURVEYS

Instead of the second or third annual survey after building or special survey an intermediate
survey is undertaken. In addition to there requirements for annual survey particular attention is
paid to cargo holds in vessels over 15 years of age and the operating systems of tankers, chemical
carriers and liquefied gas carriers.

DOCKING SURVEYS

Ships are to be examined in dry dock at intervals not exceeding 2½

years. At the dry docking survey particular attention is paid to the shell plating, stern frame and
rudder, external and through hull fittings, and all parts of the hull particularly liable to corrosion
and any unfairness of bottom.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 20

Heat Treatment of Steels
The properties of steels may be altered greatly by the heat treatment to which the steel
is subsequently subjected. These heat treatments bring about a change in the
mechanical properties principally by modifying the steel’s structure. Those heat
treatments which concern shipbuilding materials are described.

ANNEALING: This consists of heating the steel at a slow rate to a temperature of say 850
°C to 950 °C, and then cooling it in the furnace at a very slow rate. The objects of
annealing are to relieve any internal stresses, to soften the steel, or to bring the steel to a
condition suitable for a subsequent heat treatment.

NORMALIZING: This is carried out by heating the steel slowly to a temperature similar to
that for annealing and allowing it to cool in air. The resulting faster cooling rate produces
a harder stronger steel than annealing, and also refines the grain size.

QUENCHING (OR HARDENING): Steel is heated to temperatures similar to that for

annealing and normalizing, and then quenched in water or oil. The fast cooling rate
produces a very hard structure with a higher tensile strength.

TEMPERING: Quenched steels may be further heated to a temperature somewhat

between atmospheric and 680 °C, and some alloy steels are then cooled fairly rapidly by
quenching in oil or water. The object of this treatment is to relieve the severe internal
stresses produced by the original hardening process and to make the material less brittle
but retain the higher tensile stress.

21
DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET
Shipbuilding Steels
Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel containing 0.15 per cent to
0.23 per cent carbon, and a reasonably high manganese content. Both sulphur and
phosphorus in the mild steel are kept to a minimum (less than 0.05 per cent).
Higher contents of both are detrimental to the welding properties of the steel, and
cracks can develop during the rolling process if the sulphur content is high.
Steel for a ship classed with Lloyd’s Register is produced by an approved
manufacturer, and inspection and prescribed tests are carried out at the steel mill
before dispatch. All certified materials are marked with the Society’s brand and
other particulars as required by the rules.

High Tensile Steels

Steels having a higher strength than that of mild steel are employed in the more
highly stressed regions of large tankers, container ships and bulk carriers. Use of
higher strength steels allows reductions in thickness of deck, bottom shell, and
framing where fitted in the midships portion of larger vessels; it does, however, lead
to larger deflections. The weldability of higher tensile steels is an important
consideration in their application in ship structures and the question of reduced
fatigue life with these steels has been suggested. Also, the effects of corrosion with
lesser thicknesses of plate and section may require more vigilant inspection.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 22

Classification Society Weld Tests
Classification societies specify a number of destructive tests which are
intended to be used for initial electrode and weld material approval. These
tests are carried out to ascertain whether the electrode or wire-flux
combination submitted is suitable for shipbuilding purposes in the category
specified by the manufacturer.

Tests are made for conventional electrodes, deep penetration electrodes,

wire-gas and wire-flux combinations, consumables for electro-slag and
electrogas welding, and consumables for one sided welding with temporary
backing. Tensile, bend and impact tests are carried out on the deposited
weld metal and welded plate specimens. Other tests are made for the
composition of the weld metal deposited and possible cracking.

All works where electrodes, wire-flux and wire-gas combinations,

consumables for electro-slag and electro-gas welding, and consumables for
one sided welding with temporary backing are produced, and have been
initially approved, are subject to annual inspection.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 23

 Aluminium Alloy

There are three advantages which aluminium alloys have over mild steel in the
construction of ships. Firstly aluminium is lighter than mild steel (approximate
weights being aluminium 2.723 tonnes/m3, mild steel 7.84 tonnes/m3), and with
an aluminium structure it has been suggested that up to 60 per cent of the weight
of a steel structure may be saved. This is in fact the principal advantage as far as
merchant ships are concerned, the other two advantages of aluminium being a
high resistance to corrosion and its non-magnetic properties. The non-magnetic
properties can have advantages in warships and locally in way of the magnetic
compass, but they are generally of little importance in merchant vessels. Good
corrosion properties can be utilized, but correct maintenance procedures and
careful insulation from the adjoining steel structure are necessary. A major
disadvantage of the use of aluminium alloys is their high initial cost (this has
been estimated at 8 to 10 times the price of steel on a tonnage basis). This high
initial cost must be offset by an increased earning capacity of the vessel,
resulting from a reduced lightship weight or increased passenger
accommodation on the same draft. The total application of aluminium alloys to a
ship’s structure as an economic proposition is difficult to assess and only on
smaller ships has this been attempted.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 24

 A number of vessels have been fitted with superstructures of aluminium alloy and,
apart from the resulting reduction in displacement, benefits have been obtained in
improving the transverse stability. Since the reduced weight of superstructure is at
a position above the ship’s centre of gravity this ensures a lower centre of gravity
than that obtained with a comparable steel structure. If the vessel’s stability is
critical this result may be used to give a larger metacentric height for initial
stability. When the vessel already has adequate initial stability the beam may be
reduced with a further saving in hull weight. With finer proportions
the hull weight can be still further reduced because of the lower power
requirements resulting in a saving in machinery weight. Because of the improved
stability a number of passenger ships have had the passenger accommodation
extended to increase the earning capacity rather than reducing the beam.
Only in those vessels having a fairly high speed and hence power, also ships
where the deadweight/lightweight ratio is low, are appreciable savings to be
expected. Such ships are moderate- and high-speed passenger vessels like
cross-channel and passenger liners having a low deadweight. A very small
number of cargo liners have been fitted with an aluminium alloy superstructure,
principally to clear a fixed draft over a river bar with maximum cargo. Aluminium
alloy is now extensively used for the construction of multi-hull and other high
speed ferries where its higher strength to weight ratio is used to good advantage.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 25

 Mould Loft
The mould loft in a shipyard was traditionally a large covered wooden floor area
suitable for laying off ship details at full size. When the loftsmen received the scale
lines plan, and offsets from the drawing office, using the traditional method the
lines would be laid off full size and faired. This would mean using a great length of
floor even though a contracted sheer and plan were normally drawn, and aft and
forward body lines were laid over one another. Body sections were laid out full size
as they were faired to form what is known as a ‘scrieve board’. To avoid using up a
large mould loft space for fairing the ship lines, many shipbuilders later took
advantage of main frame computer programs available at various centres. These
provided full size fairing so that only the scrieve board needed to be laid down from
the faired offsets.

SCRIEVE BOARDS
A large section of flooring in the mold loft on which the frame molded lines of the
ship are drawn in full size. The scrieve board was used for preparing ‘set bars’ and
levels for bending frames and for making templates and mouldings for plates which
required cutting and shaping. Shell plates were developed full size on the loft floor
and wooden templates made so that these plates could be marked and cut to the
right shape before being fitted to the framing on the berth.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 26

Mould Loft cont…..
10/1 SCALE LOFTING

In the late 1950s the 10/1 lofting system was introduced and was eventually widely adopted. This reduced
the mold loft to a virtual drawing office and assisted in the introduction of production engineering methods.
Lines could be faired on a 10/1 scale and a 10/1 scale scrieve board created. Many yards operated a flame
profiling machine which used 10/1 template drawings to control the cutting operation. In preparing these
template drawings the developed or regular shape of the plates was drawn in pencil on to special white
paper or plywood sheet painted white, and then the outline was traced in ink on to a special transparent
material. The material used was critical, having to remain constant in size under different temperature and
humidity conditions and having a surface which would take ink without ‘furring’. Extreme accuracy was
required in ensuring uniform thickness of lines, etc., the lines being drawn outside, i.e. on the scrap side of
the plate. Many of the outlines of plates to be cut by the profiler could be traced directly from the scrieve
board, for example floors and transverses.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 27

 PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 28

 Moulded
dimensions

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 29

 Vertical Shear and Longitudinal Bending in Still Water
If a homogeneous body of uniform cross-section and weight is floating in still
water, at any section the weight and buoyancy forces are equal and opposite.
Therefore there is no resultant force at a section and the body will not be
stressed or deformed. A ship floating in still water has an unevenly distributed
weight owing to both cargo distribution and structural distribution.
The buoyancy distribution is also non-uniform since the underwater sectional
area is not constant along the length. Total weight and total buoyancy are of
course balanced, but at each section there will be a resultant force or load, either
an excess of buoyancy or excess of load. Since the vessel remains intact there
are vertical upward and downward forces tending to distort the vessel (see next
Figure) which are referred to as vertical shearing forces, since they tend to shear
the vertical material in the hull.
The ship shown in next Figure will be loaded in a similar manner to the beam
shown below it, and will tend to bend in a similar manner owing to the variation in
vertical loading. It can be seen that the upper fibers of the beam would be in
tension; similarly the material forming the deck of the ship with this loading.
Conversely the lower fibers of the beam, and likewise the material forming the
bottom of the ship, will be in compression. A vessel bending in this manner is
said to be ‘hogging’ and if it takes up the reverse form with excess weight
amidships is said to be ‘sagging’. When sagging the deck will be in compression
and the bottom shell in tension. Lying in still water the vessel is subjected to
bending moments, either hogging or sagging depending on the relative weight
and buoyancy forces, and it will also be subjected to vertical shear forces. 30
 Vertical shear and longitudinal bending in still water

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 31

 Bending Moments in a Seaway

When a ship is in a seaway the waves with their troughs and crests produce a
greater variation in the buoyant forces and therefore can increase the bending
moment, vertical shear force, and stresses. Classically the extreme effects can be
illustrated with the vessel balanced on a wave of length equal to that of the ship. If
the crest of the wave is amidships the buoyancy forces will tend to ‘hog’ the
vessel; if the trough is amidships the buoyancy forces will tend to ‘sag’ the ship
(next Figure). In a seaway the overall effect is an increase of bending moment
from that in still water when the greater buoyancy variation is taken into account.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 32

 Longitudinal Shear Forces

When the vessel hogs and sags in still water and at sea shear forces similar
to the vertical shear forces will be present in the longitudinal plane (next Figure).

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 33

 Transverse Stresses

Racking ( dynamic)

Static Water Pressure Load

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 34
 LOCAL STRESSES

PANTING: Panting refers to a tendency for the shell plating to work ‘in’ and ‘out’
in a bellows-like fashion, and is caused by the fluctuating pressures on the hull at
the ends when the ship is amongst waves. These forces are most severe when
the vessel is running into waves and is pitching heavily, the large pressures
occurring over a short time cycle. Strengthening to resist panting both forward
and aft is required.

POUNDING: Severe local stresses occur in way of the bottom shell and framing
forward when a vessel is driven into head seas. These pounding stresses, as
they are known; are likely to be most severe in a lightly ballasted condition, and
occur over an area of the bottom shell aft of the collision bulkhead. Additional
stiffening is required in this region.

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL ISLAM/NAME-325/BUET 35

 Design Loads

The load combinations are to be derived for the design load scenarios. Design
load scenario for strength assessment is composed of a static (S) load case or a
static plus dynamic (S+D) load case, where the static and dynamic loads are
dependent on the loading condition being considered. The static loads include
still water hull girder loads, external loads, and internal loads. The dynamic loads
include dynamic hull girder loads, external loads, and internal loads.
The ship’s geometry, motions, accelerations, and loads are defined with respect
to the following right-hand coordinate system.
(a) Origin: at the intersection among the longitudinal plane of symmetry of the
ship (center line), the aft end of Ls, and the baseline
(b) x-axis: longitudinal axis, positive forwards
(c) y-axis: transverse axis, positive towards port side
(d) z-axis: vertical axis, positive upwards

Ls (rule length, scantling length): Basis of hull structural design and equipment
selection
• Intermediate one among 0.96LWL at scantling draft, 0.97LWL at scantling
draft, or LBP at scantling draft

36
Assuming that the direction of incident waves is specified by the angle (β)
between the x-axis and the propagating wave direction, the direction of waves
can be defined as below.
(a) Head sea: waves propagating in the negative x-direction
(b) Beam sea: waves propagating in the positive or negative y-direction
(c) Oblique sea: waves propagating in a direction between head and beam sea
(or following and beam sea)
(d) Following sea: waves propagating in the positive x-direction.

The ship motions are defined with respect to the ship’s COG (Centre Of Gravity)
of the ship as below.
(a) Positive surge: translation in the x-axis direction (positive forward)
(b) Positive sway: translation in the y-axis direction (positive towards port side of
ship)
(c) Positive heave: translation in the z-axis direction (positive upwards)
(d) Positive roll motion: positive rotation about a longitudinal axis through the
COG (starboard down and port up)
(e) Positive pitch motion: positive rotation about a transverse axis through the
COG (bow down and stern up)
(f) Positive yaw motion: positive rotation about a vertical axis through the COG
(bow moving to port and stern to starboard)
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The sign conventions of vertical bending moments, vertical shear forces,
horizontal bending moments, and torsional moments at any transverse
section of the ship are as below.

(a) Vertical bending moments (Msw and Mwv): positive when they induce
tensile stresses in the strength deck (hogging moment) and negative
when they induce tensile stresses in the bottom (sagging moment).
(b) Vertical shear forces (Qsw and Qwv): positive in the case of
downward resulting forces acting aft of the transverse section and
upward resulting forces acting forward of the transverse section under
consideration.
(c) Horizontal bending moment (Mwh): positive when it induces tensile
stresses in the starboard side and negative when it induces tensile
stresses in the port side
(d) Torsional moment (Mwt): positive in the case of resulting moment
acting aft of the transverse section following negative rotation around the
x-axis, and of resulting moment acting forward of the transverse section
following positive rotation around the x-axis.

38
Sign conventions of positive bending moments, shear force, and
39
torsional moment