CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

THE NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION

SHORT HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Binomial System of Nomenclature Levels of Classification The Concept of Species BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION

INSTRUCTIONS
With a partner, view this slideshow on classification systems. You will be asked to answer 26 questions along the way. Keep your answers concise (brief but comprehensive), please!

The deadline for your answers is 5:00 p.m. TODAY. Remember, LATE = ZERO!

Lastly, please observe proper behavior in the library! Thank you.

THE NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION:

WHY CLASSIFY?
Diversity and Endemism in the Philippines
Taxonomic group
Plants Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Freshwater fishes

Species 9,253 167 535 237 89

Endemic species 6,091 102 186 160 76

Percent endemism 65.8 61.1 34.8 67.5 85.4

281

67

23.8

To work with the diversity of life, we need a system of biological classification that names and orders organisms in a logical manner.
Q1. What is endemism? Q2. What do the figures in the table above say about endemism in our country? Q3. Give the scientific names of the Philippine endemic species pictured in this slide.

THE NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION:

WHY CLASSIFY?
Two important features of a biological classification system:

1. Assigns a universally accepted name to each organism

Q4. These two birds are commonly known as buzzards. Give the scientific name of each buzzard. Q5. Why is it important that the assigned name is universally accepted?

Left: common buzzard (Europe) Right: turkey buzzard (N. America)

THE NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION:

WHY CLASSIFY?
Two important features of a biological classification system:

2. Places organisms into groups that have real biological meaning

Artificial classification Uses only one or a few characteristics Superficial Natural classification Uses as many characteristics as possible Can show evolutionary relationships

THE NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION:

WHY CLASSIFY?
Taxonomy
Branch of biology that deals with the identification, classification, and naming of organisms
Major objectives
To sort out closely related organisms and assigns them to separate species To order species into the broader taxonomic categories: genera to kingdoms

Phylogeny
The evolutionary history of a species or group of species

Systematics = taxonomy + phylogenetics

The study of biological diversity in the context of evolutionary history Major objective: to have classification reflect the evolutionary affinities of species

SHORT HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION

1. Early attempts at classification

Two major groups: plant & animal kingdom

Plants grasses, herbs, trees, etc. Animals fish, creeping creatures, fowl, beasts, cattle

Q6. Why is it that only plants and animals were included in this classification system?

SHORT HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION

2. 4th century B.C.
Aristotle classified animals
Air dwellers, land dwellers, water dwellers

Theophrastus classified plants

Herbs (soft stems), shrubs (several woody stems), trees (single woody stem)

Q7. What was the basis of Aristotle for classifying animals? How about that of Theophrastus for classifying plants?

SHORT HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION

3. Mid-1600s
John Ray (English naturalist) was the first to use the term species
Species: a group of organisms that were structurally similar and that passed these similarities on to their offspring Genus: a group of closely related species

SHORT HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION

4. 18th century
Scientific names in Latin
Long names as detailed descriptions of the physical characteristics of an organism Cumbersome and difficult to standardize

Q8. What is the old, polynomial scientific name of the fruit in the picture, and what did it mean? How about its binomial scientific name?

SHORT HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION

4. Carolus Linnaeus
Swedish botanist
Father of modern taxonomy Used structural similarities as a basis for his classification system

Q9. This man standardized how we name each organism, though he himself goes by many names. Give as many as you can. Q10. Write something about the controversial sexual system that Linnaeus devised as a means of classification.

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE NAMING SYSTEM OF CAROLUS LINNAEUS: BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Pre-Linnaean nomenclature:
Genus name + many descriptive Latin words
Rosa sylvestris alba cum rubore, folioglabro (pinkish white woodland rose with hairless leaves) Rosa sylvestris inodora seu canina (odorless woodland dog rose)

Q11. The polynomial names above both refer to the flower pictured above. Give the current scientific name of this flower, and give as many of its common names as you can.

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE NAMING SYSTEM OF CAROLUS LINNAEUS: BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Binomial: two-part name Nomenclature: system of naming things

Two-part name:
Genus/generic name
Capitalized Pithecophaga jefferyi Philippine eagle
Gr. pithecus, ape or monkey + phagein, eater of Jeffrey Whitehead, father of English explorer and naturalist John Whitehead

Species name/specific epithet

Starts w/ lower-case letter Usually a Latin description of some important characteristic of the organism

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE NAMING SYSTEM OF CAROLUS LINNAEUS: BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Conventions for using binomials and names of higher taxonomic categories

A. Capitalize
1. Genus, but not the species 2. Latin names of categories above genus level, but not their English counterparts

B. Italicize or underline
1. Genus & species, but not above genus level (whether Latin or English)
Examples: Varanus mabitang or Varanus mabitang Reptilia, reptiles

Q12. Give the common name of Varanus mabitang

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE NAMING SYSTEM OF CAROLUS LINNAEUS: BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Conventions for using binomials and names of higher taxonomic categories

C. Spell out
1. The generic name the first time it is used in each paragraph 2. The specific epithet every time it is used

D. Abbreviate
1. The generic name to its first letter at the second and subsequent mentions in the same paragraph. 2. When the genus but not the species of the organism(s) is known. (In this case, always spell out the genus name, even if it was already mentioned previously in the same paragraph.)
Examples: V. mabitang or V. mabitang Varanus sp. (one unknown species), Varanus spp. (more than one unknown species)

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION

Q13. Write down an original mnemonic device to help aid in memorizing the correct hierarchy of taxonomic groups: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE CONCEPT OF SPECIES

Earlier concepts of species

Morphological concept: emphasizes measurable anatomical differences between species

Simply a rank (the lowest category) in Linnaeus hierarchy of taxonomic categories

Q14. Complete the sentence: Morphology is the study of _____.

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE CONCEPT OF SPECIES

Biological Species Concept (BSC) by Ernst Mayr (1942)

Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
This species is called biological not because it deals with biological taxa, but because the definition is biological. It utilizes criteria that are meaningless as far as the inanimate world is concerned.
Earlier concepts were based on properties that could also be applied to noniving things
Linnaeus recognized species of rocks and minerals based on degree of difference.

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE CONCEPT OF SPECIES

Biological Species Concept (BSC) by Ernst Mayr (1942)

A true biological concept must be based on properties unique to biological systems
Ex. Reproduction and interbreeding species are separated from one another due to reproductive barriers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Habitat isolation Temporal isolation Behavioral isolation Mechanical isolation Gametic isolation Reduced hybrid viability Reduced hybrid sterility Hybrid breakdown
A. B. C. D. E. Courtship rituals Hybrids may be sterile Occupy different habitats Morphological differences Breed at different times of the day, different seasons, etc. F. Sperm of one sp. may not be able to fertilize eggs of another sp. G. Hybrid offspring of different parent spp. do not complete development H. First-generation hybrids may be fertile, but subsequent generations are feeble or sterile

Q15. Match each of the reproductive barriers above with their correct description. (Note: You need not memorize this part, just FYI.)

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

THE CONCEPT OF SPECIES

The species is the only category with a clear biological identity. For other categories, different scientists have different ideas about which characteristics are biologically most important.

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

1. Structural information

Ex. fishes: class Agnatha, class Chondrichthyes, class Osteichthyes

Petromyzon marinus (sea lamprey)

Taeniura lymma (blue-spotted ribbontail ray)

Amphiprion sp. (clownfish)

Q16. What structural features qualifies a fish as a member of class Agnatha? class Chondrichthyes? class Osteichthyes?

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

2. Cytological information

Ex. fungi and plants

Amanita muscaria (fly agaric)

Papaver somniferum (opium poppy)

Q17. What is one major difference between fungal and plant cells?

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

3. Embryological information

Ex. phylum Chordata

1 2
Early stages of development in vertebrate embryos: (1) fish, (2) chicken, (3) pig, (4) human

3
4

Q18. Chordates are named for a skeletal structure present in all chordate embryos as well as in some adult chordates. What is this structure and what is it for?

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

4. Behavioral information

Ex. African vultures, American vultures, and storks

Gyps africanus (African vulture)

Coragyps atratus (American vulture)

Mycteria americana (Florida wood stork)

Q19. What does the dragonfly book say about the peculiar behavior of and possible relationship between two of these birds?

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

5. Biochemical information

Myosin is a protein found in muscle cells.

Yeasts dont have muscles, but why do they have myosin?

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

5. Biochemical information
Taxonomists use molecular similarities and differences to classify organisms. Why can they do this?
All forms of life (except some viruses) carry genetic information in the form of DNA The DNA of all organisms share a common genetic code. Genes and gene products (proteins) of living organisms descended from genes of common ancestors Differences in nucleotide/amino acid sequences were produced by mutations that occurred after the ancestors of the living species diverged.

Q20. Visit this link to learn how to transcribe and translate a gene. For this question, your answer would be the amino acid sequence of the protein you synthesized. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/transcribe/

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

5. Biochemical information

If two species diverged hundreds of millions of years ago, there has been lots of time for mutations to alter the structure of DNA/protein.
If two species shared common ancestors until fairly recently, their DNA/protein will have similar sequences.

Q21. Based on the diagram to the right, what can you say about the difference in amino acid sequence between two species compared to the fossil evidence of their common ancestor? What does this have to do with their taxonomic classification?

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

6. Evolutionary relationships
As supported by paleontology
Pakicetus: extinct genus of cetaceans; early ancestor of modern whales Beluga whale: modern cetacean Aetiocetus: intermediate between ancestral Pakicetus form and modern beluga

Q22. Complete the sentence: Paleontology is the study of _____.

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

6. Evolutionary relationships
As supported by homology

Q23. According to this link, what is homology? http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/similarity_ms_01

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

6. Evolutionary relationships
As supported by homology
Homologous structures are due to divergent evolution / adaptive radiation
One species gives rise to many species that appear different externally but are similar internally

Analogous structures are due to convergent evolution

Unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

General rule: # of homologous parts between 2 spp., closely related complex two similar structures are, likely it is they have evolved independently

Systematists attempt to group organisms in ways that show their evolutionary relationships, not just physical similarities
similarities more recent common ancestor

THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

BASES FOR GROUPING ORGANISMS

6. Evolutionary relationships
Phylogenetic trees and cladograms: branched diagrams that show evolutionary history of related species

Phylogenetic tree: branch lengths correspond to time estimates

Cladogram: only represents branching pattern; branch lengths do not correspond to time

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION
As in all areas of science, ideas and models in taxonomy change as new information and technology arises Arranging the diversity of life into kingdoms is a

work in progress.

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION
TWO-KINGDOM SYSTEM (1700S)

Plantae
Green, photosynthetic organisms that used energy from the sun

Animalia
Mobile organisms that used food for energy

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION
THREE-KINGDOM SYSTEM (1800S)

Plantae
Green, photosynthetic organisms that used energy from the sun

Animalia
Mobile organisms that used food for energy

Monera
Microorganisms

Q24. What technological advancement paved the way for the addition of a new kingdom, Monera?

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION
FOUR-KINGDOM SYSTEM (1950S)

Plantae
Green, photosynthetic organisms that used energy from the sun

Animalia
Mobile organisms that used food for energy

Fungi
With cell walls of chitin

Monera
Microorganisms

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION
FIVE-KINGDOM SYSTEM (EARLY 1990S) Plantae Fungi Animalia

Protista Eukaryotic Prokaryotic Monera

Q25. Give one major similarity and one major difference between protists and monerans.

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION
THREE-DOMAIN SYSTEM (EARLY 1990S) EUKARYA Fungi Plantae Animalia

Protista Eukaryotic Prokaryotic BACTERIA ARCHAEA

Q26. According to this link, what molecular evidence shows that Archaea is more related to Eukarya than to Bacteria? http://bcs.whfreeman. com/thelifewire/conte nt/chp27/27020.html
(Choose step-through instead of narrated if there is no audio in the library PCs)

SCHEMES OF CLASSIFICATION
DOMAIN Bacteria Archaea
(Archaebacteria)
Prokaryote

Eukarya

KINGDOM
CELL TYPE

(Eubacteria)
Prokaryote

Protista
Eukaryote

Fungi
Eukaryote

Plantae
Eukaryote

Animalia
Eukaryote

CELL STRUCTURES

Cell walls w/ peptidoglycan

Cell walls w/o peptidoglycan

Cell walls of cellulose; some have chloroplasts Most unicellular; some colonial; some multicellular Autotroph or heterotroph

Cell walls of chitin

Cell walls of cellulose; with chloroplasts

No cell walls nor chloroplasts

# OF CELLS

Unicellular

Unicellular

Most multicellular; some unicellular

Multicellular

Multicellular

MODE OF NUTRITION

Autotroph or heterotroph

Autotroph or heterotroph

Heterotroph

Autotroph

Heterotroph

EXAMPLES

Streptococcus, Escherichia coli

Methanogens, halophiles

Amoeba, Paramecium, slime molds, giant kelp

Mushrooms, yeasts

Mosses, ferns, flowering plants

Sponges, worms, insects, fishes, mammals

END OF SLIDESHOW

IMAGE SOURCES
Slide 2
Question mark http://www.istockphoto.com/stock-photo-7651615-question-mark.php Email http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-57235357/stock-photo-the-email-icon-sending-an-email.html Angel http://nicecliparts.com/images-Sweat_Baby_Angels.php

Slide 3
Rafflesia http://www.arkive.org/rafflesia/rafflesia-spp/ Philippine crocodile http://www.arkive.org/philippine-crocodile/crocodylus-mindorensis/image-G25800.html Tamaraw http://www.arkive.org/tamaraw/bubalus-mindorensis/ Philippine eagle http://www.arkive.org/philippine-eagle/pithecophaga-jefferyi/image-G25801.html

Slide 4
European buzzard - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Buteo_buteo_-Scotland-8.jpg N. American buzzard - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urubu_a_tete_rouge_-_Turkey_Vulture.jpg

Slide 8
Aristotle - http://www.gap-system.org/~history/PictDisplay/Aristotle.html Theophrastus - http://www.iep.utm.edu/theophra/

IMAGE SOURCES
Slide 9
John Ray - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg

Slide 10
Tomato - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bright_red_tomato_and_cross_section02.jpg

Slide 11

Linnaeus http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carolus_Linnaeus_by_Hendrik_Hollander_1853.jpg

Slide 12 Dog rose - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Divlja_ruza_cvijet_270508.jpg

Slide 13 Philippine eagle - http://www.arkive.org/philippine-eagle/pithecophaga-jefferyi/imageG112223.html

IMAGE SOURCES
Slide 14 Monitor lizard - http://www.terrarium-nature.com/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=483

Slide 16 Examples of taxonomic categories - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_rank

Slide 21
Blue-spotted ribbontail ray - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taeniura_lymma Lamprey - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamprey Clownfish - http://www.incredibleaquarium.com/index.php?main_page=index&cPath=31_45_63

Slide 22
Fly agaric - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_agaric Opium poppy - http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1028504/The-opium-fields-England--heroinproducing-poppies-grown-make-NHS-pain-relief-drugs.html

Slide 23 Embryos - http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/embryos/Haeckel.html

IMAGE SOURCES
Slide 24
African vulture - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-backed_Vulture American vulture - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Vulture Florida wood stork - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_Stork

Slide 25
Muscular system - http://www.medicalook.com/human_anatomy/systems/Muscular_system.html Yeast cells - http://www.sciencenews.net.au/using-yeast-cells-to-run-calculations/

Slide 26
Central dogma - http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/al-saleh/Pictures%20Library/Central%20Dogma.jpg Genetic code - http://www.thetwentyfirstfloor.com/?p=722

Slide 27 Diagram - http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/106/106F05_4print.html

Slide 28
Fossils - http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/lines/IAtransitional.shtml

IMAGE SOURCES
Slide 29 Homologous limbs - http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/similarity_ms_03

Slide 31
Phylogenetic tree Biology by Solomon Cladogram - http://bakerbiology.wikispaces.com/Cladograms