RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

CODE : (BETCK105E/205E) 22-SCHEME

MODULE -1

Basic concepts :
Energy :
The ability to work is known as energy. It can take on several forms such as potential, kinetic,
thermal, electrical, chemical, or nuclear. The principle of energy conservation states that “ the
energy is neither created nor destroyed. It may transform from one type to another”.

Classification of Energy sources ( based on ) :

i) Usability - Primary , Intermediate , Secondary energy sources.
ii) Traditional use – Conventional and Non-Conventional enegry sources.
iii) Long term use – Renewable and Non-Renewable energy sources.
iv) Commercial Applications – Comercial and non Comercial energy sources.

v) Origin – Solar , Wind , Biomass , Hydro , Nuclear , Geothermal etc.

Primary Energy Sources:

 Primary energy sources are natural resources that are directly extracted from the
environment and can be converted into usable energy forms.
 These include fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), nuclear energy (uranium), biomass (wood,
crops), and renewable sources (solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric power).
 They are found in nature and need to be extracted or harnessed before they can be used.
 Primary energy sources are typically converted into secondary energy sources through
various processes such as combustion, nuclear fission, or harnessing renewable energy
through technologies like solar panels or wind turbines.
 They generally have a higher energy density compared to secondary energy sources,
meaning they contain more energy per unit of volume or mass. The extraction, processing,
and use of primary energy sources often have significant environmental impacts, such as
air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and habitat destruction.
Secondary Energy Sources:

 Secondary energy sources are derived from primary energy sources and are in a form that
is more convenient and usable for end-users.
  These include electricity, gasoline, diesel, natural gas for heating, and processed biomass
fuels.
 Primary energy sources are converted into secondary energy sources through various
processes. For example, fossil fuels are burned to generate electricity, or crude oil is
refined to produce gasoline and diesel.
 They are typically distributed through energy infrastructure, such as power grids,
pipelines, or fuel distribution networks, to reach end-users.
 These may have lower energy density compared to primary sources, as some energy is
lost during the conversion process.
 The environmental impact of secondary energy sources depends on the primary energy
sources used for their production. For example, electricity generated from renewable
sources has a lower environmental impact compared to electricity generated from fossil
fuels.
“Primary energy sources are natural resources that need to be extracted and converted, while
secondary energy sources are the processed forms of primary sources that are more
convenient for end-use”.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Produced from natural sources that Derived from sources that are finite and cannot be
Definition can be replenished over time. replenished within a short period.

Solar, wind, biomass, hydroelectric,

Examples geothermal. Coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear energy.

Considered more sustainable as they Less sustainable as they are finite and take a long
Sustainability can be replenished. time to form.

Often associated with higher environmental impact

Environmental Generally have lower environmental and the production of pollutants such as
Impact impact and produce fewer pollutants. greenhouse gases.

Deplete over time and once used, cannot be

Depletion Cannot be depleted over time. replaced.
Some Fundamentals and Principles of renewable energy Sources :

 Renewable energy sources are derived from natural resources that are continuously
replenished, such as sunlight, wind, water, and biomass. The principle of sustainability
emphasizes the use of these sources without depleting them, ensuring their availability
for future generations.
 The mankind’s have started the use of these sources recently, hence they are known as
non- conventional energy sources.
 Renewable energy technologies produce minimal or no greenhouse gas emissions,
reducing the negative impact on the environment compared to fossil fuel-based energy
sources. They help mitigate climate change, improve air quality, and protect ecosystems.
 The principle of energy efficiency focuses on optimizing the use of renewable energy by
employing technologies and practices that minimize energy waste. This includes efficient
appliances, insulation, smart grid systems, and energy management strategies.
 This promotes the diversification of energy sources, reducing dependence on fossil fuels
and enhancing energy security.
 By utilizing a mix of renewable resources, countries can reduce their vulnerability to price
fluctuations and geopolitical tensions associated with fossil fuel imports.
 Continuous innovation and research are essential to advance renewable energy
technologies, improve their efficiency, and reduce costs.
 Raising public awareness about the benefits of renewable energy and promoting energy
literacy is crucial.

Good sources of energy should have the following qualities:

 Optimum heat production per unit of volume/mass used

 Easy to transport
 Least Polluting
 Economical

Energy and Sustainable Development :

 Energy and sustainable development are closely intertwined concepts that play a crucial
role in shaping the future of our planet.
 Energy is the driving force behind economic growth, social development, and
technological advancements. However, the way we produce and consume energy has
significant implications for the environment, society, and economy.
 Sustainable development, on the other hand, refers to meeting the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
 Energy is a fundamental requirement for human well-being and economic progress. It
powers industries, provides lighting and heating, enables transportation, and supports
communication and information technologies.
 The dominant sources of energy, such as fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, have
detrimental effects on the environment.
 The extraction, production, and combustion of these fuels contribute to air and water
pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change. Therefore, transitioning to
cleaner and renewable sources of energy is essential for sustainable development.
 Sustainable development aims to balance economic growth, social equity, and
environmental protection.
 It recognizes that our current patterns of energy production and consumption are not
sustainable in the long run.
 Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, offer a viable
alternative to fossil fuels. These sources are abundant, widely available, and have minimal
environmental impact. By harnessing renewable energy, we can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, improve air quality, and mitigate climate change.
In conclusion, energy and sustainable development are interconnected concepts that require
a holistic approach. Transitioning to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency,
and promoting energy conservation are essential for achieving sustainable development
goals. By embracing sustainable energy practices, we can protect the environment, enhance
social well-being, and foster economic prosperity for present and future generations.

Social Implications :
 The social implications of renewable energy can be both positive and negative, depending
on the specific technology and implementation. Some of the social benefits of renewable
energy include :
 Renewable energy projects can create employment opportunities and contribute to local
economic development, helping to reduce poverty.
 Social aspects are the basic considerations for the development of any country.
 Providing a Safer alternative is the main cause.
 They produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to the global effort to combat
climate change.
 Reduced emissions from renewable energy sources can lead to improved health,
especially in areas where air pollution is a significant issue.
 These projects can increase consumer choice regarding energy suppliers and promote
energy efficiency.
 Projects can create local job opportunities in installation, maintenance, and operation of
renewable energy systems.
 These resources also provide social benefits like improvement of health, according to
choice of consumer, advancement in technologies, and opportunities for the work, but
some basic considerations should be taken for the benefit of humans, for example,
 climate conditions, level of education and standard of living, and region whether urban or
rural from agricultural point of view.
 The consumers will be provided with electric power at a low cost as compared to that of
conventional energy sources, and overall economy will be enhanced because there will
be multiple options to generate power using different renewable energy sources present
in that region.

Worldwide Renewable Energy Availability :

According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), renewable energy capacity
and use have been increasing worldwide. The Renewable Energy Statistics 2023 report by
IRENA provides comprehensive datasets on power-generation capacity for 2013-2022, actual
power generation for 2013-2021, and renewable energy balances for over 150 countries and
areas.
The report shows that renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biomass, hydroelectric,
and geothermal have been contributing to the global energy mix. In 2022, the share of
renewables in the global power mix increased by 1.5 percentage points to 30%, which is 10
percentage points above the 2010 level. The Global Energy Review 2021 by the International
Energy Agency (IEA) also shows that renewable energy use increased by 3% in 2020, with
almost 7% growth in electricity generation from renewable sources. The report also predicts
that renewable electricity generation in 2021 will expand by more than 8% to reach 8,300
TWh, with solar PV and wind contributing two-thirds of renewables growth. These statistics
indicate that renewable energy is becoming an increasingly important part of the global
energy mix.
Renewable Energy Availability in India :
India has made significant strides in renewable energy, emerging as the world's third-largest
renewable energy producer and the fourth-largest in terms of renewable energy capacity. As
of 2022, 40% of India's energy capacity, amounting to 160 GW out of 400 GW, was derived
from renewable sources. The country has set an ambitious target of achieving 500 GW of
renewable energy capacity by 2030, with plans to issue 50 GW tenders for wind, solar, and
hybrid projects in the fiscal year 2023-24. India has also committed to producing 50% of its
total electricity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, in line with its goals under the Paris
Agreement. The installed renewable energy capacity in India has been on a steady upward
trend, reaching 119.1 GW in 2023.
The country has seen the highest year-on-year growth in renewable energy additions, with
the installed solar energy capacity increasing significantly. These developments underscore
India's commitment to expanding its renewable energy sector and reducing its carbon
intensity, with a focus on achieving energy sustainability and mitigating climate change.

The Covid-19 pandemic has disrupted India’s energy use; our updated assessment shows an
estimated fall of about 5% in the country’s energy demand in 2020 due to lockdowns and
related restrictions, with coal and oil use suffering the biggest falls. The pandemic has also hit
investment in the energy sector, which fell by an estimated 15% in 2020, exacerbating
financial strains across the board, in particular among India’s electricity distribution
companies. How long the impacts last will depend on how quickly the spread of the virus is
brought under control, and on the policy responses and recovery strategies that are put in
place.
Solar Energy :
 Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the Sun that can be captured and used in a
variety of ways, including solar thermal energy (which includes heating water with solar
power), solar power for electricity generation, and solar architecture.
 It is a vital renewable energy source, and the technology used to harness it can be broadly
classified as either active or passive solar , based on how the energy is distributed or
transformed into power.
 Utilizing concentrated solar power, photovoltaic systems, and solar water heating are
examples of active solar approaches.

The working principle of solar energy involves the conversion of sunlight into electricity
through photovoltaic (PV) cells or the generation of heat through concentrated solar power.
Photovoltaic (PV) Effect: Solar panels utilize the photovoltaic effect, where certain materials,
when exposed to light, absorb photons and release free electrons. This creates an internal
electrical field, causing the movement of electrical charges and the generation of electricity.
Solar Panels: Solar panels are made up of PV cells, which directly convert sunlight into
electricity. These cells are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, and when
sunlight hits the cells, it creates electrical charges that allow the flow of electricity.
Solar Thermal Power: In concentrated solar power systems, sunlight is concentrated onto a
small area, generating a significant amount of heat. This heat is then used to heat up a working
fluid, which can drive a turbine to generate electricity.
There are two main types of solar energy technologies: photovoltaics (PV) and concentrating
solar-thermal power (CSP).
PV systems convert the sun's radiation into usable electricity and comprise the solar array
and the balance of system components.
CSP systems use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver, which can then
be used to produce electricity or stored for later.
The electricity generated by solar panels can be used immediately, stored in batteries, or fed
into the electrical grid for later use.
Wind energy :
 The well-established renewable energy source is wind power. Using the kinetic energy
created by the movement of air currents, it uses wind to produce electricity.
 By reducing the emission of green house gases and protecting the environment , it is a
clean and sustain able energy source.
 Electricity or mechanical power can be produced by harnessing the kinetic energy of the
wind. This is accomplished by employing a sizable wind turbine, which is often made up
of propellers.

Rotor: Consists of three blades and a hub, which captures the kinetic energy from the wind.
Nacelle: Houses the major components, including the gearbox, generator, and other
electronic control systems.
Tower: Supports the rotor and nacelle, elevating the turbine to capture higher wind speeds.
Generator: Converts the mechanical energy from the rotor into electrical energy.
Yaw System: Allows the turbine to rotate on its vertical axis to orient the rotor in the direction
of the wind, maximizing energy capture.
Control and Communications System: Manages individual turbine control systems and
integrates the intermittent nature of wind energy generation into the transmission system.

 The turbine blades capture the kinetic energy from the wind and convert it into torque
that is transmitted to the gearbox through a rotational shaft.
 The gearbox increases the rotational speed of the low-speed shaft to drive the generator,
which then produces electrical energy.
 The electrical energy produced by the turbines passes through a substation where it is
metered, and the voltage is increased to match the voltage of the utility grid. Unlike other
pollutants , it is very clean , completely replenished and reliable. Wind farms, which
consist of a large number of wind turbines, are typically located in windy areas to
maximize the energy output.
Tidal energy :
 The natural rise and fall of tides brought on by the gravitational pull of the moon, sun, and
Earth is known as tidal energy.
 When water moves more quickly through a constriction, tidal currents with enough
energy to be harvested happen.
 Tidal energy can be transformed into useful kinds of power, such as electricity, by placing
specifically designed generators at the right places.
 The ocean can also produce other types of energy, such as waves, enduring currents, and
variations in the salinity and temperature of saltwater.

 Tidal energy is a renewable energy source that is generated by the natural rise and fall of
ocean tides and currents. Tidal energy is produced by the surge of ocean waters during
the rise and fall of tides.
 Tidal energy works via a turbine that rotates blades 12-to-18 times a minute depending
on tide strength.
 The turbine is connected to a gearbox that turns a generator, creating electricity. The
three main components of a tidal power plant are turbines, electric generators, and
auxiliary components.
 Tidal energy has the potential to offer a significant amount of energy, around 20% of
Britain's needs, and is a predictable and reliable source of energy. However, tidal energy
remains limited by significant barriers, including cost and environmental effects.
 Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun. Among sources of renewable
energy, tidal energy has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited
availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting
its total availability.
 Many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design and turbine
technology, indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than
previously assumed and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to
competitive levels.
 Wave energy :

 It is a renewable energy source that can be produced by the movement of the waves.
Ocean waves produce motion and kinetic energy as they form.
 It generates energy that can be transformed into power and electricity and powers
turbines.
 The power and size of waves can change based on wind, weather, tides, and lunar cycles.
Waves will always be a fantastic source of kinetic energy as long as the earth keeps
rotating around the sun and the moon keeps rotating around the earth.
 Additionally, wave energy is more environmentally friendly than energy derived from
conventional fossil fuels like coal or oil since it emits fewer carbon emissions.

Attenuators: These are floating devices that operate parallel to the wave direction and absorb
the energy from the waves as they pass through them.
Absorbers: These devices extract energy from the rise and fall of waves using a buoy. Once
the energy is extracted, it is converted to electrical energy with a linear or rotary generator.

Oscillating Water Columns (OWC): OWC devices use vertical pistons that rely on buoyancy
and the upward and downward movement of water to generate electricity.

Overtopping/Inverted Pendulum Devices: These devices capture energy from the waves by
being placed perpendicular to the length of the wave. As the waves pass over the device, the
kinetic energy of the water is converted into electrical energy.

Bulge Wave and Rotating Mass Devices: These devices work similarly to OWCs but use
different principles to generate electricity from the movement of water.

The working principle of wave energy devices is that the kinetic energy of the waves is
converted into mechanical energy, which then drives a generator to produce electricity. For
example, floating buoys, floating bags, ducks, and articulated rafts are common devices that
convert the up-and-down pitching motion of waves into electricity As the waves travel across
the ocean, high-tech devices capture the natural movements of ocean currents and the flow
of swells to generate power.
Ocean Thermal Energy :
 Ocean thermal energy refers to the heat contained in the ocean’s deeper and uppermost
layers of water .
 An Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion power station (OTEC power plant) uses ocean
thermal energy to create electricity.
 These plants require a temperature differential between the deeper water and the
surface water of at least 20 degrees Celsius.
 An ammonia or chlorofluorocarbon liquid is boiled in the warm ocean surface water. A
generator’s turbine is turned by the high pressure of liquid vapors, which generates
electricity.

 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems use the temperature difference
between warm surface seawater and cold deep seawater to generate electricity.
 The main components of an OTEC system are the heat exchanger, the turbine, and the
generator. The warm surface water is pumped through an evaporator containing a
working fluid, such as ammonia, which vaporizes and drives a turbine/generator.
 The vapor is then condensed using cold deep seawater, and the process is repeated. OTEC
systems can be either closed or open cycle, depending on the type of working fluid used.
Closed-cycle systems use a working fluid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia, to
power a turbine, while open-cycle systems use seawater as the working fluid.
 OTEC has the potential to provide a significant amount of renewable energy, especially in
tropical and equatorial regions where the ocean temperature difference is highest.
 There are two types of OTEC : Open OTEC and Closed OTEC.
 Open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to make electricity.
 Closed cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion systems use a working fluid with a low
boiling point, Ammonia, for example, and use it to power a turbine to generate electricity.
 Ocean Thermal Energy (OTEC) is a real candidate as one of the future sources of energy.
Biomass Energy :
 Biomass is the term used in biology to describe the organic plant matter that is utilized as
a fuel and source of energy.
 Due to its ability to function as a sustainable and renewable energy source, biomass fuel
is highly valued. For instance, electricity is produced from biomass.
 As a result, biomass has the potential to displace fossil fuels. Biomass fuel can be produced
from organic materials that are recyclable, such as wood, agricultural wastes, and
municipal wastes.
 Biofuels made of ethanol and methane can be produced by burning the biomass directly.

Thermal conversion: Biomass is burned directly for heat or used in thermal power plants to
generate electricity. This is the most common method for converting biomass to useful
energy.

Bacterial decay (Anaerobic digestion): Organic waste materials, such as animal dung or
human sewage, are collected in oxygen-free tanks called digesters. Here, the material is
decomposed by anaerobic bacteria that produce methane and other byproducts to form a
renewable natural gas, which can then be purified and used to generate electricity.
Conversion to gas or liquid fuel: Biomass can be converted to gaseous or liquid fuels through
processes like gasification and pyrolysis. Gasification involves exposing solid biomass material
to high temperatures with very little oxygen present, producing synthesis gas (or syngas), a
mixture that consists mostly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas can then be burned
in a conventional boiler to produce electricity or used to replace natural gas in a combined-
cycle gas turbine. Pyrolysis heats biomass at a lower temperature range but in the complete
absence of oxygen to produce a crude bio-oil, which can be substituted for fuel oil or diesel
in furnaces, turbines, and engines for electricity production.

Biofuels: Biomass can be converted into transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. These
biofuels are created by fermenting sugars, starches, or fats from biomass feedstocks, such as
corn, soybeans, sugar cane, switchgrass, woody plants, and algae.

Biomass energy has several benefits, including the potential to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, support agricultural and forest-product industries, and contribute to energy it is
essential to ensure that the use of biomass for energy does not outpace the renewable
potential of the biomass resource.
Geothermal Energy :
 The thermal energy produced and stored in the Earth’s crust is known as geothermal
energy. Because nuclear fusion occurs continuously, the temperature at the center of the
Earth stays almost constant, matching that of the Sun.
 The mantle rises as a result of some rocks melting due to the extreme heat and pressure
(as they grow lighter with the heat). These molten rocks that originated in the crust of the
Earth are forced upward and become trapped in areas known as “hot spots.”
 Steam is produced when subterranean water comes into contact with the hot point. This
hot water-formed area occasionally finds surface exits.
 Hot springs are what happen when this hot water shoots out of one of these outlets.

Geothermal power plants generate electricity by using geothermal energy, which is the
Earth's internal thermal energy.
Fluid: Sufficient fluid is needed to carry heat from the rocks to the Earth's surface.
Permeability: Small pathways within the hot rocks allow fluid to move through them.
There are three main types of geothermal power plant technologies :

Dry Steam: In this type, dry steam is extracted from the Earth and used to drive turbines that
generate electricity.
Flash Steam: This method involves extracting hot water or steam from the Earth through a
series of wells, which then drives turbines to generate electricity.
Binary Cycle: This technology uses a working fluid that is injected into the ground to absorb
heat from the Earth. The fluid then returns to the surface, where it is used to drive turbines
and generate electricity. Geothermal power plants can be found in areas with a lot of hot
springs, geysers, or volcanic activity, as these are places where the Earth's heat is particularly
close to the surface. The process of generating electricity from geothermal energy involves
extracting hot water or steam from the Earth through wells, which then drives turbines to
generate electricity.
Apart from generating electricity, geothermal energy can also be used for heating and cooling
purposes. Geothermal heat pumps are used to transfer heat from the Earth's surface to the
air or water, providing heating in winter and cooling in summer.
Oil Shale :

 Rocky sediments make up oil shale. Oil shale releases shale oil, a liquid, as it approaches
its oil window.
 Rock known as oil shale is used to extract shale oil. Gasoline, diesel, and liquid petroleum
gas (LPG) are just a few of the products that may be made from shale oil, which is identical
to petroleum.
 Oil shale can be utilized as a raw material in the production of chemicals and building
materials, or it can be burned directly in furnaces as a low-grade fuel for district heating
and power generation .
 When oil shale is heated to a high enough temperature, a chemical reaction called
pyrolysis takes place, producing vapor.

Oil shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that contains significant amounts of kerogen, a
solid organic material.
Composition: Oil shale is composed of inorganic matrix, bitumens, and kerogen. The organic
matter in oil shale is principally kerogen, which is a solid product of bacterially altered plant
and animal remains.
Formation: Oil shale is formed from the compaction and heating of organic-rich sediments. It
has occurred in a number of environments, from fresh to saline lakes, marine basins, and in
some swamps, usually in association with coal deposits.
Extraction and Use: When subjected to intense heat, oil shales yield oil. It can be refined into
various substances, including diesel fuel, gasoline, and liquid petroleum gas. It is also used in
chemical industries, and byproducts are used in cement production.
It is not actually shale, and the organic matter it contains is not oil, but it yields substantial
amounts of oil and combustible gas upon distillation.
Oil shale has the potential to be a valuable energy resource, but its extraction and processing
present environmental challenges. The largest deposit of oil shale in the world is found in the
Green River basin of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, containing the equivalent of about 1.5
trillion barrels of shale oil.
Introduction to Internet of energy (IOE) :

 A smart energy infrastructure system known as the Internet of Energy (IoE) links all points
in the power grid, including generation, load, distribution, storage, and smart meters.
 Consequently, the Internet of Energy (IoE) facilitates the electrical grid’s increased
operational efficiency, resilience, and dependability. IoT -enabled household equipment
could aid in balancing energy use.
 For instance, a washing machine that is internet-connected might only turn on when the
grid has enough solar energy.

 The Internet of Energy (IoE) is a technological concept that involves the integration of
Internet of Things (IoT) technology into energy systems to optimize energy use, improve
efficiency, and reduce wastage.
 It encompasses the automation and upgrading of the electricity infrastructure, connecting
various points within the power grid, including generation, load, distribution, storage, and
smart meters.
 The IoE allows for the exchange of energy information, often referred to as big data, and
supports the power grid's ability to operate with increased efficiency, resiliency, and
reliability.
 By monitoring real-time data, the IoE provides an overview of power grids at both macro
and micro levels, helping to reduce waste and improve energy efficiency.
 This technology is important for managing and monitoring energy usage, integrating
renewable energy generation and storage systems, and enabling countries to manage
energy demand more efficiently, ultimately leading to lower costs and a reduction in the
risk of power blackouts.
 The Internet of Energy (IoE) transforms energy production, supply, and consumption to
fulfill high energy demands via intelligent automation of industrial energy producers and
consumers.
 The term IoE is emerged from the Internet of Things (IoT) to target industrial applications
involved in ubiquitous computing, big data processing, and Machine to Machine (M2M)
communication.
SUMMARY :
 Renewable Energy Sources
MODULE - 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOLAR ENERGY :
 Solar energy is the energy received from the Sun, which can be used to produce heat,
generate electricity, and cause chemical reactions.
 The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the largest source
of energy received by Earth.
 It is expected to become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source because of
its inexhaustible supply and its non-polluting character.
 The total amount of solar energy incident on Earth is vastly in excess of the world’s current
and anticipated energy requirements.
 Solar energy technologies include photovoltaics, concentrating solar power, solar process
heat, passive solar, and solar water heating.
 Solar radiation can be converted either into thermal energy (heat) or into electrical
energy, though the former is easier to accomplish.
 Among the most common devices used to capture solar energy and convert it to thermal
energy are flat-plate collectors, which are used for solar heating applications.
 Solar energy is a sustainable energy source, has a low environmental impact, and has the
potential to satisfy all future energy needs if suitably harnessed.
 When the sun shines onto a solar panel, energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the PV
cells in the panel.
 This energy creates electrical charges that move in response to an internal electrical field
in the cell, causing electricity to flow.

Solar Radiations :
 Solar radiation is the energy emitted by the Sun in the form of electromagnetic waves,
which can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy such as heat and electricity.
 Solar radiation helps sustain life and affects climate changes.
 It comes in three major types: visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light.
 Measurements for solar radiation are higher on clear, sunny days and usually low on
cloudy days.
 In case of Sun being down, or when there are heavy clouds blocking the sun, solar
radiation is measured at zero.
 Energy from the Sun can be tapped and used for various applications like cooking, water
heating, lighting, in power plants, and much more.
 The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies
according to factors such as:
Geographic location, Time of day , Season , Local landscape , Local weather
 Solar radiation consists of nearly 50% visible light, 45% infrared radiation, and smaller
amounts of ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH'S SURFACE :
 When it comes to using solar energy, we are more concerned with the energy that is
received at the surface of the planet than with the energy itself.
 For a variety of causes, the solar radiation that reaches the earth's surface differs greatly.
 The solar radiation that pierces the earth's atmosphere and reaches the surface is not the
same as the radiation at the top of the atmosphere in terms of both quantity and type.
 Initially, a portion of the radiation is reflected back into space by clouds in particular.

 In addition, some of the radiation that enters the atmosphere is absorbed by air
molecules.
 Almost 90% of the UV light is absorbed by oxygen and ozone , which is created from
oxygen.
 Carbon dioxide and water vapor absorb part of the energy in the infrared spectrum.
 Furthermore, some solar radiation is dispersed (i.e., its direction is altered) by dust
particles, air molecules, and cloud droplets.
 When it reaches the Earth's surface, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected,
leading to two main classifications:
1)Beam radiation.
2)Diffuse Radiation.

i) Beam radiation :
 Beam radiation refers to the solar radiation received from the Sun without being scattered
by the atmosphere.
 It is a form of direct radiation, which is the most powerful and useful type of solar
radiation.
 Beam radiation can be used in various applications, such as solar energy conversion and
radiation therapy for cancer treatment.
 It is the radiation which produces a shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.

ii) Diffuse radiation:

 Diffuse radiation is sunlight that has been scattered by atmospheric constituents and/or
by the surface.
 It is the remaining and redirected sunlight due to several factors occurring in the
atmosphere, such as clouds, water vapor, dust, pollutants etc.
 Diffuse radiation originates from all sky directions as a result of scattering by atmospheric
components, such as clouds, particles, and so forth.
 Diffuse radiation is one of the two components of solar radiation that reaches the Earth's
surface, the other being direct beam solar radiation.

“The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth's surface is the sum of the direct
(beam) and diffuse radiation”.
Estimation of solar radiation on horizontal and inclined surfaces :
 To estimate solar radiation on horizontal surfaces, various models and algorithms can be
used. One commonly used model is the Perez model.
 It takes into account factors such as geographical location, time of year, and atmospheric
conditions to estimate solar radiation.
 Estimating solar radiation on inclined surfaces requires considering the tilt angle and
orientation of the surface.
 The most common approach is to use the isotropic sky model or the anisotropic sky
model.
 It takes into account the angle of incidence of solar radiation on the inclined surface.
 It's important to note that accurate estimation of solar radiation requires detailed
information about the location, including latitude, longitude, altitude, and local weather
conditions. Additionally, specialized software or tools are often used to perform these
calculations.

Solar radiation Measurements- Pyranometer, Pyrheliometers ,Sunshine

Recorder :

1. Pyranometer :
A pyranometer is a device used to measure the total solar radiation received from the sun
on a horizontal surface. It is commonly used in meteorology, solar energy studies, and
environmental monitoring.

 Design: A pyranometer typically consists of a flat, circular sensor mounted in a housing.

The sensor is made of a thermopile, which is a series of thermocouples connected in
series. The thermopile is covered by a glass dome that allows solar radiation to pass
through.
 Principle of Operation: When solar radiation strikes the surface of the pyranometer, it is
absorbed by the thermopile sensor. The absorbed radiation causes a temperature
difference across the thermocouples in the thermopile.
 Thermoelectric Effect: The temperature difference across the thermocouples generates
a voltage output due to the thermoelectric effect. This voltage is directly proportional to
the solar radiation intensity.
 Calibration: Before using a pyranometer, it needs to be calibrated to ensure accurate
measurements. Calibration involves comparing the output voltage of the pyranometer to
a known standard under controlled conditions.
 Output: The output of a pyranometer is typically in millivolts (mV) or microvolts (µV) and
represents the solar radiation intensity received on the horizontal surface.
 Data Acquisition: The output of the pyranometer can be connected to a data acquisition
system or datalogger to record and analyze the solar radiation data over time.
It's important to note that pyranometers are designed to measure the total solar radiation,
including both direct and diffuse radiation. However, they may not accurately measure the
distribution of radiation from different directions or the spectral composition of the radiation.
“By using pyranometers in various locations, researchers and scientists can gather data on
solar radiation patterns, which is crucial for understanding climate, energy production, and
environmental studies.”

2. Pyrheliometer :
A pyrheliometer is a device used to measure direct solar radiation, specifically the solar
irradiance received from the sun's direct beam.

 Principle: The pyrheliometer operates based on the principle of thermal radiation. It

measures the heat generated by the absorption of solar radiation.

Design: A typical pyrheliometer consists of a thermopile sensor, a collimating tube, a shading

device, and a tracking mechanism. The thermopile sensor is made up of multiple
thermocouples connected in series.
 Measurement: The pyrheliometer is pointed directly at the sun to measure the intensity
of the solar radiation. The collimating tube ensures that only direct solar radiation enters
the sensor, while the shading device prevents any scattered or diffuse radiation from
reaching the sensor.
 Thermopile Sensor: The thermopile sensor absorbs the incoming solar radiation and
converts it into heat. The temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions of
the thermocouples generates a voltage output proportional to the solar irradiance.
 Calibration: Pyrheliometers need to be calibrated regularly to ensure accurate
measurements. Calibration involves comparing the output of the pyrheliometer with a
reference standard under controlled conditions.
 Units: The output of a pyrheliometer is typically expressed in watts per square meter
(W/m²), representing the solar irradiance received on a flat surface perpendicular to the
sun's rays.
 Applications: Pyrheliometers are used in various fields, including meteorology, solar
energy research, climate studies, and atmospheric research. They provide valuable data
for understanding solar radiation patterns and assessing the performance of solar energy
systems.
“It's important to note that pyrheliometers are sensitive instruments that require proper
handling and maintenance to ensure accurate measurements.”

Sunshine recorder :
It is a instrument measures the duration in hours of bright sunshine during the course of a
day.

 Principle: The principle behind a sunshine recorder is to measure the duration of sunshine
or sunlight at a specific location over a given period of time. It helps in determining the
amount of solar radiation received at that location.
 Design: A typical sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere or a hemispherical glass
dome called a Campbell-Stokes recorder. The glass sphere focuses the sunlight onto a
specially designed card or strip of paper placed below it.
 Sunlight Concentration: As the sun moves across the sky, the focused sunlight burns or
scorches the card or paper, leaving a trace or burn mark. The length of the burn mark
corresponds to the duration of sunshine during that period.
 Time Measurement: The sunshine recorder is usually equipped with a clock mechanism
that rotates the card or paper at a fixed rate, typically once per day. This rotation ensures
that the recorder captures the sunlight throughout the day.
 Recording and Interpretation: The burn marks left on the card or paper can be measured
and interpreted to determine the duration of sunshine. The length of the burn mark is
typically calibrated to represent a specific time interval, such as one hour.
 Data Collection: The recorded data can be collected regularly, usually on a daily basis, and
used to calculate various solar radiation parameters such as sunshine duration, solar
irradiance, and cloud cover.
 Limitations: It's important to note that sunshine recorders have some limitations. They
can only measure the duration of direct sunlight and do not account for diffuse or
scattered sunlight. Additionally, they may be affected by factors like cloud cover, shading,
and atmospheric conditions.
“Sunshine recorders provide a simple and effective method to measure the duration of
sunshine at a specific location, contributing to the understanding of solar radiation patterns
and climate analysis”.

Solar Thermal systems: Flat plate collector , Solar distillation , Solar pond
electric power plant.
Flat Plate Collector :
The flat plate collector is a type of solar thermal collector used to harness solar energy for
heating purposes. It consists of a flat, rectangular box with a transparent cover (usually glass
or plastic) on top and a dark-colored absorber plate inside.

 Absorption: The transparent cover allows sunlight to pass through and reach the absorber
plate. The dark-colored plate absorbs the solar radiation, converting it into heat energy.
 Heat Transfer: The absorbed solar energy heats up the absorber plate. The heat is then
transferred to a fluid (usually water or a heat transfer fluid like antifreeze) flowing through
tubes or channels attached to the absorber plate.
 Conduction: The heat is conducted from the absorber plate to the fluid flowing through
the tubes or channels. The absorber plate is designed to have good thermal conductivity
to facilitate efficient heat transfer.
 Fluid Circulation: The heated fluid is circulated through the collector using a pump or
natural convection. As the fluid flows through the collector, it absorbs more heat from the
absorber plate.
 Insulation: The sides and bottom of the flat plate collector are typically insulated to
minimize heat loss to the surroundings. This helps to maintain the temperature of the
fluid as it passes through the collector.
 Heat Extraction: The heated fluid is then transported to a storage tank or used directly
for various heating applications, such as space heating or water heating.
“The working principle of a flat plate collector is based on the principles of solar radiation
absorption, heat transfer, and fluid circulation. By efficiently capturing and transferring solar
energy, flat plate collectors can provide a renewable and sustainable source of heat for various
applications”.

Concentrating/focusing collectors:
A mirror or lens system is utilized in the focusing collectors depicted to increase the intensity
of solar radiation. To focus the incident radiation, parabolic reflectors with either a spherical
or cylindrical shape are typically used. When the sky is hazy or cloudy, the focusing collectors
do not function as well because they only capture and concentrate the sun's straight rays.
Very little of the dispersed radiation will reach the absorber and will be disregarded. Tracking
systems are needed by the focusing collectors in order to track the sun's passage. A receiver
near the reflector's focus absorbs the concentrated, narrowly focused beam.

Parabolic focusing Collector :

A parabolic focusing collector is a type of solar thermal collector that utilizes a parabolic-
shaped reflector to concentrate sunlight onto a focal point. This collector is designed to
capture and concentrate solar energy for various applications such as heating, cooking, or
generating electricity.

 The parabolic shape of the reflector allows it to focus incoming sunlight onto a small area,
maximizing the intensity of the solar radiation at the focal point.
 This concentrated solar energy can then be utilized for different purposes, depending on
the specific design and application of the collector.
 One common use of parabolic focusing collectors is in solar power plants, where they are
used to generate electricity.
 These collectors are often arranged in a large array, with each reflector tracking the
movement of the sun throughout the day to maintain optimal focus.
 The concentrated sunlight at the focal point is used to heat a working fluid, such as water
or oil, which then produces steam to drive a turbine and generate electricity.
 Parabolic focusing collectors can also be used for solar cooking or heating applications.
 By focusing sunlight onto a cooking vessel or a heat exchanger, these collectors can
provide a concentrated and efficient source of heat for cooking food or heating water.
 It's important to note that parabolic focusing collectors require precise alignment and
tracking mechanisms to ensure that the reflector is always facing the sun and maintaining
optimal focus.
 Safety precautions should be taken when working with concentrated solar energy, as it
can reach high temperatures and pose a risk of burns or fire.

Advantages and Disadvantages of concentrating collectors over flat Plate type

collectors:

Advantages:
1. Reflecting surfaces require less material and are structurally simpler than flat plate
collectors. (less cost )

2. The absorber area of a concentrating system is smaller than that of a flat plate system
forsame solar energy collection.

3. Loss of energy after collecting is less than FPC, because of large absorber area in FPC,
working fluid can attain higher temperature.
4. Owing to the small area of absorber per unit of solar energy collecting area, selective
surface treatment and/or vacuum insulation to reduce heat losses and improve collector
efficiency are economically feasible.
5. Can be used for electricity power generation.

6. Heat storage costs are less

7. Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber.
8. It is possible to get higher efficiencies.

Disadvantages:
1. Only beam components are collected.
2. Costly oriented systems
3. An additional requirement of maintenance is required.
4. Non uniform flux on the absorber.

5. Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they introduce
additional factors in energy balances.
6. High Initial cost.

Solar direct Thermal applications:

1. Solar water heating.
2. Solar Space heating.
3. Solar Space cooling and refrigeration

4. Power generation
5. Solar distillation
6. Solar cooking
7. Solar drying
8. Solar fuels

9. Furnace

Solar Distillation:
Solar distillation is a process that utilizes solar energy to purify water or separate substances
through evaporation and condensation.
 Solar Collector: A solar distillation system typically consists of a solar collector, which is a
transparent cover or enclosure that allows sunlight to enter while trapping the heat
inside.
 Absorption of Solar Energy: The solar collector absorbs solar radiation, converting it into
heat energy. This heat energy raises the temperature inside the collector.
 Evaporation: Water or any other liquid to be distilled is placed in a shallow basin or
container within the solar collector. As the temperature inside the collector rises, the
water begins to evaporate, leaving behind impurities and contaminants.
 Condensation: The evaporated water vapor rises and comes into contact with the cooler
surface of the transparent cover or enclosure. This causes the vapor to condense back
into liquid form, leaving behind the impurities.
 Collection: The condensed water droplets trickle down the inclined surface of the
collector and are collected in a separate container, leaving behind the impurities and
contaminants.
 Purification: The collected water is now purified, as the distillation process effectively
separates it from impurities, such as salts, minerals, bacteria, and other contaminants.
 Continuous Process: Solar distillation is a continuous process, as long as there is sunlight
available. The heat from the sun continuously evaporates the water, and the condensed
water is continuously collected.
 Efficiency: The efficiency of solar distillation depends on various factors, including the
design of the solar collector, the intensity of sunlight, ambient temperature, and the
quality of the water being distilled.
“Solar distillation is a simple and effective method for purifying water in areas where access
to clean water is limited. It relies on the principles of evaporation and condensation, utilizing
solar energy to drive the purification process”.
Solar pond electric power plant :
A solar pond electric power plant is a type of renewable energy system that harnesses solar
energy to generate electricity. It operates based on the principle of a solar pond, which is a
large body of saltwater that acts as a solar collector and thermal energy storage system.

 Construction of the solar pond: A solar pond is constructed by creating layers of saltwater
with varying concentrations of salt. The bottom layer, known as the "convective zone,"
contains a high concentration of salt, while the upper layer, called the "non-convective
zone," has a lower salt concentration. The top layer, known as the "surface zone," is
typically freshwater.
 Solar energy absorption: The solar pond acts as a solar collector, absorbing sunlight and
converting it into heat energy. The high salt concentration in the convective zone prevents
the heat from escaping, creating a stable temperature gradient within the pond.
 Heat storage: The absorbed solar energy heats up the convective zone of the solar pond.
The saltwater in this zone becomes hot and buoyant, causing it to rise to the surface. As
it reaches the surface, the heat is transferred to the non-convective zone, which acts as a
thermal energy storage layer.
 Heat extraction: The heat stored in the non-convective zone is extracted using a heat
exchanger system. This heat can be used for various applications, such as generating
steam to drive a turbine or for direct heating purposes.
 Electricity generation: The extracted heat is used to produce steam, which drives a
turbine connected to an electric generator. The rotating turbine generates electricity,
which can be used to power homes, businesses, or fed into the grid.
“The principle behind the solar pond electric power plant is to utilize the natural properties of
saltwater to trap and store solar energy. The saltwater acts as a thermal insulator, preventing
heat loss and allowing for efficient energy storage. By harnessing the heat stored in the solar
pond, electricity can be generated in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner”.

Solar electric power generation :

BASICS :
 Helioelectric Process: This method directly converts solar energy into electrical energy by
utilizing the photovoltaic effect.
 Solar cells: Another name for them is photovoltaic (PV) cells , are the fundamental type of
conversion device used. In essence, a solar cell is a radiation-driven source of electrical
current. After being manufactured for the first time in 1954, solar cells quickly advanced
to use semiconductor electronics technology to power space satellites.
 Expensive: Although the cost of a solar cell is slowly declining, it still makes up the largest
portion of a solar PV system, accounting for over 60% of the entire system cost.
 Capacity: Commercial photocells may have efficiencies in the range of 10-20% and can
produce electrical energy of 1-2 kWh per sq. m per day in ordinary sunshine. Typically, it
produces a potential difference of about 0.5 V and a current density of about 200 A per
sq. m of cell area in full solar radiation of 1 kW per sq. m. A typical commercial cell of 100
sq. cm area, thus produces a current of 2A.
 It has a lifespan in excess of about 20 years. As a PV system has no moving parts, it gives
almost maintenance-free service for long periods and can be used unattended at in
accessible locations. A wide variety of materials exhibit the photovoltaic effect. But
semiconductors have the capability of generating electric power at a level sufficiently high
enough for practical applications.
 Among the semiconductors, the most commonly used are silicon, germanium, cadmium
sulphide, gallium arsenide, etc. The silicon is the one that is generally used because of its
higher conversion.
 Photovoltaics have been primarily used in marine warning lights, remote radio-
communication booster stations, and space satellites.
 These are also being utilized more frequently in isolated locations, particularly in
developing nations, for illumination, water pumping, and medical refrigeration.
 Some newer and intriguing uses for solar PV electricity include battery charging and solar-
powered cars.
 An important property of PV semiconductors is the bandgap, which indicates what
wavelengths of light the material can absorb and convert to electrical energy.
 If the semiconductor’s bandgap matches the wavelengths of light shining on the PV cell,
then that cell can efficiently make use of all the available energy.

Solar Cell - Principle of conversion of Solar Energy into Electrical Energy :

 The electrons in copper atoms in a typical copper wire are free to travel between atoms.
An electric current is made up of such an electron flux.
 They don't contain any free electrons, semiconductor materials are insulators in their
ideal condition. However, if very minute levels of contaminants
 Semiconductor materials contain elements like phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony, which
can produce a few free electrons that can travel and form an electric current.
 Higher energy free electrons are produced by solar photon absorption in semiconductors,
as opposed to the electrons that supply bonding in the base crystal.
 Once these electrons are created, there must be an electric field to induce these high
energy electrons to flow out of the semiconductor.
 The actual conversion of solar energy directly into electrical energy in a semiconductor,
for example a silicon cell.

Above Fig shows a typical silicon cell (solar cell). The silicon is neither a good conductor nor a
good insulator.
It has an outer electron shell of four valence electrons.
P-N junction formation: When silicon is solid, four nearby atoms establish covalent
connections with it. Addition of minute amounts of an element that contains one, such
antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic. The silicon becomes conductive when it has five valence
electrons, or more electrons than silicon. With neighboring silicon atoms, four of the five
electrons complete covalent connections. At normal temperature, the fifth, or excess,
electron has enough energy to break away and become a negatively charged free electron.
Such negative free electrons influence the conduction in silicon when elements like arsenic or
phosphorus are added. N-type silicon is silicon that has additional elements like phosphorus
or arsenic added to it.
The number of valence electrons in the atom is reduced to three when elements like gallium
or boron are added to silicon, which is one fewer than in silicon. There are not enough valence
electrons in this kind of atom for four valence bonds to be completed. The unfinished hand
leaves a gap or gap. Because of the hole, silicon becomes conductive and assumes a positive
charge. P-type silicon is silicon that has additional components like boron added to it.
A p-type or n-type base material is used to create a semiconductor device, into which one or
more positive polarity impurities are added to create p-n layers. A p-n junction is the interface
formed by two layers with opposing polarities.

Working :
Some solar photons are absorbed in the area around a semiconductor's p-n junction when it
is exposed to sunlight. When photons are absorbed at the p-n junction, their high energy
causes one electron in the material to be dislodged from its fixed position and given sufficient
energy to flow easily through the substance. When an electron is freed from its usual binding,
it can move throughout the whole crystalline solid and react to external stimuli like electric
fields. One electron is missing from the bond where the electron was expelled, leaving a
movable hole. As a result, an electron-hole pair is formed by the hole and the released free
electron. Due to their opposing charges, the electrons and the holes will be driven in distinct
directions by the If they enter the area close to the p-n junction, they will encounter the
electric field that already existing there. The hole is forced into the p-region and the electron
into the n-region by the permanent electric field that was incorporated close to the p-n
junction. As a result, the n-region acquires a negative charge and the p-region a positive
charge. The charge difference causes the current to flow via an external load when it is
applied. Current will flow as long as sunshine is generating pairs of electrons.

Solar Photovoltaic Systems:

Solar Photovoltaic System uses solar cells to convert light into electricity. A PV system consists
of PV modules and balance of systems (BOS). Balance of systems includes module support
structure, storage, wiring, power electronics, etc. DC (direct current) electricity is generated
when solar radiation strikes the PV module. Power can be used in any DC load directly during
this generation. But the generation exists during daytime. So, some storage device is needed
to run the system at night or in low sunshine hour.
Again this power cannot be used to run any AC (alternate current) load. Inverter has to be
used to convert DC into AC.
Solar PV systems are categories into 3 types :
1. Stand-alone PV systems (also called off-grid systems)
2. Grid connected PV systems (also called on-grid systems).
3. Hybrid systems.

1. Stand-alone PV systems:
Stand-alone PV systems, also known as off-grid solar systems, are designed to generate and
store electricity independently from the grid.


Independent Power Generation: Stand-alone PV systems generate electricity using solar
panels (photovoltaic cells) that convert sunlight into electrical energy. This allows users to
have access to electricity even in remote areas where grid connection is not available.
 Energy Storage: These systems incorporate batteries to store excess electricity generated
during the day for use during nighttime or when sunlight is not available. The stored
energy ensures a continuous power supply.
 Load Management: Stand-alone PV systems require careful load management to ensure
that the generated electricity matches the demand. Users need to consider the power
requirements of their appliances and devices to determine the appropriate system size
and battery capacity.
 Inverter Functionality: An inverter is an essential component of stand-alone PV systems
as it converts the direct current (DC) electricity generated by the solar panels into
alternating current (AC) electricity that can be used to power household appliances and
devices.
 System Monitoring: Monitoring the performance of the stand-alone PV system is crucial
to ensure its efficiency and identify any issues. This can be done through a monitoring
system that provides real-time data on energy production, battery status, and overall
system performance.
 Maintenance and Upkeep: Regular maintenance is required to keep the system
functioning optimally. This includes cleaning the solar panels, checking battery health, and
inspecting the overall system for any faults or malfunctions.
 Cost Considerations: Stand-alone PV systems can be a cost-effective solution in areas
where extending the grid infrastructure is expensive. However, the initial investment for
the system components, including solar panels, batteries, and inverters, should be taken
into account.
 Environmental Benefits: Stand-alone PV systems are a clean and renewable energy
source, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and contributing to a lower carbon footprint. They
help in mitigating climate change and promoting sustainable energy practices.

“It is important to note that the specific design and configuration of stand-alone PV systems
may vary depending on individual requirements and location. Consulting with a professional
solar installer or engineer is recommended for a tailored solution”.

2. Grid connected PV systems:

Grid-connected PV systems, also known as grid-tied or grid-connected solar systems, are
designed to generate electricity from solar energy and feed it directly into the electrical grid.
Here are some key points to understand about grid-connected PV systems:

 Power Generation: Grid-connected PV systems use solar panels (photovoltaic cells) to

convert sunlight into electricity. The generated electricity is then fed into the electrical
grid, supplementing the power supply from the utility company.
 Net Metering: Grid-connected PV systems often utilize net metering, which allows users
to receive credits for the excess electricity they generate. When the system produces
more electricity than is being consumed, the excess power is fed back into the grid, and
the user receives credits that can be used to offset future electricity bills.
 Grid Dependency: Grid-connected PV systems rely on the electrical grid for power supply
when solar energy is insufficient, such as during nighttime or cloudy days. This ensures a
continuous and reliable electricity supply.
 Inverter Functionality: An inverter is a crucial component of grid-connected PV systems
as it converts the direct current (DC) electricity generated by the solar panels into
alternating current (AC) electricity that can be used by household appliances and devices
or fed into the grid.
 Cost Savings: Grid-connected PV systems can help reduce electricity bills by offsetting the
amount of electricity purchased from the utility company. The savings depend on factors
such as the system size, electricity consumption, and local net metering policies.
 Environmental Benefits: Grid-connected PV systems contribute to a cleaner and more
sustainable energy mix by reducing reliance on fossil fuels. They help in mitigating climate
change and promoting renewable energy adoption.
 Grid Stability: Grid-connected PV systems can contribute to grid stability by providing
additional power during peak demand periods. However, proper grid integration and
coordination with the utility company are necessary to ensure the smooth operation of
the system and grid reliability.
“It is important to consult with a professional solar installer or engineer to design and install
a grid-connected PV system that complies with local regulations and grid connection
requirements”.
3. Hybrid Solar PV systems :
Hybrid solar PV systems combine the benefits of both grid-connected and stand-alone PV
systems. Here are some key points to understand about hybrid solar PV systems:

 Grid Connection: Hybrid systems are connected to the electrical grid, allowing users to
draw electricity from the grid when solar power is insufficient or during high-demand
periods. This ensures a reliable power supply even when solar energy production is
limited.
 Solar Power Generation: Hybrid systems generate electricity using solar panels
(photovoltaic cells) that convert sunlight into electrical energy. The solar power generated
is used to meet the immediate energy needs of the premises.
 Energy Storage: Hybrid systems incorporate batteries to store excess solar energy
generated during the day. This stored energy can be used during nighttime or when solar
power production is low, reducing reliance on the grid and increasing self-consumption of
solar energy.
 Grid Interaction: Hybrid systems can interact with the grid in multiple ways. They can
export excess solar energy to the grid, earning credits or feed-in tariffs, and import
electricity from the grid when needed. This two-way interaction allows for optimal
utilization of solar power and grid resources.
 Inverter Functionality: An inverter is an essential component of hybrid systems as it
converts the direct current (DC) electricity generated by the solar panels into alternating
current (AC) electricity that can be used to power household appliances and devices. It
also manages the flow of electricity between the solar panels, batteries, and the grid.
 Load Management: Hybrid systems require load management to prioritize the use of solar
power and battery storage. Intelligent energy management systems can optimize the
distribution of electricity based on real-time energy production, consumption, and grid
conditions.
 Backup Power: In the event of a grid outage, hybrid systems with battery storage can
provide backup power, ensuring uninterrupted electricity supply to critical loads. This is
particularly beneficial in areas with unreliable grid infrastructure or frequent power
outages.
 Cost Savings: Hybrid systems can help reduce electricity bills by utilizing solar power and
minimizing grid consumption. Excess solar energy can be fed back to the grid, offsetting
energy costs and potentially earning revenue through feed-in tariffs or net metering
programs.
 Environmental Benefits: Hybrid systems contribute to a lower carbon footprint by
utilizing clean and renewable solar energy. They reduce reliance on fossil fuels and help
in mitigating climate change.

“It is important to note that the specific design and configuration of hybrid solar PV systems
may vary depending on individual requirements and location. Consulting with a professional
solar installer or engineer is recommended for a tailored solution”.

Advantages of Solar Photovoltaic System:

 Renewable Energy Source: Solar photovoltaic systems harness the power of sunlight,
which is a renewable and abundant energy source, ensuring long-term sustainability.
 Environmentally Friendly: Solar energy production does not emit greenhouse gases or
other harmful pollutants, reducing carbon footprint and mitigating climate change.
 Cost Savings: Once installed, solar photovoltaic systems can significantly reduce or
eliminate electricity bills, leading to long-term cost savings.
 Energy Independence: Solar power allows individuals and businesses to generate their
own electricity, reducing reliance on traditional energy sources and increasing energy
independence.
 Low Maintenance: Solar panels require minimal maintenance, with occasional cleaning
and inspection being the primary tasks.
 Scalability: Solar photovoltaic systems can be easily expanded or modified to meet
changing energy needs, making them suitable for both small-scale and large-scale
applications.
 Distribution: A solar PV system can be located at the place of use and hence no or
minimum distribution network is required, as it is universally available.
Disadvantages of Solar Photovoltaic System:
 Initial Cost: The upfront cost of installing a solar photovoltaic system can be high,
including the cost of solar panels, inverters, batteries, and installation.
 Weather Dependence: Solar panels rely on sunlight to generate electricity, making their
efficiency dependent on weather conditions. Cloudy days or limited sunlight can reduce
energy production.
 Space Requirement: Solar panels require a significant amount of space for installation,
which may not be feasible for properties with limited roof or ground space.
 Energy Storage: Solar energy is generated during the day, but energy demands may vary
throughout the day. Efficient energy storage systems are required to store excess energy
for use during non-sunlight hours.
 Manufacturing Impact: The production of solar panels involves the use of certain
materials and chemicals, which can have environmental impacts if not properly managed.

Applications of Solar Photovoltaic System:

 Residential: Solar panels can be installed on rooftops of residential buildings to generate
electricity for household consumption, reducing reliance on the grid.
 Commercial: Businesses can install solar photovoltaic systems to offset their energy
consumption, leading to cost savings and environmental benefits.
 Rural Electrification: Solar power can be used to provide electricity to remote areas where
grid connectivity is limited or non-existent, improving the quality of life for rural
communities.
 Agriculture: Solar photovoltaic systems can power irrigation systems, water pumps, and
other agricultural equipment, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and increasing
sustainability.
 Transportation: Solar energy can be used to power electric vehicles, reducing
dependence on fossil fuels and promoting clean transportation.
 Grid-interactive PV power generation: It uses solar energy to generate renewable power
that charges batteries for use during power failures and feeds power into the electricity
grid.
 Water pumping: Solar power is commonly used for water pumping facilities which has
been proved more effective in villages for agricultural purposes. The energy from the solar
panel is used to operate the pump that is used to lift the water from lower level to higher
level.
 Lighting: Solar photovoltaic lighting system can be used for street lights, and rural areas.
Small sized panels can easily harness enough energy to glow a street light and LEDs.
 Medical refrigeration: Many life-saving medical supplies, particularly vaccines, require
refrigeration during storage and transportation in order to remain effective. WHO has
specified technical details for PV-based refrigerators using solar energy for such
 applications. The volume of a refrigerator chamber varies from 20-100 litres with the
freezer volume ranging from 10-35litres. The PV module size ranges from 100 W to over
600 W with a 12 V/24 V battery, of 150 to over 600 Ah.
 Village power: Solar PV power can be used to meet low energy demands of many remote,
isolated and generally unapproachable villages in most developing countries. Two
approaches have generally been used:
(1) Individual SPV system for every household.
(2) A centralized SPV plant to meet combined load demand of the whole village.

Both approaches have been extensively tried out in most parts of the world, particularly in
developing countries. Whereas a centralized village PV power system requires large scale
integrated planning and execution, individual village household systems may be available off-
the-shelf.

 Telecommunication and signalling: Solar PV power is ideally suited for

telecommunication applications such as local telephone exchange, radio and TV
broadcasting, microwave and other forms of electronic communication links.The solar
arrays arranged in the space station produce more than required power for the space
station. When the station is in sunlight, about 60 percent of the electricity that the solar
arrays generate is used to charge the station's batteries. This is because, in most
telecommunication applications, storage batteries are already in use and the electrical
systems are basically DC. Radio and TV signals may not reach in hilly and mountainous
terrain as they get blocked or reflected back due to the undulating terrain. At these
locations, either low-power transmitters (LPT) or very low-power transmitters (VLPT) are
installed to receive and retransmit the signals for the local population. As these locations
are generally remote and normal grid supply is not available, these are powered by solar
photovoltaic electricity.
 Power in Spacel: The solar arrays arranged in the space station produce more than
required power for the space station. When the station is in sunlight, about 60 percent of
the electricity that the solar arrays generate is used to charge the station's batteries. Solar
panels on spacecraft supply power for two main uses, firstly, power to run the sensors,
active heating, cooling and telemetry.
SOME EXTRA POINTS ON MODULE 2 :
1. Electrical Equivalent Circuit Model for Solar cell

The electrical equivalent circuit model of a solar cell represents its behavior in terms of
electrical components. It simplifies the complex physical processes occurring within the solar
cell into a circuit representation. The most commonly used model is the single-diode model,
which consists of the following components:

 Photovoltaic (PV) Current Source (Iph): This represents the current generated by the solar
cell due to the incident light. It is proportional to the intensity of the light falling on the
cell.
 Diode (D): The diode represents the non-linear behavior of the solar cell. It allows current
to flow in one direction (from the p-type to the n-type semiconductor) when the cell is
illuminated, and it blocks current flow in the opposite direction.
 Series Resistance (Rs): This component represents the resistance encountered by the
current as it flows through the solar cell's internal circuitry. It includes the resistance of
the semiconductor material and the metal contacts.
 Shunt Resistance (Rsh): The shunt resistance represents any leakage paths or unintended
current paths in the solar cell. It is typically very high, indicating minimal shunt current.
 Load Resistance (Rload): This represents the external load connected to the solar cell,
such as a battery or a power grid.

Current-Voltage Characteristics:
The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a solar cell describe its behavior in terms of current
and voltage at different operating conditions. The I-V curve of a solar cell typically exhibits the
following characteristics:

 Short-Circuit Current (Isc): This is the maximum current that the solar cell can deliver
when the voltage across it is zero (short-circuited). It represents the current generated by
the cell under maximum illumination.
 Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc): This is the maximum voltage that the solar cell can produce
when no current is flowing through it (open-circuited). It represents the voltage generated
by the cell under maximum illumination.
 Maximum Power Point (MPP): The MPP is the operating point on the I-V curve where the
product of current and voltage is maximized. It represents the maximum power output
that the solar cell can deliver.
 Fill Factor (FF): The fill factor is a measure of how well the solar cell can utilize its maximum
power. It is the ratio of the maximum power at the MPP to the product of Isc and Voc.
 Efficiency: The efficiency of a solar cell is the ratio of the electrical power output to the
incident light power. It represents the ability of the solar cell to convert sunlight into
usable electrical energy.

“Understanding the electrical equivalent circuit model and the current-voltage characteristics
of solar cells is essential for analyzing and designing solar energy systems. It helps in
optimizing the performance and efficiency of solar cells in various applications”.

2. Solar radiation refers to the energy emitted by the sun in the form of electromagnetic
waves. It is an essential factor in determining the potential energy generation of solar
panels. The amount of solar radiation received on a surface can vary depending on its
orientation, whether it is horizontal or inclined.

I) Solar Radiation on Horizontal Surfaces:

- On a horizontal surface, solar radiation is received directly from the sun's rays. The
intensity of solar radiation depends on factors such as time of day, season, and
geographical location.
- At solar noon, when the sun is directly overhead, the solar radiation is most intense. The
angle of incidence (the angle at which the sun's rays hit the surface) is 90 degrees,
resulting in maximum radiation.
- As the sun moves lower in the sky during mornings and evenings, the angle of incidence
decreases, leading to a decrease in solar radiation intensity.
- During winter months, when the sun is lower in the sky, the angle of incidence is
generally lower, resulting in lower solar radiation compared to summer months.
The intensity of solar radiation on a horizontal surface can be calculated using the following
formula:

I = G * cos(θ)
Where:
- I represents the solar radiation intensity on the horizontal surface (in watts per square
meter, W/m²).
- G is the extraterrestrial solar radiation, which is the solar radiation intensity outside the
Earth's atmosphere (in W/m²).
 - θ is the solar zenith angle, which is the angle between the sun's rays and a line
perpendicular to the Earth's surface.

II) Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces:

- Inclined surfaces, such as solar panels tilted at an angle, receive solar radiation
differently than horizontal surfaces.
- The angle of incidence on an inclined surface depends on the tilt angle of the surface and
the sun's position in the sky.
- When the surface is tilted towards the sun, the angle of incidence is smaller, resulting in
higher solar radiation intensity compared to a horizontal surface.
- The optimal tilt angle for solar panels depends on the geographical location and the
desired energy output. It is typically set to maximize the annual energy production by
considering the sun's position throughout the year.
- If the surface is tilted away from the sun, the angle of incidence increases, leading to a
decrease in solar radiation intensity.

On an inclined surface, solar radiation is received at an angle, which affects the amount of
radiation received. The intensity of solar radiation on an inclined surface can be calculated
using the following formula:
I = G * cos(θ) * (cos(β) + sin(β) * cos(γ))
Where:
- I represents the solar radiation intensity on the inclined surface (in W/m²).
- G is the extraterrestrial solar radiation (in W/m²).
- θ is the solar zenith angle.
- β is the tilt angle of the surface, which is the angle between the surface and a horizontal
plane.
- γ is the surface azimuth angle, which is the angle between the projection of the surface
normal on the horizontal plane and the south direction (for a south-facing surface).
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (BETCK105E/205E)

MODULE-3
WIND ENERGY & BIOMASS ENERGY

Syllabus:
WIND ENERGY- Properties of wind, availability of wind energy in India, wind
velocity and power from wind; major problems associated with wind power, Basic
components of wind energy conversion system (WECS); Classification of WECS-
Horizontal axis- single, double and multi blade system. Vertical axis- Savonius and
Darrieus types.
BIOMASS ENERGY-Introduction; Photosynthesis Process; Biofuels; Biomass
Resources; Biomass conversion technologies -fixed dome; Urban waste to energy
conversion; Biomass gasification (Downdraft) .

PROPERTIES OF WIND
The definition of wind is the movement of gas molecules in the atmosphere
commonly known as air. The differences in air pressure in a specific location
causes air to move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The Earth
is spherical, which means that the widest part of the Earth, near the equator, is
slightly closer to the sun and the sunlight hits the equator more directly. Therefore,
there is hotter air over regions near the equator, and cooler air at the poles. Just like
with the sea breeze, hot air at the equator rises, causing an area of low pressure in
which cold polar air moves from the north and south poles to the equator to fill that
space. This motion, however, is complicated by something called the Coriolis
effect.

Winds are caused because of two factors :

(1) The absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
(2) The rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the sun.
Because of these factors, alternate heating and cooling cycles occur, differences in
pressure are obtained, and the air is caused to move.

Wind energy or wind power describes the process by which wind is used to
generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical power.
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Wind has two important characteristics—direction and speed. The direction of

wind can be gauged using an instrument called the wind vane. The speed of wind is
usually measured with an instrument called the anemometer

AVAILABILITY OF WIND ENERGY IN INDIA

● Wind power generation capacity in India has significantly increased in

recent years.
● As of 31 December 2022, the total installed wind power capacity was 41.93
gigawatts (GW), the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the
world.
● Wind power accounts for nearly 10% of India's total installed power
generation capacity and generated 62.03 TWh in the fiscal year 2018–19,
which is nearly 4% of total electricity generation.
● Tamil Nadu's wind production capacity was around 24% of India's total in
2021.
● Gujarat has around 22% of the total capacity of the country.
● The largest capacity wind turbine of 4.2 MW is installed in Tamil Nadu state
as of October 2022. Muppandal wind farm, the total capacity is 1500 MW
with nearly 3000 wind turbines, the largest wind power plant in India.
● Karnataka Gadag by Shah Gajendragarph power plant produces 10.8MW
NOTE: Megawatts are used to measure the output of a power plant or the amount
of electricity required by an entire city.
One megawatt (MW) = 1,000 kilowatts = 1,000,000 watts. For example, a typical
coal plant is about 600 MW in size.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION

SYSTEM (WECS)

The basic principle of every windmill is to convert kinetic energy of wind into
mechanical energy which is used to rotate the turbine of an electrical generator to
produce electricity.
The wind energy formula is given by,

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𝑃 = 1/2 𝛒𝐴𝑉3
Where- P= Power, 𝛒= Density of air, A= πr2 (Swept area of blades), V= velocity of
the wind

BLOCK DIAGRAM WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

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COMPONENTS OF WIND TURBINE

Blades-Most turbines have either 2 or 3 blades. Wind blowing over the blades
causes the blades to “lift” and rotate. Blades are made of Fibers with a polymer
matrix, such as epoxy resin since it is known for its good mechanical properties,
such as high tensile strength, low weight, and resistance to corrosion. Carbon fiber
reinforced plastic (CFRP) can also be used as blade material. CFRP) is a composite
material made by combining carbon fibers with a polymer matrix, such as epoxy
resin.
Nacelle-Nacelle sits at top of the tower and contains the gear box, low and high
speed shafts, generator, controller and brakes. A cover protects the components
inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large enough for a technician to stand inside
while working.
Rotor-Blades and hub together are called rotor
Tower- Towers are made from tubular steel or steel lattice. Because wind speed
increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and
generate more electricity
Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning
in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the
rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don’t
require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind.
Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.
Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to
orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind.
Anemometer-Measures the wind speed and transmit wind speed data to the
controller
Controller-Controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles
per hour(mph) & shuts off machine at about 55 mph to avoid damage at high winds
Gearbox- Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase
the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1200
to 1500 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce
electricity.

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Low-speed shaft- The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations
per minute.
High-speed shaft- Drives the generator.
Generator- Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle
AC electricity. It should have a cooling system to make sure there is no
overheating.

WORKING OF WIND MILL

● Wind blows toward the turbine's rotor blades.

● The rotors spin around, capturing some of the kinetic energy from the wind,
and turning the central drive shaft that supports them.
● Inside the nacelle, the gearbox converts the low-speed rotation of the drive
shaft into high-speed rotation fast enough to drive the generator efficiently.
● The entire top part of the turbine (the rotors and nacelle) can be rotated by a
yaw motor, mounted between the nacelle and the tower, so it faces directly
into the oncoming wind and captures the maximum amount of energy.
● If it's too windy or turbulent, brakes are applied to stop the rotors from
turning (for safety reasons).
● The electric current produced by the generator flows through a cable running
down through the inside of the turbine tower.
● A step-up transformer converts the electricity to about 50 times higher
voltage so it can be transmitted efficiently to the power grid (or to nearby
buildings or communities).
● Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 30
meters or more above ground, they can take advantage of faster wind.

WIND VELOCITY AND POWER FROM WIND

Wind speed largely determines the amount of electricity generated by a turbine.

Higher wind speeds generate more power because stronger winds allow the blades
to rotate faster. Faster rotation translates to more mechanical power and more
electrical power from the generator.

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The amount of energy generated by a wind turbine depends on:

● wind speed (main factor)
● the area swept by the blades
● air density

● The cut-in speed (typically between 6 and 9 mph) is when the blades start
rotating and generating power.
● As wind speeds increase, more electricity is generated until it reaches a
limit, known as the rated speed.
● This is the point that the turbine produces its maximum, or rated power.
● As the wind speed continues to increase, the power generated by the turbine
remains constant until it eventually hits a cut-out speed (varies by turbine)
and shuts down to prevent unnecessary strain on the rotor.

0-10 mph: Wind speed is too low for generating power. Turbine is not operational.
Rotor is locked.
10-25 mph: 10 mph is the minimum operational speed. It is called "Cut- in speed".
In 10-25 mph wind, generated power increases with the wind speed.
25-50 mph: Typical wind turbines reach the rated power (maximum operating
power) at wind speed of 25mph (called Rated wind speed). Further increase in
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wind speed will not result in substantially higher generated power by design. This
is accomplished by, for example, pitching the blade angle to reduce the turbine
efficiency.
> 50 mph: Turbine is shut down when wind speed is higher than 50mph (called
"Cut-out" speed) to prevent structure failure.

CLASSIFICATION OF WECS (WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM)

1.According to axis of rotation

(i) Horizontal Axis Machines.
(ii) Vertical Axis Machines.
2. According to size as determined by the useful electrical power output.
i) Small Scale (upto 2 kW).
(ii) Medium Size Machines (2-100 kW).
(iii) Large Scale or Large Size Machines (100 kW and up).
3. As per the type of output power, wind aerogenerators are
(i) DC output
(ii) AC output
4.As per the rotational speed of the aero turbines
(i) Constant Speed with variable pitch blades.
(ii) Nearly Constant Speed with fixed pitch blades.
(iii) Variable Speed with fixed pitch blades.
5. Wind turbines are also classified as per how the utilization of output is
made
(i) Battery storage,
(ii) Direct connection to an electromagnetic energy
(iii) Other forms (thermal potential etc.) of storage, converter.
(iv) Interconnection with conventional electric utility grids.
6. Based on wind orientation
(i) Upwind turbine
(ii) Downwind turbine

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HORIZONTAL AXIS TYPE WIND TURBINE

● The axis of rotation (Horizontal axis) of blades is parallel to the wind flow
direction.
● Generally these require massive tower construction to support heavy nacelle.
● An additional yaw control is required to turn the rotor towards the wind
direction.
● Electric generator & gearbox are installed at the top of the tower.
● When it comes to the performance of the system ,these are having high
efficiency & most used turbines.
● It is widely used for generation of electricity for commercial purposes.

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Advantages
● The efficiency of HAWT are higher than that of vertical axis machines.
● They are easier to mount high enough to avoid much of the ground effect.
● They are less expensive.
● The technology is better developed.
● They Are Available Commercially.
Disadvantages
● Many of the important parts that require maintenance are high off the
ground.
● A yaw mechanism must be in place to turn the turbine towards the wind
direction.
● HAWTs can pose a danger to wildlife, especially birds and bats.
● HAWTs can produce noise, which can be a nuisance for nearby residents.

TYPES OF HORIZONTAL AXIS

● Single Blade
● double Blade
● Multi-blade system

Single blade wind turbines

● A single blade wind turbine has only one blade that rotates around a central
hub.
● This design is simple and easy to maintain, but it is also less efficient
compared to other designs.
● It is subject to more vibration and noise.

Two blade wind turbine

● It has two blades that rotate around a central hub.
● It has less vibration and noise compared to single blade turbines.
● The blades are usually mounted on the same central hub, which provides a
balanced torque and increases efficiency.

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Multi blade wind turbine

● It has three or more blades that rotate around a central hub.
● This design provides even more stability and efficiency compared to single
or double blade wind turbines,as the multiple blades spread the wind energy
across the entire rotor, reducing stress on any one blade.
● Additionally, this design is more aerodynamic and less affected by wind
turbulence, resulting in higher energy production.
● Cost of manufacturing, transporting the blade is huge as the number of
blades increases.

VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

Types of vertical axis wind turbines

◆ Savonius -two half-cylindrical blades arranged in an 'S' shape.

◆ Darrieus types- curved aerofoil blades mounted on a rotating shaft or
framework.

● Here the axis of rotation (Vertical axis) of blades is perpendicular to the

wind flow direction.
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● Additional equipment mechanism is required to start it from a stationary

position.
● The vertical axis wind turbine does not require a yaw mechanism because it
receives wind from all directions.
● Gearbox is installed at the bottom of the turbine.
● There is no need for nacelle in case of vertical axis wind turbines.

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Advantages
● The generator and gearbox can be placed on the ground
● The structure is usually simpler.
● You do not need a yaw (pointing) mechanism to turn the rotor against the
wind.
● VAWTs typically generate less noise than horizontal axis wind turbines
(HAWT).

Disadvantage
● Some VAWT designs can be more complex than HAWTs, making them
more difficult to manufacture and maintain
● These structures are low to the ground, where wind speeds are lowest.
● The overall efficiency is much lower than horizontal axis machines.
● Maintenance is usually more difficult. For example, replacement of the
generator typically requires disassembly of the entire machine.
● Some VAWT designs have a higher start-up wind speed, meaning they may
not generate electricity in light wind conditions.

MAJOR PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH WIND ENERGY IN

INDIA.

Land availability: Wind turbines require a large area of land to be installed, and
acquiring land is a major challenge in India due to land-use regulations, competing
land uses, and complex land ownership patterns.

Transmission and grid integration: Wind farms are often located far from the
load centers, and the power generated needs to be transmitted over long distances.
The transmission and grid infrastructure in India is inadequate, and the integration
of wind power into the grid is a major challenge.

High capital costs: The installation and maintenance costs of wind turbines are
high, making wind energy less competitive than other sources of electricity.

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Environmental impacts: Wind turbines can have environmental impacts such as

bird and bat collisions, noise pollution, and visual impacts.

Maintenance and reliability: Wind turbines require regular maintenance to ensure

reliable and efficient operation, and the availability of skilled technicians and spare
parts can be a challenge in remote locations.

Despite these challenges, wind energy has great potential in India and is a key
component of the country's renewable energy mix. The Indian government has set
a target of 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022, of which 60 GW is
expected to come from wind power. To achieve this target, the government has
introduced several policies and incentives to promote wind energy development,
such as accelerated depreciation, generation-based incentives, and viability gap
funding.

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BIOMASS ENERGY

INTRODUCTION:
Biomass energy is energy generated or produced by living or once-living
organisms. The most common biomass materials used for energy are plants, such
as corn and soy and animal waste,agricultural residues, food processing waste,
municipal solid waste.These are called biomass feedstocks. Biomass contains
energy first derived from the sun: Plants absorb the sun’s energy through
photosynthesis, and convert carbon dioxide and water into nutrients
(carbohydrates). The energy from these organisms can be transformed into usable
energy through direct and indirect means.
Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or
processed into biofuel (indirect). Biomass can be burned by thermal conversion
and used for energy. Thermal conversion involves heating the biomass feedstock in
order to burn, dehydrate, or stabilize it. Different types of energy are created
through direct firing, co-firing, pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic
decomposition.
Before biomass can be burned, however, it must be dried. This chemical process is
called torrefaction. During torrefaction, biomass is heated to about 200° to 320°
Celsius (390° to 610° Fahrenheit). The biomass dries out so completely that it loses
the ability to absorb moisture, or rot. It loses about 20% of its original mass, but
retains 90% of its energy. During torrefaction, biomass becomes a dry, blackened
material. It is then compressed into briquettes. Biomass briquettes are very
hydrophobic, meaning they repel water. This makes it possible to store them in
moist areas. The briquettes have high energy density and are easy to burn during
direct or co-firing.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS PROCESS

Photosynthesis is a biological process that converts light energy into chemical

energy in the form of organic compounds. Photosynthesis in plants takes place in
chloroplasts found in mesophyll cells of leaves.

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● Light energy is captured by the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of the plant

cells.
● The energy from sunlight is used to convert CO2 and H2O into glucose and
Oxygen through a series of chemical reactions.
● Glucose produced is used by the plant as a source of energy and oxygen is
released to the atmosphere as a by-product.
● Process of photosynthesis can be summarized as
● Light energy + Carbon Dioxide + Water=Glucose +Oxygen
● Biomass produced through photosynthesis is also an important source of
biofuels.
● Crops such as corn, sugarcane and algae are grown specifically for their
ability to photosynthesize and produce large amounts of biomass which can
be then processed and converted into biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel.

The necessary conditions for photosynthesis are

1) Light : Only a part of the solar radiation (40 -45%) of 400 700 Ao wavelength
is used in photosynthesis. This range of light is called photosynthetically active
radiation (PAR) .
2) CO2 concentration: Carbon dioxide is the primary raw material for
photosynthesis. It is observed that if CO2 concentration is increased , increase in
the yield of several crops upto a certain limit.
3)Temperature: Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range which can be
tolerated by the proteins i.e. 0oC to 60oC .
The process of photosynthesis has two main steps:
1) Splitting of H2O molecules into H2 and O2 under the influence of chlorophyll
and sunlight. This phase reaction is called light reaction. Where O2 escapes and H2
is transformed into unknown compounds.
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2) In the second phase , hydrogen is transformed from this unknown compound to

CO2 to form starch or sugar.

BIOFUELS
Biomass is the only renewable energy source that can be converted into liquid
biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Biofuels are fuels that are produced from
renewable biological sources, such as crops, algae, and waste organic material.
Ethanol is made by fermenting biomass that is high in carbohydrates, such as sugar
cane, wheat, or corn. Ethanol has become a popular substitute for wood in
residential fireplaces. When it is burned, it gives off heat in the form of flames, and
water vapor instead of smoke. Biodiesel is made from combining ethanol with
animal fat, recycled cooking fat, or vegetable oil. Biofuels do not operate as
efficiently as gasoline. However, they can be blended with gasoline to efficiently
power vehicles and machinery, and do not release the emissions associated with
fossil fuels.

Several types of biofuels, including:

Ethanol: Ethanol is a type of biofuel that is produced from crops such as corn,
sugarcane, and wheat. It is commonly blended with gasoline to create a fuel known
as E10, which contains 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline.
Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a type of biofuel that is produced from vegetable oils,
animal fats, or recycled cooking oils. It can be used as a direct replacement for
diesel fuel in vehicles
Bio-jet fuel: Bio-jet fuel is a type of biofuel that is specifically designed for use in
aviation. It is produced from crops such as algae and jatropha and can be used to
power airplanes.
Biomethane: Biomethane is a type of biofuel that is produced by processing
organic waste, such as sewage, food waste, and agricultural waste. It can be used as
a replacement for natural gas in heating and cooking.

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BIOMASS RESOURCES

Biomass resources are materials derived from living organisms or their waste
products that can be used as a source of energy. Biomass resources include:
Wood: Wood is one of the most commonly used biomass resources. It is produced
from trees and other woody plants and can be burned directly or converted into
pellets or other forms of biofuel.
Agricultural waste: Agricultural waste, such as straw, corn stalks, and sugarcane
bagasse, can be used as a source of biomass energy.
Animal waste: Animal waste, such as manure, can be processed to produce
biogas, a renewable source of energy.
Algae: Algae are tiny aquatic plants that can be grown quickly and efficiently to
produce large amounts of biomass. They can be used to produce biofuels, such as
bio-jet fuel, and other products.
Food waste: Food waste, such as kitchen scraps and uneaten food, can be
processed to produce biogas, a renewable source of energy.
Municipal waste: Municipal waste, such as paper, cardboard, and yard waste, can
be burned or converted into biofuels.
Plant-based crops: Crops such as corn, soybeans, and sugarcane can be used to
produce biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel.

BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including:

➔ Direct combustion (burning) to produce heat

Direct combustion is the most common method for converting biomass to useful
energy. Direct combustion requires biomass with a moisture content around 15 per
cent or less, so it may require drying prior to combustion for most of the crops. All
biomass can be burned directly for heating buildings and water, for industrial
process heat, and for generating electricity in steam turbines. Temperature of a
biomass-fired gasifier can be higher than 900 degree Celsius. Maintaining proper

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temperature during combustion is essential to prevent formation of pollutants such

as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides (Nox) and unburned hydrocarbons.

➔ Thermochemical conversion to produce solid, gaseous, and liquid fuels

Thermochemical conversion of biomass includes pyrolysis and gasification. Both

are thermal decomposition processes in which biomass feedstock materials are
heated in closed, pressurized vessels called gasifiers at high temperatures.
Gasification: Thermal conversion process in which solid biomass in the presence
of limited oxygen at high temperatures (>700°C) to produce a mixture of gases,
including carbon monoxide and hydrogen, known as syngas. This syngas can be
used as a fuel for heating, electricity generation and production of transportation
fuels and chemicals.
Pyrolysis: It is a thermal decomposition process in which organic materials such as
wood, agricultural waste ,plastics and tires in a sealed chamber is heated in the
absence of oxygen to produce a syngas (synthesis gas)-mixture of carbon
monoxide (C0) ,hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4) then liquid bio-oil and finally
a solid biochar.

➔ Anaerobic digestion or Biomethanation:

It is a biological process that involves breaking down organic matter such as
agricultural waste, food waste, or sewage in the absence of oxygen to produce
biogas, which is primarily composed of methane and carbon dioxide. This biogas
can be used as a fuel for heating or electricity generation. During anaerobic
digestion microorganisms break down the organic matter in the biomass into
simpler compounds such as carbon dioxide and methane. This process occurs in an
oxygen-free environment typically in a sealed vessel called a digester. The biogas
produced in digester consists primarily of methane (50% to 70%) and carbon
dioxide (30 to 50) % with small gases of hydrogen sulphide & nitrogen.

This anaerobic digestion consists broadly of three phases:

(i) Enzymatic hydrolysis: Where the fats, starches and proteins contained in
cellulosic biomass are broken down into simple compounds.
(ii) Acid formation: Where the microorganisms of facultative and anaerobic group
collectively called as acid farmers, hydrolyse and ferment, are broken to simple
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compounds into acids and volatile solids. As a result complex organic compounds
are broken down to short chemical simple organic acids. This initial acid phase of
digestion may last about two weeks and during this period a large amount of
carbon dioxide is given off.
(iii) Methane formation: Where organic acids as formed above are then converted
into methane (CH) and CO, by the bacteria which are strictly anaerobic. These
bacteria are called methane fermentors. Methane formers are sensitive to pH
changes. A pH value between 6.5 to 8 is the best for fermentation and normal gas
production. Methane forming bacteria slowly, in about 14 days at 25°C, completes
the digestion to - 70% CH4, -30% CO2 with trace amounts of H₂ and perhaps H₂S.

➔ Chemical conversion to produce liquid fuels

A chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting
vegetable oils, animal fats, and greases into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME),
which are used to produce biodiesel. Biological conversion includes fermentation
to convert biomass into ethanol and anaerobic digestion to produce renewable
natural gas. Ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel.

➔ Biophotolysis :
The process by which water dissociates into molecular hydrogen and oxygen in
biological systems in the presence of light.

➔ Hydrolysis
The technology which converts cellulose to alcohols through fermentation.
Ethyl alcohol can be produced from a variety of sugar by fermentation with yeasts.

➔ Cogeneration
Co-generation is producing two forms of energy from one fuel. One of the forms of
energy must always be heat and the other may be electricity or mechanical energy.
In a cogeneration plant, the low-pressure exhaust steam coming out of the turbine
is not condensed, but used for heating purposes in factories or houses, and thus
very high-efficiency levels, in the range of 75%-90%, can be reached. Since
co-generation can meet both power and heat needs, it has other advantages as well
in the form of significant cost savings for the plant and reduction in emissions of
pollutants due to reduced fuel consumption.
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TYPES OF BIOGAS PLANTS:

Biogas plants basically are two types
Floating dome type
Eg:KVIC-type (KVIC- Khadi Village Industries Commission)
Fixed dome type
Eg: Deenabandhu model, Janata model, chinese model, CAMARTEC model etc

Types of Fixed-dome Plants

● Chinese fixed-dome plant: It is the archetype of all fixed dome plants.
Several million have been constructed in China. The digester consists of a
cylinder with a round bottom and top.
● Janata model: It was the first fixed-dome design in India, as a response to the
Chinese fixed dome plant. It is not constructed anymore. The mode of
construction led to cracks in the gasholder - very few of these plants had
been gas-tight.
● Deenbandhu model: The successor of the Janata plant in India, with
improved design, was more crack-proof and consumed less building material
than the Janata plant with a hemisphere digester.

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Fixed-dome plant

Basic fixed-dome biogas plant consists of:

1.Mixing pit/Inlet
2.Digester
3.Gasholder
4.Displacement pit/compensation tank/ outlet
5.Gas pipe

● The dome is made from prefabricated ferrocement or reinforced concrete

and attached to the digester, which has a curved bottom in the bottom.
● The slurry is fed from a mixing tank through an inlet pipe connected to the
digester.
● Inside the digester, it will undergo a process called anaerobic digestion and
due to which gas formation starts.
● When organic matter undergoes fermentation (process of chemical change in
organic matter brought about by living organisms) through anaerobic
digestion, gas is generated. This gas is known as bio-gas.

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● After fermentation, the biogas collects in the space under the dome.
● Bio gas formed is taken out for use through a pipe connected to the top of
the dome.
● The sludge, which is a by-product, comes out through an opening in the side
of the digester.

Deenbandhu biogas plant :

● The dome is made from prefabricated ferrocement or reinforced concrete

and attached to the digester, which has a curved bottom in the shape of a
hemisphere.
● The slurry is fed from a mixing tank through an inlet pipe connected to the
digester.
● Inside the digester, it will undergo a process called anaerobic digestion and
due to which gas formation starts.
● When organic matter undergoes fermentation (process of chemical change in
organic matter brought about by living organisms) through anaerobic
digestion, gas is generated. This gas is known as bio-gas.
● After fermentation, the biogas collects in the space under the dome.

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● Bio gas formed is taken out for use through a pipe connected to the top of
the dome.
● The sludge, which is a by-product, comes out through an opening in the side
of the digester.
● About 90 percent of the biogas plants in India are of the Deenbandhu type.

Advantages:
● Low initial costs and long useful life-span
● No moving or rusting parts involved
● Basic design is compact, saves space and is well insulated.
● Construction creates local employment.
● The underground construction saves space and protects the digester from
temperature changes.
Disadvantages:
● Masonry gas-holders require special sealants and high technical skills for
gas-tight construction.
● Problems with the gas-tightness of the brickwork gas holder (a small crack
in the upper brickwork can cause heavy losses of biogas)
● Gas leaks occur quite frequently.
● Fluctuating gas pressure complicates gas utilization.
● Fixed-dome plants are, therefore, recommended only where construction can
be supervised by experienced biogas technicians.

BIOMASS GASIFICATION (DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER)

● Down-draft biomass gasifiers are systems used to convert biomass into a

gaseous fuel that can be burned for energy production.
● The process of gasification involves heating the biomass in the absence of
oxygen to produce a mixture of gases, including carbon monoxide, methane,
and hydrogen.
● In a downdraft biomass gasifier, the biomass is fed into the top of the
gasifier and is heated by a flame, which is maintained in the lower part of
the gasifier.

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● The hot gasses generated by the combustion of the biomass rise and mix
with the incoming air, which acts as the oxidizing agent for the gasification
reaction.
● The resulting producer gas is then collected at the bottom of the gasifier and
can be burned to generate heat or power.

A downdraft biomass gasifier typically consists of several distinct zones, each of

which serves a specific purpose in the gasification process. The following are the
main zones found in a downdraft gasifier and their functions:

Drying Zone: The biomass is first fed into the drying zone, where it is heated to
remove any moisture content. This helps to prevent the formation of steam, which
can interfere with the gasification reaction.

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Pyrolysis Zone: In the pyrolysis zone, the biomass is subjected to high

temperatures in the absence of oxygen, causing it to break down into a mixture of
gasses and char. The char acts as a source of heat for the gasification reaction,
while the gasses contribute to the production of producer gas.

Gasification Zone: In the gasification zone, the char produced in the pyrolysis
zone reacts with air to produce the producer gas. The air is introduced through the
bottom of the gasifier and rises up through the char, providing the necessary
oxygen for the gasification reaction.

Cooling Zone: The producer gas is then cooled in the cooling zone to prevent any
damage to the engine or other equipment that will be used to burn the gas.

Ash Collection Zone: The ash that is produced during the gasification process is
collected in the ash collection zone, which is located at the bottom of the gasifier.
The ash is removed periodically to maintain the efficiency of the gasifier.

Each of these zones works together to convert the biomass into a usable fuel that
can be burned to generate heat and power. The effectiveness of the gasification
process depends on the design and operation of each of these zones, and ensuring
that they are optimized can lead to improved performance and efficiency.

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OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Syllabus: Principle of working, OTEC power stations in the world, problems

associated with OTEC.

OTEC or ocean thermal energy thermal conversion is a technology which converts

solar radiation absorbed by the oceans to electric energy. The ocean’s can be
considered as the world’s largest solar energy collector as it covers two thirds of
the earth surface.
There are different temperatures in the different layers of the oceans. This is
because of the heat input from the sun at the surface of the ocean. The surface at
the top of the oceans are the warmest and gradually the temperature decreases with
the depth. But in the polar regions the temperature at the surface of the ocean is
low, so there is no gradual change in temperature.

Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems

● Closed cycle
● Open cycle
● Hybrid cycle

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF OTEC: The water at the surface of the ocean

is warmer than the water at deeper depths. This temperature difference can be used
by Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems to generate electricity.

Construction:
Warm water intake: OTEC requires a large amount of warm surface seawater to
drive the heat engine. The temperature of this water should be around 20-25°C
(68-77°F) or higher, depending on the specific OTEC design.
Cold water intake: OTEC also requires a large amount of cold deep seawater to
condense the working fluid of the heat engine. The temperature of this water
should be around 5-10°C (41-50°F) or lower, depending on the specific OTEC
design.

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Heat exchanger: The heat exchanger is the component that transfers heat from the
warm seawater to the working fluid, which is typically a low-boiling-point fluid
such as ammonia.
Turbine: The working fluid vaporizes as it is heated and expands through a
turbine, which generates electricity.
Condenser: The working fluid is then cooled and condensed back to a liquid state
using cold seawater in the condenser, ready to be used again in the heat exchanger.

Working:
● In an OTEC plant, the energy of warm surface water is used to convert low
boiling point liquid ammonia into a gaseous state.
● The vapor of ammonia at high pressure is used to spin the turbines of
generators converting the Ocean thermal energy to electricity.
● The used vapor passes through the condenser where cold water, pumped
from the deeper parts of the ocean condenses ammonia vapor back into a
liquid.
● This process is repeated again and again ,to get continuous production of
electricity.

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● Essential condition for it to operate properly: The temperature difference

between the warmer water at the surface and colder water at depths up to 2
km should be 293 K (20°C) or more.

TYPES OF OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

Closed Cycle: Closed cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion systems use a
working fluid with a low boiling point, Ammonia, for example, and use it to power
a turbine to generate electricity. Warm seawater is taken in from the surface of the
oceans and cold water from the deep of the sea. The warm seawater vaporises the
fluid in the heat exchanger, turning the generator’s turbines. The fluid now in the
vapor state is brought in contact with cold water, which turns it back into a liquid.
The fluid is recycled in the system, which is why it is called a closed system.

Open Cycle: Open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to
make electricity. The warm seawater is first pumped into a low-pressure chamber,
where it undergoes a drop in boiling point due to the pressure drop. This causes the
water to boil. This steam drives a low-pressure turbine which is attached to an
electrical generator. The advantage this system has over a closed system is that, in

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In the open cycle, desalinated water is obtained in the form of steam. Since it is
steam, it is free from all impurities. This water can be used for domestic, industrial,
or agricultural purposes.

OTEC POWER STATIONS IN THE WORLD

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) power stations are still in the
experimental stage and there are currently only a few small-scale demonstration
plants in operation around the world. Here are a few of the most notable ones:

OTEC theory was first developed in the 1880s and the first bench size
demonstration model was constructed in 1926. Currently operating pilot-scale
OTEC plants are located in Japan, overseen by Saga University, and Makai in
Hawaii.

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● NELHA OTEC Demonstration Plant, Hawaii, USA

● Makai Ocean Engineering OTEC Pilot Plant, Hawaii, USA
● Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
OTEC Test Facility, Okinawa, Japan
● Seascape OTEC Pilot Plant, Martinique, France
● Deep Ocean Water Utilization Center, Okinawa, Japan

It should be noted that while these plants are capable of producing electricity, they
are still in the testing and development phase and not yet commercially viable on a
large scale.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH OTEC

● Conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4% due to the small temperature
difference between the surface water and deep water.
● OTEC power generation system gives less efficiency, as stated above.
However, because of the OTEC requirement for parasitic power (such as for
pumping up the cold water supply) and other losses, the achievable net
conversion efficiency is only about 2.5 percent (Carnot efficiency 7%). This
compares a net efficiency of 30 to 40% associated with conventional power
plants.
● High capital cost and maintenance cost makes them uneconomical for small
plants.
● Energy required to pump the sea water from depths may be huge, which
otherwise needs a diesel generator.
● Construction of OTEC plants and pipes in the ocean may cause damage to
onshore marine ecosystems and reefs.
● As this technology has been tested only in small-scale, it is not feasible for
an energy company to invest in this project.
● Electricity produced from OTEC would currently cost more than that
produced from fossil fuels.

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TIDAL ENERGY

Tidal Power: Tides and waves as energy suppliers and their mechanics;
fundamental characteristics of tidal power, harnessing tidal energy,
advantages and limitations.

FORMATION OF TIDES/ PRINCIPAL OF TIDAL POWER

Tides are produced mainly by the gravitational attraction of the moon and the sun
on the water of solid earth and the oceans. About 70% of the tide producing force
is due to the moon and 30 % to the sun. The Moon's gravity causes the water on the
side of the Earth facing the Moon to be pulled towards it, creating a high tide. At
the same time, the water on the opposite side of the Earth is pulled away from the
Moon, also creating a high tide. Thus high tides occur in these two areas with low
tides at intermediate points. As the earth rotates, the position of a given area
relative to the moon changes, and so also do the tides. There are thus a periodic
succession of high and low tides.

Two high and low tides are generated in a single day due to the interaction between
the gravitational force of the Moon and the rotation of the Earth. The Earth
completes one rotation on its axis in approximately 24 hours, which means that any
point on its surface will pass through the two tidal bulges created by the Moon's
gravitational force twice each day. As the Moon's gravitational force pulls the
Earth and its oceans towards it, the water closest to the Moon experiences a
stronger gravitational force than the Earth's center. This causes the water to bulge
towards the Moon, creating a high tide.
At the same time, the water on the opposite side of the Earth, farthest from the
Moon, experiences a weaker gravitational force than the Earth's center. This causes
the water to be pulled away from the Moon, also creating a high tide on the
opposite side of the Earth. In a period of lunar day( 24 hrs 50 minutes) , there are
therefore, two high tides and two low tides. These are called semi-diurnal tides
That is to say, the time between high tides and low tide at any given location is a
little over 6 hours. The rise and fall of the water level follows a sinusoidal curve,

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shown with point A indicating the high tide point and point B indicating the low
tide point.

The average time for the water level to fall from A to B and then rise to C is
approximately 6 hours 12.5 min. The difference between high and low water levels
is called the range of the tide.

R = water elevation at high tide - water elevation at low tide.

Because of the changing positions of the moon and sun relative to the earth, the
range varies continuously. At times near full or new moon, when sun, moon and
earth are approximately in a line, the gravitational forces of sun and moon enhance
each other. The tidal range is then exceptionally large, the high tides are higher and
low tides are lower than the average. These high tides are called spring tides.

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On the other hand, near the first and third quarters of the moon, when the sun and
moon are at right angles with respect to the earth, neap tides occur. The tidal
range is then exceptionally small; the high tides are lower and the low tides higher
than the average. Hence the range is not constant.

The variations in the periodicity and monthly and seasonal ranges must, of course,
by taken into account in the design and operation of tidal power plants. The tides,
however, are usually predictable, and fairly accurate tide tables are usually
available. Tidal ranges vary from one earth location to another. They are influenced
by such conditions as the profile of the local shoreline and water depth. Ranges
have to be very large to justify the huge costs of building dams and associated
hydroelectric power plants. Such tides occur only in a few locations in the world.

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UTILIZATION OF TIDAL ENERGY

The generation of electricity from water power requires that there should be a
difference in levels (or heads) between which water flows. The power generation
from tides involves flow between an artificially developed basin and the sea.
Tidal energy generation typically involves building a dam or barrage across a tidal
estuary or bay, which creates a reservoir on one side and a lower water level on the
other side. As the tide rises and falls, water flows through turbines in the dam,
generating electricity.
The amount of electricity generated depends on the size of the dam or barrage, the
speed of the tidal currents, and the tidal range (the difference in water level
between high and low tide). However in order to have a more or less continuous
generation, this basic scheme can be elaborated by having two or more basins.
(1) Single basin arrangement
(II) Double basin arrangement.

(I) SINGLE BASIN ARRANGEMENT

● In a single basin arrangement there is only one basin interacting with the sea.
● The two are separated by a dam (or barrage) and the flow between them is
through sluice ways located conveniently along the dam.
● A dam is constructed in such a way that a basin gets separated from the sea
and a difference in the water level is obtained between the basin and sea
● The constructed basin is filled during high tide and emptied during low tide
passing through the tunnel called sluice and turbine.
● The potential energy of the water stored in the basin is used to drive the
turbine which in turn generates electricity as it directly coupled with
generator.

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The generation of power can be achieved in a single basin arrangement either as

(a) Single ebb-cycle system
(b) Single tide-cycle system
(c) Double cycle system.

The three main components of a tidal power plant are :

➔ The power house
➔ The dam (barrage) to form basin
➔ Sluice ways from the basin to the sea and vice versa.

When the level of the water is above sea level then it is called as flood/high tide.
When water level is below sea level it is called as ebb tide.

(a) Single ebb cycle system:

● When the flood tide (high tide) comes in, the sluice gates are opened to
permit sea-water to enter the basin or reservoir, while the turbine sets are
shut.

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● The reservoir thus starts filling while its level rises, till the maximum tide
level is reached.
● At the beginning of the ebb tide the sluice gates are closed.
● Then the generation of power takes place when the sea is ebbing (flowing
back of tide) and the water from the basin flows over the turbines into the
lower level sea water.
● After two or three hours when there is sufficient difference between the full
reservoir level and the falling tide level, to run the turbines, they are started.
● And they keep working until the rising level of the next flood tide and the
falling reservoir level together reduce the effective head on the turbines to
the extent where it can no longer work safely and efficiently.
● The turbines are then closed and the sluice gates opened again; to repeat the
cycle of operations.
● Since in an estuary, the ebb tide has a long duration than the flood tide, the
ebb operation provides an increased period of actual work.
● The ebb operation plant will be of smaller size, but will operate over a large
period.

(b) Single tide cycle system

● In single tide cycle system, the generation is affected when the sea is at flood
tide.
● The water of the sea is admitted into the basin over the turbines.
● As the flood tide period is over and the sea level starts falling again, the
generation is stopped.
● The basin is drained into the sea through the sluice ways.
● Flood operation scheme needs larger size plant, operating, for shorter period
and hence less efficient as compared to ebb tide operation
● It has been estimated that the energy produced by an ebb cycle system can
be as much as 1.5 times that by a tide cycle system.
● The main disadvantage in both the ebb-cycle as well as the tide cycle
systems is the intermittent nature of their operation.

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(c) Double cycle system

● In double cycle system, the power generation is affected during the ebb as
well as in flood tides.
● The direction of flow through the turbines during the ebb and flood tides
alternates, but the machine acts as a turbine for either direction of flow.
● In this method, the generation of power is accomplished both during
emptying and filling cycles.
● Both filling and emptying processes take place during short periods of time,
the filling when the ocean is at high tide while the water in the basin is at
low tide level, the emptying when the ocean is at low tide and the basin at
high-tide level.
● The flow of water in both directions is used to drive a number of reversible
water turbines, each driving an electrical generator. Electric power would
thus be generated during two short period during each tidal period of 12 h,
25 min. or once every 6h, 12.5 min.

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(II) DOUBLE BASIN ARRANGEMENT

● It requires two separate but adjacent basins. In one basin called "upper
basin" (or high pool), the water level is maintained above that in the other,
the low basin (or low pool).
● In this system the turbines are located in between the two adjacent basins.
● At the beginning of the flood tide, the turbines are shut down, the gates of
upper basin A are opened and those of the lower basin B are closed.
● The basin A is thus filled up while the basin B remains empty.
● As soon as the rising water level in A provides sufficient difference of head
between the two basins, the turbines are started.
● The water flows from A to B through the turbines, generating power.
● The power generation thus continues simultaneously with the filling up the
basin A.
● At the end of the flood tide when A is full and the water level in it is the
maximum, its sluice gates are closed.

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● When the ebb tide level gets lower than the water level in B, its sluice gates
are opened whereby the water level in B starts falling with the ebb.
● With the next flood tide the cycle repeats itself.
● The operation of the two basin scheme can be controlled so that there is a
continuous water flow from upper to lower basin.
● However since the water head between the basins varies during each tidal
cycle, as well as from day to day, so also does the power generated.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF TIDAL POWER GENERATION

Advantages
● The biggest advantage of the tidal power is besides being inexhaustible, it is
completely independent of the precipitation (rain) and its uncertainty. Even a
continuous dry spell of any number of years can have no effect whatsoever
on the tidal power generation.
● Tidal power generation is free from pollution, as it does not use any fuel and
also does not produce any unhealthy waste like gases, ash, atomic refuse.
● These power plants do not demand large area of valuable land because they
are on the bays (sea shore).
● Peak power demand can be effectively met when it works in combination
with thermal or hydroelectric system.

Limitations
● The tidal ranges is highly variable and thus the turbines have to work on a
wide range of head variation. This affects the efficiency of the plant.
● The tidal range is limited to a few meters.
● Construction in sea or in estuaries is found difficult.
● Sea water is corrosive and it was feared that the machinery may get
corroded.
● Cost is not favourable compared to the other sources of energy.
● It is feared that the tidal power plant would hamper the other natural uses of
estuaries such as fishing, er navigation.
● High power transmission cost.

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WAVE ENERGY

Wave energy is a form of renewable energy that harnesses the power of ocean
waves to generate electricity.
Wave energy is a type of ocean energy, which also includes tidal energy and ocean
thermal energy conversion.
Wave energy is generated using devices that capture the motion of waves and
convert it into electricity.
There are several different types of wave energy devices, including point
absorbers, oscillating water columns, and attenuators.

Oscillating Water Columns (OWCs): These are typically installed near the shore
and consist of a partially submerged chamber that is open to the sea. As waves pass
over the chamber, the air trapped inside it is forced through a turbine, generating
electricity.

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Point Absorbers: These devices use a floating buoy or platform that is tethered to
the seabed. As waves pass by, the buoy moves up and down, driving a generator
that produces electricity.
Attenuators: These devices are long, floating structures that are anchored
perpendicular to the direction of the waves. As waves pass along the attenuator, it
flexes and drives hydraulic cylinders, which in turn drive a generator.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WAVE ENERGY

Advantages
(1) The wave energy is naturally concentrated by accumulation overtime.
(2) It is a free and renewable energy source.
(3) Wave power devices do not use up large land masses unlike solar or wind.
(4) These devices are relatively pollution free and, because they remove energy
from the waves, leave the water in a relatively placid (calm) state in their wakes.

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Disadvantages
(1) The major disadvantage of wave energy, as compared to wind, is that the
energy is available on the ocean. The extraction equipment must operated in a
marine environment with all that implies in terms of maintenance, construction
cost, life time, and reliability.
(2) The energy may have to be transported a greater distance to shore.
(3) Wave, energy converters must be capable of withstanding very severe peak
stresses in storms.
(4) Wave energy conversion devices that have been proposed are relatively
complicated.
(5) Economic factors such as the capital investment, costs of the maintenance,
repair and replacement, as well as problems of biological growth of marine
organisms, are all relatively unknown and seem to be on the large side.

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GREEN ENERGY - Hydrogen energy

INTRODUCTION:

A fuel cell is capable of generating an electric current by converting the chemical

energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy. The fuel cell is similar to other
electric cells in the respect that it consists of positive and negative electrodes with
an electrolyte between them. Fuel in a suitable form is supplied to the negative
electrode and oxygen, often from air, to the positive electrode. When the cell
operates, the fuel is oxidized and the chemical reaction provides the energy that is
converted into electricity. Fuel cells differ from conventional electric cells in the
respect that the active material (i.e. fuel and oxygen) are not contained within the
cell but are supplied from outside.

But for its costs, pure (or fairly pure) hydrogen gas would be preferred fuel for fuel
cells. Alternatively impure hydrogen obtained from hydrocarbon fuels, such as
natural gas or substitute natural gas (methane), liquified petroleum gas (propane
and butane) or liquid petroleum products, can be used in fuel cells. Efforts are
being made to develop cells that can use carbon monoxide as the fuel; if they are
successful, it should be possible to utilize coal as the primary energy source. Main
uses of fuel cells are in power production, automobile vehicles and in special
military use.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL CELLS

Fuel cells can be classified into several types based on different criteria, such as the
type of electrolyte used, the operating temperature, the type of fuel used, and the
method of fuel delivery. Here are some of the most common classifications:

1. Based on the type of electrolyte:

● Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)

● Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
● Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)

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● Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

● Alkaline fuel cells (AFC): AFCs use an alkaline electrolyte and operate at
relatively low temperatures (between 60°C and 250°C). They can use a
variety of fuels, including hydrogen and methanol. AFCs are highly efficient
and can achieve efficiencies of up to 70%, making them ideal for space
applications. However, they are relatively expensive and require high-purity
fuels.

2. Based on operating temperature:

● Low-temperature fuel cells (PEMFC and AFC)-( 25-100C)

● Intermediate-temperature fuel cells (PAFC and MCFC)-(100-500)
● High-temperature fuel cells (SOFC)- (500-100 & above 1000)

3. Based on the type of fuel:

● Hydrogen fuel cells: Hydrogen fuel cells use hydrogen as the fuel and
produce only water and electricity as byproducts.
● Methanol fuel cells
● Ethanol fuel cells
● Proton exchange membrane fuel cells
● Direct methanol fuel cells

4. Based on the method of fuel delivery:

● Direct fuel cells

● Indirect fuel cells

Each type of fuel cell has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of the
appropriate fuel cell depends on the specific application and operating conditions.

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PRINCIPLE OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process that converts the
chemical energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy.

The main components of a fuel cell are:

(i) A fuel electrode (anode),
(ii) An oxidant or air electrode (cathode), and
(iii) An electrolyte.
In most fuel cells, hydrogen (pure or impure) is the active material at the negative
electrode and oxygen (from the oxygen or air) is active at the positive electrode.

Fuel delivery: Hydrogen gas is delivered to the anode (negative electrode) of the
fuel cell.

Electrolyte membrane: The electrolyte membrane allows only positively charged

protons to pass through it and separates the anode from the cathode. The two

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electrodes are separated by a porous matrix saturated with an aqueous alkaline

solution, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH).
The KOH in the electrolyte dissociates:

Anode reaction: Neutral hydrogen at the anode combines with the hydroxyl ion to
form water, releasing the electrons that circulate through the external load.
At anode:

Oxygen delivery: Oxygen gas is delivered to the cathode (positive electrode) of

the fuel cell.

Cathode reaction: At the cathode, the electrons regenerate the hydroxyl ion:
At cathode:

Electrical power: The flow of electrons through the external circuit generates
electrical power that can be used to power various devices or stored in a battery.
Overall reaction:

Overall, hydrogen fuel cells operate through the conversion of hydrogen and
oxygen into electrical energy, with water vapor and heat as the only byproducts.
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BENEFITS OF HYDROGEN ENERGY:

One of the most attractive features of hydrogen as an energy carrier is that it can be
produced from water which is abundantly available in nature.

● Clean energy: Hydrogen is a clean energy source that does not produce
greenhouse gas emissions when used to generate electricity or power
vehicles. This makes it an important tool in the fight against climate change.

● Efficiency: Hydrogen fuel cells are more efficient than traditional

combustion-based engines, which means they can produce more power from
the same amount of fuel. This can result in lower costs and reduced
emissions.

● Reduced dependence on fossil fuels: The use of hydrogen as an energy

source can help reduce our dependence on finite fossil fuels, which are a
finite and non-renewable resource.

● Versatility: Hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of feedstocks,

including renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower, as
well as fossil fuels.

● Energy storage: Hydrogen can be used as a means of storing excess energy

generated from intermittent renewable energy sources, such as wind and
solar, and then used later to generate electricity when needed.

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HYDROGEN PRODUCTION ( ELECTROLYSIS METHOD)

The process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of a direct
electric current is known as electrolysis.

● In principle, an electrolysis cell consists of two electrodes, commonly flat

metal or carbon plates, immersed in an aqueous conducting solution called
the electrolyte.
● A source of direct current voltage is connected to the electrodes so that an
electric current flows through the electrolyte from the positive electrode (or
anode) to the negative electrode (or cathode).
● As a result, the water in the electrolyte solution is decomposed into
hydrogen gas (H2) which is released at the cathode, and oxygen gas (O2);
released at the anode
● Electrolysis occurs in an electrolytic cell consisting of a positively charged
anode and a negatively charged cathode, typically made of platinum.

The chemical reaction for water electrolysis can be split into two half-reactions
occurring at the cathode and anode.

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A reduction reaction occurs at the cathode when hydrogen ions acquire electrons
and are converted into hydrogen gas.

An oxidation reaction occurs when water molecules give electrons to the anode
and liberate oxygen gas at the anode.

The overall chemical reaction is

● Although only the water is split, an electrolyte (e.g. KOH solution) is

required because water itself is a very poor conductor of electricity.
● One of the best catalysts is platinum in a finely divided form, deposited on a
metal base. However, because of the high cost of platinum, other electrode
surface materials are used commercially. For practical water electrolysis, the
electrodes are generally of nickel-plated steel.
● Diaphragms prevent electronic contact between adjacent electrodes and
passage of dissolved gas or gas bubbles. Asbestos is the most common
material for cell diaphragms.

The energy required for this process can come from a variety of sources, including
renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, or hydropower. When powered by
renewable energy, hydrogen produced by electrolysis is considered to be a clean
and sustainable energy source, as it does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions
during production or use.

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HYDROGEN ENERGY STORAGE

Hydrogen energy storage involves storing hydrogen gas in a safe and efficient
manner for later use as an energy source. There are several methods of hydrogen
energy storage, including:

Compressed hydrogen storage: This method involves compressing hydrogen gas

to high pressures (typically around 700 bar) and storing it in high-pressure tanks.
Compressed hydrogen storage is a mature and well-established technology, and it
is commonly used for fuel cell vehicles.

Liquid hydrogen storage: Hydrogen can also be stored in liquid form at

cryogenic temperatures (-253°C). Liquid hydrogen storage is more energy-dense
than compressed hydrogen storage, and it is commonly used for space
applications(rocket propellant).

Metal hydride storage: This method involves storing hydrogen in a metal alloy,
which can absorb and release hydrogen as needed. When the hydride is heated, the
hydrogen is released and the original metal is recovered. Metal hydride storage is
a safe and efficient method of hydrogen storage, but it is currently more expensive
than other storage methods.

Chemical storage: Hydrogen can also be stored in chemical compounds, such as

ammonia or methanol. These compounds can be easily transported and stored, and
they can release hydrogen through a chemical reaction when needed.

Underground hydrogen storage: Hydrogen can be stored underground in

depleted natural gas reservoirs or salt caverns. This method is still in the research
and development phase, but it has the potential to be a large-scale solution for
long-term hydrogen storage.

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HYDROGEN ENERGY- APPLICATION

Hydrogen energy has a wide range of potential applications, including:

Transportation: Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are an increasingly popular option for
clean transportation, as they emit only water vapor and do not produce harmful
pollutants or greenhouse gasses.

Aircraft Applications: The earliest application of liquid hydrogen fuel is expected

to be in a jet aircraft

Power generation: Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for power generation, either
through combustion or fuel cells. Fuel cells are commonly used and a more
efficient and cleaner method of hydrogen-powered electricity generation. Fuel cells
can be used in stationary applications, such as backup power for buildings, or in
mobile applications, such as auxiliary power units for trucks or ships.

Industrial processes: Hydrogen is used in a variety of industrial processes, such

as ammonia production, oil refining, and chemical manufacturing. Hydrogen can
also be used as a reducing agent in metallurgical processes.

Energy storage: Hydrogen has the potential to be an important energy storage

medium, as it can be produced from renewable energy sources and stored for later
use as an energy source.

Residential and commercial heating: Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for heating
systems in residential and commercial buildings, either through combustion or fuel
cells.

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PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROGEN ENERGY

While hydrogen energy has many potential benefits, there are also several
challenges and problems associated with its use. Some of the major problems
include:

High cost: Currently, hydrogen production and storage technologies are expensive,
which makes hydrogen energy less competitive with other energy sources.

Safety concerns: Hydrogen is highly flammable and requires careful handling to

prevent leaks or explosions. In addition, hydrogen gas is invisible and odorless,
which can make it difficult to detect leaks.

Infrastructure requirements: The widespread adoption of hydrogen energy

would require significant investments in new infrastructure, such as hydrogen
production facilities, storage tanks, and transportation systems.

Energy efficiency: Hydrogen production requires energy, and the efficiency of

current hydrogen production methods is relatively low. This means that a
significant amount of energy is lost during the production process, which reduces
the overall energy efficiency of hydrogen energy.

Carbon emissions: While hydrogen is a clean energy source when it is used, the
production of hydrogen can result in significant greenhouse gas emissions if fossil
fuels are used as the primary energy source for hydrogen production.

Limited availability: While hydrogen is abundant in the universe, it is rare on

Earth in its pure form. Most hydrogen is currently produced from fossil fuels,
which means that the availability of hydrogen is limited by the availability of fossil
fuels.

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ZERO ENERGY CONCEPTS

Zero energy buildings are designed to produce as much energy as they consume
over the course of a year, resulting in a net-zero energy consumption. To achieve
this goal, they typically employ a combination of energy efficiency measures and
renewable energy systems.

1. Energy Efficiency Measures:

The first step in designing a zero energy building is to optimize energy efficiency.
This can be achieved through various measures, including:

● Insulation and Air Sealing: The building envelope, including walls, roof,
and windows, is designed to minimize heat loss and gain. This is typically
achieved through high-performance insulation and air sealing, which help
maintain a stable indoor temperature and reduce the need for heating and
cooling.
● Energy-efficient Lighting and Appliances: The building is equipped with
energy-efficient lighting, appliances, and equipment that use less energy than
standard models.
● Passive Solar Design: The building is designed to take advantage of natural
sunlight and heat through strategic placement of windows, skylights, and
shading devices. This can help reduce the need for artificial lighting and
heating.
● Natural Ventilation: The building is designed to utilize natural ventilation
for cooling and heating, which can reduce the need for mechanical
ventilation and HVAC systems.
● Thermal Mass: The building incorporates materials with high thermal
mass, such as concrete or brick, to absorb and store heat, which can help
stabilize indoor temperatures.

2. Renewable Energy Systems: To achieve zero net energy consumption, zero

energy buildings also incorporate renewable energy systems, such as:

● Solar Panels: Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels can be installed on the roof or
walls of the building to generate electricity from the sun.
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● Wind Turbines: Wind turbines can be installed on or near the building to

generate electricity from wind energy.
● Geothermal Energy: Geothermal heat pumps can be installed to provide
heating and cooling using the earth's natural thermal energy.
● Biomass: Biomass boilers or stoves can be used to burn organic materials,
such as wood chips, to generate heat.
● Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Hydrogen fuel cells can be used to generate
electricity from hydrogen gas, which can be produced from renewable
sources like solar or wind power.

3. Water Conservation: In addition to energy conservation, zero energy

buildings also typically incorporate water conservation measures, such as
low-flow fixtures and rainwater harvesting systems, to reduce water
consumption and conserve resources.

Overall, the concept of zero energy buildings represents a sustainable approach to

building design, with the potential to significantly reduce carbon emissions and
mitigate the effects of climate change. While the initial cost of designing and
building a zero energy building may be higher than a conventional building, the
long-term savings in energy costs and environmental benefits can make it a
worthwhile investment.

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