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Case # 07-1131

A STUDY OF THE PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF

SMALL ANTENNAS

Steven R. Best
The MITRE Corporation
202 Burlington Road
Bedford, MA 01730
[email protected]
(781) 271-8879

ABSTRACT: Electrically small antennas are of interest in a variety of applications,

particularly where the antennas must be unobtrusive. The performance properties
considered in the design of small antennas typically include impedance, radiation
efficiency, pattern shape, polarization and particularly operating bandwidth and
quality factor (Q). In this paper, we compare the performance properties of several
fundamental small antenna designs as a function of overall height and size (ka).
Antennas studied here include the multi-arm folded helix, the matched disk loaded
dipole, the matched spherical-cap dipole and the multi-arm spherical resonator.
The antennas are compared to determine which configuration offers the best
performance in terms of pattern shape, radiation efficiency, and ½-power and 2:1
VSWR bandwidths.

1. Introduction

Optimization of the performance properties of electrically small antennas has been

given considerable attention in recent years. Performance optimization goals generally
include achieving a good impedance match (low VSWR), high radiation efficiency and
low Q or wide operating bandwidth. In this optimization process, the small antenna’s Q
and bandwidth properties are typically compared against well defined fundamental limits.

Design approaches used in achieving the optimization goals stated above vary and
include techniques such capacity or top-hat loading [1]-[2], the use of multiple folded
arms in wire monopole or dipole antennas [2]-[3], inductive loading in wire antennas (an
increase in conductor length) [4], and more recently the use of Metamaterials [5]-[7] and
multi-arm coupled structures [8]-[10].

It is well known that any electrically small antenna can be impedance matched at
any single frequency using an external matching network comprised of reactive matching
components. One challenge in using an external matching network with an electrically
small antenna is that the loss resistance within the matching network often exceeds the
radiation resistance of the antenna, resulting in low overall efficiency. In some cases, the
reduction in mismatch loss achieved with the impedance match exceeds the increase in
loss due to the matching components and better overall performance is achieved relative
to the isolated mismatched antenna.

Impedance matching can also be accomplished within the antenna structure using a
number of techniques that include but are not limited to the use of multiple folded arms
[11]-[13] and shunt or parallel matching stubs [14]-[15]. These techniques are often
more efficient than impedance matching the small antenna using an external matching
network. Many electrically small antenna designs have been described which exhibit
low VSWR and high radiation efficiency [8]-[9], [12]-[13], [15], [16]-[19].

The remaining challenge in designing a small antenna is optimizing the operating

bandwidth, which is often characterized using the antenna’s Q. Recent efforts in this area
have demonstrated that small antennas can be designed to achieve a Q that closely
approaches fundamental limits.

The objective of this work is to examine and compare the relative performance
properties of a number of fundamental small antenna designs which include the folded
spherical helix [11]-[12], the folded cylindrical helix, the disk-loaded dipole [20], the
spherical-cap dipole [21]-[22] and the spherical resonator antenna [8]. The folded
spherical helix is a single resonant antenna that exhibits a Q within 1.5 times the lower
bound. The disk-loaded dipole and spherical-cap dipole are well known designs that are
often assumed to be optimum approaches in achieving the lowest possible Q with a small
antenna. The spherical resonator is of interest because it exhibits closely spaced
resonances within its defined VSWR bandwidth and may offer wider bandwidths than
can be achieved with small antennas that exhibit a single resonance.

The performance properties studied include impedance, radiation efficiency, pattern

and polarization performance, Q and bandwidth.

2. Fundamental Limitations of Small Antennas

Most of what follows in this section has been presented in previous journal and/or
conference publications. It is presented here for completeness of the work and as a
necessary background discussion for the relative performance comparisons that are to be
made between the different small antennas.

An antenna is considered to be electrically small as a function of its overall size or

occupied volume relative to the wavelength. A small antenna is one where ka ≤ 0.5,
where k is the free space wavenumber, 2π/λ, and a is the radius of an imaginary sphere
circumscribing the maximum dimensions of the antenna.
 The frequency dependent impedance of the electrically small antenna is given by
Z(ω) = R(ω) + j X(ω), where ω is the radian frequency 2πf, f is the frequency in Hz, R(ω)
is the antenna’s total feed point resistance (including both radiation and loss terms) and
X(ω) is the antenna’s feed point reactance. The bandwidth and Q of the small antenna are
defined at radian frequency ω0, where the antenna is either naturally self-resonant or
tuned to resonance with a lossless series reactance. In most instances, the tuned or self-
resonant small antenna exhibits a single resonance within its defined VSWR bandwidth.
The maximum extent of the defined bandwidth is typically limited to values of VSWR
less than 5.828 (½-power).

The bandwidth of the small antenna is often characterized by its Q because

matched VSWR bandwidth and Q have been shown to be inversely related and a lower
bound on the minimum achievable Q is defined and well known. No electrically small
antenna will exhibit a Q less than the lower bound.

The exact Q of an electrically small antenna that is tuned or made to be self-

resonant at a frequency ω0, is defined as [23]-[24]

ω0 W
Q (ω0 ) = (1)
P

where W is internal energy and P is the total power accepted by the antenna. If the tuned
small antenna exhibits a single resonance within its defined VSWR bandwidth, its Q can
be accurately approximated from its impedance properties using [24]

2
ω0 ⎛ X (ω0 ) ⎞
Q(ω0 ) ≈ QZ (ω0 ) = R′(ω0 ) 2 + ⎜ X ′(ω0 ) + ⎟ (2)
2 R(ω0 ) ⎜ ω0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

where R′(ω0) and X′(ω0) are the frequency derivatives of resistance and reactance,
respectively. The lower bound on Q is given by [25]

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Qlb = η r ⎜ 3
+ ⎟ (3)
⎝ (ka ) ka ⎠

where ηr is the antenna’s radiation efficiency.

 To characterize the antenna’s bandwidth, it is necessary to define bandwidth in a
manner such that Q and bandwidth are inversely related. The definition of bandwidth
suitable for this purpose is fractional matched VSWR bandwidth, FBWV(ω0), where the
VSWR of the tuned antenna is determined using a characteristic impedance, ZCH, equal to
the antenna’s feed point resistance, R(ω0). Fractional matched VSWR bandwidth is
given by

ω+ − ω−
FBWV (ω0 ) = (4)
ω0

where ω+ and ω- are the frequencies above and below ω0, respectively, where the VSWR
is equal to any arbitrary value denoted by s. Fractional matched VSWR bandwidth and Q
are related as [24]

2 β s −1
Q(ω0 ) ≈ , β = ≤1 (5)
FBWV (ω0 ) 2 s

The approximations in Eqs. (2) and (5) were derived in [24] under the assumptions
that the tuned antenna exhibits a single resonance within its defined VSWR bandwidth
and that the ½-power matched VSWR bandwidth (s = 5.828) is not too large.

The minimum achievable Q of a tuned or matched small antenna exhibiting a single

resonance is limited by the lower bound defined in Eq. (3). Since Q and matched VSWR
bandwidth are inversely related, the matched VSWR bandwidth of the small antenna
exhibiting a single resonance will not be greater than that predicted by the inverse of Q.
Using Eqs. (3) and (5), an upper bound on the fractional matched VSWR bandwidth can
be written as

1 (ka)3 s − 1
FBWVub = (6)
ηr 1 + (ka)2 s

3. The Small Antennas

In this section, the basic configurations and performance properties of the small
antennas are presented. These antennas include the folded spherical helix, the folded
cylindrical helix, the disk-loaded dipole, the spherical-cap dipole and the multi-arm
spherical resonator. Performance properties considered include the antenna’s impedance,
radiation efficiency, pattern characteristics (including polarization), VSWR bandwidth
and Q.

3.1 The Folded Spherical Helix

The first antenna considered is the 4-arm folded spherical helix [11]-[12] because it
was specifically designed to exhibit a good impedance match in a 50Ω system, high
radiation efficiency and a low Q. The folded spherical helix exhibits a single resonance
and has a Q that is within 1.5 times the lower bound at a value of ka ≈ 0.263. The folded
spherical helix is considered the baseline antenna for this study. Other antennas
compared to the folded spherical helix will be designed to have the same height, same
value of ka or operate at (or very near) the same frequency. Here, the design objective is
to operate all of the antennas as close to 300 MHz as possible.

The folded spherical helix, its impedance, matched VSWR (ZCH = 57.8Ω) and
radiation patterns are presented in Fig. 1. Numerical results are obtained using the NEC4
engine of EZNEC/4 Pro [26]. Copper conductor loss is included in all of the numerical
simulations. The antenna is operated as a dipole (no ground plane), has a single feed
point and has an overall height and diameter of 8.36 cm. It has a conductor diameter of
2.6 mm. It is self-resonant at a frequency of 299.8 MHz.

The Q of the folded spherical helix, calculated using Eq. (2), is 84.78, which is
approximately 1.5 times the lower bound of 57.39. Its radiation efficiency is 97.4%. Its
½-power and 2:1 VSWR bandwidths are 2.37% and 0.87%, respectively. The radiation
pattern illustrates that the folded spherical helix primarily operates as an electric dipole
with minimal cross-polarization.

3.2 The Folded Cylindrical Helix

The 4-arm folded cylindrical helix is designed based on the same principles as the
folded spherical helix, with the exception that the conductors are wound on the outside
volume of an imaginary cylinder rather than a sphere. In this instance, the cylindrical
helix has the same overall height and diameter as the spherical helix, 8.36 cm. The
conductor diameter is also the same, 2.6 mm. To maintain nearly the same operating
frequency as the folded spherical helix, the total conductor length in each arm had to be
adjusted. Since the cylindrical helix occupies a greater physical volume than the
spherical helix, it is expected to have greater bandwidth and lower Q. However, since it
occupies less of the spherical volume defined by the value of ka, its Q will not approach
the lower bound as closely as that of the spherical helix. The cylindrical folded helix is
self-resonant at 301.1 MHz, with a value of ka = 0.373.

The folded cylindrical helix, its impedance, matched VSWR (ZCH = 83.6Ω) and
radiation patterns are presented in Fig. 2. Its resonant resistance is greater than that of the
folded cylindrical helix and it exhibits a VSWR less than 2.0 in a 50Ω system. The Q of
the folded spherical helix is 53.5, which is approximately 2.5 times the lower bound of
21.35. Its radiation efficiency is 98.3%. Its ½-power and 2:1 VSWR bandwidths are
3.75% and 1.33%, respectively, both greater than those of the spherical helix. Similar to
the folded spherical helix, the folded cylindrical helix primarily operates as an electric
dipole with minimal cross-polarization.

3.3 The Disk-Loaded Dipole

Top, capacitive or disk-loading a straight-wire dipole or monopole antenna is a well

known technique for size reduction [20]. A wire-grid and solid disk version of a disk-
loaded dipole are depicted in Fig. 3. The wire grid version is modeled using EZNEC
while the solid disk version is modeled using Microwave Studio [27]. Each of these
antennas has the same overall height and diameter as the folded spherical helix, 8.36 cm.
These antennas have the same value of ka as the folded cylindrical helix.

The impedances of these antennas are presented in Fig. 4. As expected, the

impedances of these antennas are similar. The solid top-disk version of the antenna has
less capacitive reactance since there is more capacitance between the upper and lower
disks. Without tuning, neither is resonant near 300 MHz. The wire-grid top-hat version
of the antenna is considered further since it can be easily modeled using EZNEC and the
results can be more directly compared to the antennas constructed using only wires.

To tune the disk-loaded dipole for self-resonance near 300 MHz, a helical coil
dipole is placed between the upper and lower plates as illustrated in Fig. 5(a). To then
impedance match the antenna to 50Ω, a shunt or parallel stub is placed across the feed
point as illustrated in Fig. 5(b).

The impedance, matched VSWR (ZCH = 50Ω) and radiation patterns of the matched
disk-loaded dipole are presented in Fig. 6. The antenna is matched at a frequency of
294.4 MHz, where ka = 0.365. The Q of the disk loaded dipole is 48.0, which is
approximately 2.14 times the lower bound of 22.27. Its radiation efficiency is 95.5%. Its
½-power and 2:1 VSWR bandwidths are 3.04% and 1.44%, respectively, both greater
than those of the spherical helix, but slightly less than those of the cylindrical helix. The
matched disk-loaded dipole operates as an electric dipole with minimal cross-
polarization.

3.4 The Spherical-Cap Dipole

The spherical-cap dipole is also a top-loaded antenna similar to the disk-loaded

dipole. With this design, the top-loading structure maintains a spherical shape so that the
entire antenna structure fits within the spherical volume defined by the value of ka. In
[21], Wheeler described the spherical-cap dipole in these terms: “the best simple
utilization of a spherical volume is achieved by spherical caps covering about one-half
the surface, tuned by a distributed inductor.” The distributed inductor Wheeler refers to
is the helical coil dipole that was used to tune the disk-loaded dipole as described in the
previous section. In [22], Lopez modeled an untuned spherical cap dipole and achieved a
Q that was within 1.75 times the lower bound. Lopez concluded that this was the lower
achievable bound for electric antennas. We see that the folded spherical helix more
closely approaches the lower bound, being within approximately 1.5 times its value. A
theoretical design approaching within 1.5 times the lower bound was also presented by
Stuart and Pidwerbetsky in [7]. As discussed by Thal in [28], the lower achievable limit
for electric dipoles is 1.5 times the lower bound.

Here, a wire grid version of the spherical-cap dipole, having an overall diameter of
8.36 cm is considered. The matched spherical-cap dipole, its impedance, matched
VSWR (ZCH = 50Ω) and radiation patterns are presented in Fig. 7. The antenna is
matched at a frequency of 293.6 MHz, where ka = 0.26. The Q of the spherical-cap
dipole is 95.29, which is approximately 1.68 times the lower bound of 56.86. Its
radiation efficiency is 93.3%. Its ½-power and 2:1 VSWR bandwidths are 2.06% and
0.74%, respectively, both slightly less than those of the spherical helix. The spherical-
cap dipole operates as an electric dipole with minimal cross-polarization.

3.5 The Spherical Resonator

The spherical resonator antenna was introduced by Stuart and Tran in [8] and [9].
It is comprised of a single-fed wire structure electromagnetically coupled to closely
spaced identical wires as illustrated in Fig. 8, which depicts a 6-arm version of the
antenna. At a frequency where strong coupling modes exist between the feed-arm and
the parasitic arms, a tight (narrow band) coupling loop develops in the impedance of the
antenna as illustrated in Fig. 9. In the region of this tight impedance loop, the frequency
derivatives of the antenna’s resistance and reactance are such that an accurate
approximation of the antenna’s exact Q may not hold and the value of approximate Q
determined using Eq. (3) may be less than the lower bound [10]. When the spherical
resonator is tuned and/or matched, the existence of the tight coupling loop results in
closely spaced multiple resonances within the defined VSWR bandwidth. The expected
advantage of these closely spaced multiple resonances is that greater bandwidth may be
achieved with this antenna than can be achieved with small antennas that exhibit single
resonances.

Following the approach in [8] and [9], the spherical resonator antenna considered
here was designed without dielectric and scaled so that the impedance loop was centered
near a frequency of 300 MHz. The resulting implementation of the spherical resonator
considered here is a 6-arm version since it exhibits a resistance of approximately 50Ω
near the center of the impedance loop. To operate at near 300 MHz, without dielectric
loading, the overall dipole length of the antenna is 19.89 cm, a dimension substantially
larger than the antennas considered in the previous sections. Since the antenna is not
inherently matched to 50Ω, some method of impedance matching must be employed.
Impedance matching can be achieved through tuning using an external matching network
[8], series inductors located at the feed point, or an increase in the feed-arm length using
a meander-line technique. Here, the meander-line is chosen as the impedance matching
technique.

The matched 6-arm spherical resonator, its impedance, matched VSWR (ZCH =
50Ω) and radiation patterns are presented in Fig. 10. The antenna is matched at a
frequency of 298.2 MHz, where ka = 0.622. The estimated approximate Q of the
spherical resonator is 1.64, which is substantially less than the lower bound of 5.66. This
is an incorrect result since no small antenna can exhibit an exact Q that is less than the
lower bound [10]. Additionally, it was shown in [10] that the exact Q does not as closely
approach the lower bound as does the Q of the folded spherical helix. The antenna’s
radiation efficiency is 98%. Its ½-power and 2:1 VSWR bandwidths are 14.8% and
8.5%, respectively, both substantially greater than those of the spherical helix.

The 6-arm spherical resonator primarily operates as an electric dipole but there is a
notable amount of power in the cross-polarized radiation pattern. For antennas that
exhibit significant levels of cross-polarization, there must be a corresponding reduction in
the lower bound on Q [12], [23], [25] and [29]. The lower bound on Q is reduced in
direct proportion to the ratio of power contained in orthogonal polarizations, in which
case Eq. (3) becomes [29]

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Qlb = η r ⎜ ⎟⎜ + ⎟ (7)
⎝ 1 + γ ⎠ ⎝ (ka ) ka ⎠
3

where γ is the ratio of power between orthogonal polarizations and γ is chosen such that 0
≤ γ ≤ 1. For example, if orthogonal polarizations have equal power, γ = 1 and the lower
bound of Eq. (7) is ½ the lower bound of Eq. (3). If one polarization has twice the power
of the other, γ = 0.5 and the lower bound of Eq. (7) is 2/3 the lower bound of Eq. (3).

From Fig. 10, it is evident that the vertical polarization contains substantially more
power than the horizontal polarization and the lower bound for the antenna is not
significantly reduced. If the orthogonal polarizations shared equal power, the calculated
lower bound of 5.66 would be reduced to 2.83, a value still greater than the calculated
approximate Q of 1.64.

3.6 Summary of Results

A summary of the results discussed in this section is presented in Table 1. The folded
spherical helix antenna exhibits a Q that most closely approaches the lower bound. The
spherical resonator antenna exhibits the largest bandwidth but also has the highest value
of ka. Given the difference in the values of ka between the spherical resonator and the
other configurations, the obvious question to ask is how does the performance of each
antenna compare when they are designed to have the same value of ka? This is
considered in the next section.

Table 1. Performance comparison of the folded spherical helix, the folded

cylindrical helix, the matched disk-loaded dipole, the matched spherical-cap dipole
and the spherical resonator antennas. All are designed to operate at or very near
300 MHz.

Antenna Frequency Overall ka ηr (%) Qlb QZ ½ -Power

(MHz) Height (includes VSWR
(cm) loss) Bandwidth
(%)
Folded Spherical Helix 299.8 8.36 0.263 97.4 57.39 84.78 2.37

Cylindrical Folded 301.1 8.36 0.373 98.3 21.35 53.5 3.75

Helix
Matched Disk Loaded 294.4 8.36 0.365 95.5 22.27 48.0 3.04
Dipole
Matched Spherical Cap 296.3 8.36 0.26 93.3 56.86 95.29 2.06
Dipole
Matched Spherical 298.2 19.89 0.622 98.0 5.66 1.64 14.8
Resonator

4. The Small Antennas having the Same ka as the Spherical Resonator

In the previous section, a number of small antenna configurations were compared,

where all were designed to operate at or very near 300 MHz. With the exception of the
spherical resonator, all of the antennas had the same overall dipole length and, in some
cases, the same value of ka. The spherical resonator exhibited the greatest bandwidth but
it also had the highest value of ka. The question considered in this section is whether its
greater bandwidth is a result of the higher value of ka (its larger volume) or whether the
design itself offers more bandwidth when compared with the other antenna
configurations modified to have the same value of ka?

4.1 The Matched Disk-Loaded Dipole Antenna

The first antenna considered is the matched disk-loaded dipole. The size of the
antenna was adjusted to achieve a value of ka as close to 0.622 as possible, matching that
of the spherical resonator. In this adjustment process, the physical dimensions were also
set so as to maintain an operating frequency as close to 300 MHz as possible. In this
case, the overall height of the disk-loaded dipole is 18 cm and the disk diameter is 8.4
cm. The antenna is impedance matched to 50Ω using a shunt-stub. A helical coil is not
necessary for tuning.

The matched disk-loaded dipole, its impedance, matched VSWR (ZCH = 50Ω) and
radiation patterns are presented in Fig. 11. The antenna is matched at a frequency of
304.5 MHz, where ka = 0.634. The Q of the antenna is 11.21, which is approximately
2.05 times the lower bound of 5.48. Its radiation efficiency is 99.5%. Its ½-power and
2:1 VSWR bandwidths are 18.25% and 6.34%, respectively. Its ½-power bandwidth is
greater than that of the spherical resonator but its 2:1 VSWR bandwidth is less. The
matched disk-loaded dipole operates as an electric dipole with minimal cross-
polarization.

4.2 The Matched Spherical-Cap Dipole Antenna

As with the matched disk-loaded dipole, the size of the spherical-cap antenna was
adjusted to achieve a value of ka as close to 0.622 as possible and an operating frequency
as close to 300 MHz as possible. In this case, the overall height of the spherical-cap
dipole is 19.89 cm. The antenna is impedance matched to 50Ω using a shunt-stub. A
helical coil is not necessary for tuning.

The matched spherical-cap dipole, its impedance, matched VSWR (ZCH = 50Ω) and
radiation patterns are presented in Fig. 12. The antenna is matched at a frequency of
290.3 MHz, where ka = 0.605. The Q of the antenna is 11.92, which is approximately
2.02 times the lower bound of 5.89. Its radiation efficiency is 95.5%. Its ½-power and
2:1 VSWR bandwidths are 16.36% and 5.65%, respectively. Its ½-power bandwidth is
greater than that of the spherical resonator but its 2:1 VSWR bandwidth is less. The
matched spherical-cap dipole operates as an electric dipole with minimal cross-
polarization.

4.3 The Folded Spherical Helix Antenna

Again, the size of the folded spherical helix antenna was adjusted to achieve a
value of ka as close to 0.622 as possible and an operating frequency as close to 300 MHz
as possible. The overall height of the folded spherical helix 19.89 cm. The significant
design variables with the folded spherical helix are the number of arms, which determines
the resonant resistance, and the length of each arm, which determines the operating
frequency. As the number of arms increases, and the arm length is adjusted to maintain
the same operating frequency, the resonant resistance increases. The optimum
configuration for the folded spherical helix in terms of impedance matching to 50Ω is a
2-arm spherical helix. An increase in the number of arms decreases the antenna Q and
increases the operating bandwidth. However, the resonant resistance increases and the
antenna is no longer matched to 50Ω.
 The 2-arm folded spherical helix, its impedance, matched VSWR (ZCH = 50Ω) and
radiation patterns are presented in Fig. 13. The antenna is matched at a frequency of
298.2 MHz, where ka = 0.621. The Q of the antenna is 18.9, which is approximately
3.28 times the lower bound of 5.76. Its radiation efficiency is 99.3%. Its ½-power and
2:1 VSWR bandwidths are 12.43% and 4.37%, respectively. Its ½-power and 2:1 VSWR
bandwidths are less than those of the spherical resonator. The folded spherical helix
operates as an electric dipole, however, there a higher level of cross-polarization than
with the 4-arm configuration designed to operate with ka ≈ 0.26.

The other folded spherical helix configurations considered were the 4, 5 and 6-arm
configurations. These offered a substantial decrease in Q and increase in bandwidth but
the antennas are no longer well matched to 50Ω. A summary of their performance
properties is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Summary of the performance properties of the multi-arm folded spherical

helix antennas compared to the spherical resonator antenna.

Antenna Frequency ka Matching Qlb1 QZ ½ -Power 2:1 VSWR

(MHz) Impedance (includes VSWR Bandwidth
(Ω) loss) Bandwidth (%)
(%)
Matched Spherical 298.2 0.622 50 5.66 1.64 14.8 8.5
Resonator
4-Arm Folded 298.7 0.622 243.17 5.78 10.1 20.05 7.03
Spherical Helix
5-Arm Folded 312 0.65 312.2 5.18 8.21 22.15 7.91
Spherical Helix
6-Arm Folded 312 0.65 312 5.16 6.81 27.2 10.3
Spherical Helix
1. The stated lower bound includes the term for radiation efficiency but does not include the term that takes
into account any power division between the vertical and horizontal polarizations. These configurations
have some power delivered to the orthogonal polarization and the lower bound is slightly overstated.

4.4 Summary of Results

A summary and comparison of the results discussed in this section is presented in Table
3. The matched disk-loaded dipole exhibits the largest ½-power bandwidth. It also has
the largest value of ka. The spherical resonator exhibits the largest 2:1 VSWR
bandwidth.
Table 3. Performance comparison of the the matched disk-loaded dipole, the
matched spherical-cap dipole, the folded spherical helix and the spherical resonator
antennas. All are designed to operate at or very near 300 MHz and have nearly
equal values of ka.

Antenna Frequency ka ηr (%) Qlb QZ ½ -Power 2:1 VSWR

(MHz) (includes VSWR Bandwidth
loss) Bandwidth (%)
(%)
Matched Spherical 298.2 0.622 98.0 5.66 1.64 14.8 8.5
Resonator
Matched Disk Loaded 304.5 0.634 99.5 5.48 11.21 18.25 6.34
Dipole
Matched Spherical Cap 290.3 0.605 95.5 5.89 11.92 16.36 5.65
Dipole
2-Arm Folded 298.2 0.621 99.3 5.76 18.9 12.43 4.37
Spherical Helix

5. The Small Antennas having a ka less than 0.5

In the previous section, several of the small antennas were compared having nearly
the same value of ka. The values of ka ranged between 0.605 and 0.634, all above the
electrically small antenna limit of ka ≤ 0.5. Here, versions of each antenna were designed
to operate near 300 MHz with values of ka ≈ 0.45. The matched disk-loaded dipole,
matched spherical-cap dipole and folded spherical helix were designed and similar in
configuration to those described in the previous section. Their impedance, matched
VSWR bandwidths and patterns are not presented here in figures.

To achieve a value of ka ≈ 0.45 with the spherical resonator, an 8-arm

configuration loaded with dielectric is necessary [8]. The dielectric material is Rogers
RO4003. This configuration is depicted in Fig. 14(a) and was modeled using Microwave
Studio. Its impedance and matched VSWR are presented in Fig. 14(b) and 14(c),
respectively. In this case, the matched VSWR is determined by simply tuning the
antenna with an external tuning inductor that is assumed to be lossless. A comparison of
the performance of these antennas is presented in Table 4. In this particular case, the
matched spherical-cap dipole exhibits the greatest bandwidth.
Table 4. Performance comparison of the the matched disk-loaded dipole, the
matched spherical-cap dipole, the folded spherical helix and the spherical resonator
antennas. All are designed to operate at or very near 300 MHz and have values of
ka ≈ 0.45.

Antenna Frequency ka ηr (%) Qlb QZ ½ -Power 2:1 VSWR

(MHz) (Lossless VSWR Bandwidth
Antenna) Bandwidth (%)
(%)
8-Arm Matched 297.5 0.424 98.0 15.5 31.1 6.1 2.1
Spherical Resonator
Matched Disk Loaded 300 0.45 99.5 13.2 26.2 7.4 2.6
Dipole
Matched Spherical Cap 300 0.45 95.5 13.2 19.5 10 3.52
Dipole
3-Arm Folded 297.1 0.446 99.3 13.5 24.6 6.7 2.2
Spherical Helix

6. Discussion

The radiation properties of several fundamental electrically small antennas were

compared where each had the same overall length, the same value of ka or where they
were designed to operate at the same frequency. For the small value of ka ≈ 0.26, the
folded spherical helix exhibits a Q that most closely approaches the lower bound. It also
offers the largest bandwidth at this value of ka.

The spherical resonator antenna was of interest because when tuned or matched, it
exhibits multiple resonances within its defined VSWR bandwidth, which may possibly
lead to achieving greater bandwidth than can be achieved with single resonance antennas.
For nearly the same value of ka, the matched spherical-cap dipole exhibits the largest ½-
power bandwidth but a slightly lower 2:1 VSWR bandwidth than the spherical resonator.
No attempt was made here to optimize the bandwidth of any of these configurations. At
a value of ka ≈ 0.45, the matched spherical-cap dipole offers the largest bandwidth.

With both the folded spherical helix and the spherical resonator antennas, designing
for an impedance match (ZCH = 50Ω) at a specific value of ka can be a challenge. The
design approach requires adjust of the number of arms, the arm length, and in some cases,
may require dielectric loading. For example, with the folded spherical helix at value of
ka ≈ 0.625, a lower Q and larger bandwidth than the other configurations can be achieved
but the antennas are not well matched to 50Ω. Optimization of these designs is a topic of
current research.
 While the Q of the spherical-cap dipole may not closely approach the lower bound
as desired at certain values of ka, it often may exhibit larger bandwidth than the other
configurations. The design of the spherical-cap dipole is also quite straight-forward in
that the resonant frequency can be adjusted using a helical coil dipole feed or an
adjustment of the volume of the spherical-cap. Matching can be easily accomplished
using a shunt stub, provided the resonant resistance is sufficiently lower than 50Ω.

In all cases, the specific value of ka may dictate the most suitable design approach
from a physical perspective and it may also determine which design approach will
provide the lowest Q and largest bandwidth.

7. References

[1] C. E. Smith and E. M. Johnson, “Performance of Short Antennas,” Proc. IRE, Vol.
35, No. 10, pp. 1026-1038, Oct 1947.
[2] E. W. Seeley, “An Experimental Study of the Disk Loaded Folded Monopole,” IRE
Trans. Antennas Propag., pp 27 – 28, Jan 1956.
[3] R. Guertler, “Impedance Transformation in Folded Dipoles,” Proc. IRE, Vol. 38,
No. 9, pp. 1042-1047, Sep 1950.
[4] J. D. Kraus, “The Helical Antenna,” Proc. IRE, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 263-272, Mar
1949.
[5] R. W. Ziolkowski and A. D. Kipple, “Application of Double Negative Meta-
Materials to Increase the Power Radiated by Electrically Small Antennas,” IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 51, No. 10, pp. 2626-2640, Oct. 2003.
[6] R. W. Ziolkowski and A. Erentok, “Metamaterial-Based Efficient Electrically
Small Antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 54, No. 7, pp. 2113-2130,
Jul 2006.
[7] H. R. Stuart and A. Pidwerbetsky, “Electrically Small Antenna Elements Using
Negative Permittivity Resonators,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 54, No.
6, pp. 1644 – 1653, Jun 2006.
[8] H. R. Stuart and C. Tran, “Subwavelength Microwave Resonators Exhibiting
Strong Coupling to Radiation Modes,” Appl. Phys. Ltrs., 87, 151108, 2005.
[9] H. R. Stuart and C. Tran, "Small Spherical Antennas Using Arrays of
Electromagnetically Coupled Planar Elements," IEEE Ant. Wireless Prop. Lett.,
vol. 6, pp. 7-10, 2007.
[10] H. R. Stuart, S. R. Best, and A. D. Yaghjian, “Limitations in Relating Quality
Factor to Bandwidth in a Double Resonance Small Antenna,” IEEE Ant. Wireless
Prop. Lett., Accepted for Publication
[11] S. R. Best, “The Radiation Properties of Electrically Small Folded Spherical Helix
Antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 52, No. 4, pp. 953-960, Apr
2004.
[12] S. R. Best, “Low Q Electrically Small Linear and Elliptical Polarized Spherical
Dipole Antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 1047-
1053, Mar 2005.
[13] S. R. Best, “The Performance Properties of Electrically Small Resonant Multiple
Arm Folded Wire Antennas,” IEEE Antennas Propagat. Mag., Vol. 47, No. 4, pp.
13-27, Aug 2005.
[14] R. King, C. W. Harrison, and D. H. Denton Jr., “Transmission-line Missile
Antennas,” IRE Trans. Antennas Propag., Vol. 8, pp. 88–90, Jan 1960.
[15] S. R. Best, “A Discussion on the Quality Factor of Impedance Matched Electrically
Small Antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 53, No. 12, pp. 502-508,
Jan 2005.
[16] J. A. Dobbins and R. L. Rogers, “Folded Conical Helix Antenna,” IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., Vol. 49, No. 12, pp. 1777- 1781, Dec 2001.
[17] E. E. Altshuler, “A Method for marching an Antenna Having a Small Radiation
Resistance to a 50-Ohm Coaxial Line,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 53,
No. 9, pp. 3086-3089, Sep 2005.
[18] A. Alu, N. Engheta, A. Erentok and R. W. Ziolkowski, “Single-Negative, Double
Negative, and Low-Index Metamaterials and their Electromagnetic Applications,”
IEEE Antennas Propagat. Mag., Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 23-36, Feb 2007.
[19] S. Lim and H. Ling, “Design of Thin, Efficient, Electrically Small Antenna using
Multiple Foldings,” Elect. Lett., Vol. 42, Issue 22, pp. 1292-1293, Oct 26, 2006.
[20] K. Fujimoto, A. Henderson, K. Hirasawa, and J. R. James, Small Antennas.
Letchworth, U.K., New York: Research Studies Press, Wiley, 1987.
[21] H. A. Wheeler, “Antenna Topics in My Experience,” IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propagat., Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 144-151, Feb 1985.
[22] A. R. Lopez, “Fundamental Limitations of Small Antennas: Validation of
Wheeler’s Formulas,” IEEE Antennas Propagat. Mag., Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 28-36,
Aug 2006.
[23] L. J. Chu, "Physical Limitations on Omni-Directional Antennas," J. Appl. Phys.,
Vol. 9, pp. 1163-1175, 1948.
[24] A. D. Yaghjian and S. R. Best, “Impedance, Bandwidth and Q of Antennas,” IEEE
Trans. Antennas and Propagat., Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 1298-1324, Apr 2005.
[25] J. S. McLean, “A Re-Examination of the Fundamental Limits on the Radiation Q of
Electrically Small Antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 44, pp. 672-
676, May 1996.
[26] EZNEC/4 Pro v5, www.eznec.com, Roy Lewallen
[27] Microwave Studio, www.cst.com
[28] H. L. Thal, “New Radiation Q Limits for Spherical Wire Antennas,” IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., Vol. 54, No. 10, pp. 2757-2763, Oct 2006.
[29] A. D. Yaghjian, “Internal Energy, Q-Energy, Poynting’s Theorem, and the Stress
Dyadic in Dispersive Material,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., Vol. 55, No. 6,
pp. 1495-1505, Jun 2007.
Fig. 1. (a) The 4-arm folded spherical helix, (b) its impedance over a frequency
range of 270 – 330 MHz, (c) its matched VSWR and (d) its radiation pattern.
Fig. 2. (a) The 4-arm folded cylindrical helix, (b) its impedance over a frequency
range of 270 – 330 MHz, (c) its matched VSWR and (d) its radiation pattern.
Fig. 3. The wire-grid and solid disk-loaded loaded dipole antennas.

Fig. 4. Impedances of the wire-grid and solid disk-loaded loaded dipole antennas.
Fig. 5. (a) The helical-coil tuned disk-loaded dipole. (b) The shunt stub matched
disk-loaded dipole.
Fig. 6. Radiation properties of the matched disk-loaded dipole: (a) Impedance over
a frequency range of 270 – 330 MHz, (b) Matched VSWR and (c) Radiation pattern.
Fig. 7. (a) The spherical-cap dipole, (b) its impedance over a frequency range of 270
– 330 MHz, (c) its matched VSWR and (d) its radiation pattern.
Fig. 8. The 6-arm spherical resonator antenna.

Fig. 9. Impedance of the 6-arm spherical resonator antenna.

Fig. 10. (a) The matched spherical resonator antenna, (b) its impedance over a
frequency range of 270 – 330 MHz, (c) its matched VSWR and (d) its radiation
pattern.
Fig. 11. (a) The matched disk-load dipole having a ka = 0.634, (b) its impedance
over a frequency range of 270 – 330 MHz, (c) its matched VSWR and (d) its
radiation pattern.
Fig. 12. (a) The matched spherical-cap dipole having a ka = 0.605, (b) its impedance
over a frequency range of 270 – 330 MHz, (c) its matched VSWR and (d) its
radiation pattern.
Fig. 13. (a) The 2-arm folded spherical helix antenna having a ka = 0.621, (b) its
impedance over a frequency range of 270 – 330 MHz, (c) its matched VSWR and (d)
its radiation pattern.
Fig. 14. (a) The 8-arm, dielectric loaded spherical resonator antenna having a ka =
0.428, (b) its impedance over a frequency range of 270 – 330 MHz, and (c) its
matched VSWR.