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The discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b,

WASP-156b: Insights on giant planet migration and
the upper boundary of the Neptunian desert
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How to cite:
Demangeon, Olivier D. S.; Faedi, F.; Hébrard, G.; Brown, D. J. A.; Barros, S. C. C.; Doyle, A. P.; Maxted,
P. F. L.; Collier Cameron, A.; Hay, K. L.; Alikakos, J.; Anderson, D. R.; Armstrong, D. J.; Boumis, P.; Bonomo, A. S.;
Bouchy, F.; Delrez, L.; Gillon, M.; Haswell, C. A.; Hellier, C.; Jehin, E.; Kiefer, F.; Lam, K. W. F.; Lendl, M.; Mancini,
L.; McCormac, J.; Norton, A. J.; Osborn, H. P.; Palle, E.; Pepe, F.; Pollacco, D.L.; Prieto-Arranz, J.; Queloz, D.;
Ségransan, D.; Smalley, B.; Triaud, A. H. M. J.; Udry, S.; West, R. and Wheatley, P. J. (2018). The discovery of
WASP-151b, WASP-153b, WASP-156b: Insights on giant planet migration and the upper boundary of the Neptunian
desert. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 610, article no. A63.

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A&A 610, A63 (2018)
DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/201731735 Astronomy
c ESO 2018 &
Astrophysics

The discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b, WASP-156b: Insights

on giant planet migration and the upper boundary
of the Neptunian desert?
O. D. S. Demangeon1 , F. Faedi2, 9 , G. Hébrard3, 4 , D. J. A. Brown2 , S. C. C. Barros1 , A. P. Doyle2 ,
P. F. L. Maxted12 , A. Collier Cameron7 , K. L. Hay7 , J. Alikakos18 , D. R. Anderson12 , D. J. Armstrong2, 6 , P. Boumis18 ,
A. S. Bonomo8 , F. Bouchy5 , L. Delrez21, 10 , M. Gillon21 , C. A. Haswell17 , C. Hellier12 , E. Jehin21 , F. Kiefer3 ,
K. W. F. Lam2 , M. Lendl20, 5 , L. Mancini19, 16, 8 , J. McCormac2 , A. J. Norton17 , H. P. Osborn2 , E. Palle14, 15 , F. Pepe5 ,
D. L. Pollacco2 , J. Prieto-Arranz14, 15 , D. Queloz10, 5 , D. Ségransan5 , B. Smalley12 , A. H. M. J. Triaud11, 13 , S. Udry5 ,
R. West2 , and P. J. Wheatley2
1
Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
2
University of Warwick, Department of Physics, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
3
Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, UMR7095 CNRS, Université Pierre & Marie Curie, 98bis boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
4
Observatoire de Haute-Provence, Université d’Aix-Marseille & CNRS, 04870 Saint Michel l’Observatoire, France
5
Observatoire de Genève, Université de Genève, 51 Chemin des Maillettes, 1290 Sauverny, Switzerland
6
Astrophysics Research Centre, Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
7
Centre for Exoplanet Science, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9SS, UK
8
INAF–Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese, Italy
9
INAF–Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, via S. Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy
10
Cavendish Laboratory, JJ Thompson Avenue, CB3 0HE Cambridge, UK
11
Institute of Astronomy, Madingley Road, CB3 0HA Cambridge, UK
12
Astrophysics Group, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
13
School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
14
Instituto de Astrosfísica de Canarias (IAC), 38205 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
15
Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), 38206 La laguna, Tenerife, Spain
16
Max Planck Institue for Astronomy, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
17
School of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6 AA, UK
18
Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing, National Observatory of Athens, 15236 Penteli,
Greece
19
Department of Physics, University of Rome Tor Vergata, via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Roma, Italy
20
Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Schmiedlstr. 6, 8042 Graz, Austria
21
Space sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, Université de Liège, Allée du 6 Août 17, Bat. B5C,
4000 Liège, Belgium

Received 7 August 2017 / Accepted 16 October 2017

ABSTRACT

To investigate the origin of the features discovered in the exoplanet population, the knowledge of exoplanets’ mass and radius with
a good precision (.10%) is essential. To achieve this purpose the discovery of transiting exoplanets around bright stars is of prime
interest. In this paper, we report the discovery of three transiting exoplanets by the SuperWASP survey and the SOPHIE spectrograph
with mass and radius determined with a precision better than 15%. WASP-151b and WASP-153b are two hot Saturns with masses,
radii, densities and equilibrium temperatures of 0.31+0.04 +0.03 +0.03 +20 +0.02 +0.10
−0.03 MJ , 1.13−0.03 RJ , 0.22−0.02 ρJ and 1290−10 K, and 0.39−0.02 MJ , 1.55−0.08 RJ ,
+0.02 +40
0.11−0.02 ρJ and 1700−40 K, respectively. Their host stars are early G type stars (with mag V ∼ 13) and their orbital periods are 4.53 and
3.33 days, respectively. WASP-156b is a super-Neptune orbiting a K type star (mag V = 11.6). It has a mass of 0.128+0.010 −0.009 MJ , a radius
of 0.51+0.02 R
−0.02 J , a density of 1.0+0.1
ρ
−0.1 J , an equilibrium temperature of 970 +30
−20 K and an orbital period of 3.83 days. The radius of WASP-
151b appears to be only slightly inflated, while WASP-153b presents a significant radius anomaly compared to a recently published
model. WASP-156b, being one of the few well characterized super-Neptunes, will help to constrain the still debated formation of
Neptune size planets and the transition between gas and ice giants. The estimates of the age of these three stars confirms an already
observed tendency for some stars to have gyrochronological ages significantly lower than their isochronal ages. We propose that high
eccentricity migration could partially explain this behavior for stars hosting a short period planet. Finally, these three planets also lie
close to (WASP-151b and WASP-153b) or below (WASP-156b) the upper boundary of the Neptunian desert. Their characteristics
support that the ultra-violet irradiation plays an important role in this depletion of planets observed in the exoplanet population.
Key words. planets and satellites: detection – techniques: radial velocities – techniques: photometric –
stars: individual: WASP-151 – stars: individual: WASP-153 – stars: individual: WASP-156
?
The radial velocity (Tables A.1–A.3) and the high resolution photometric data are only available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to
cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/610/A63

Article published by EDP Sciences A63, page 1 of 19

 A&A 610, A63 (2018)

1. Introduction the migration of the hot giant planet population and the upper
boundary of the Neptunian desert.
The successful harvest of exoplanets (see for example exo-
planet.eu, Schneider et al. 2011) during the last two decades
completely metamorphosed the field of exoplanet science. The 2. Observations
initial assumption that the solar system was a typical example
of planetary systems is long gone (as stated by Mayor & Queloz 2.1. Discovery: WASP
2012). The Kepler mission (Borucki et al. 2010) delivered 4496 The Wide Angle Search for Planets (WASP) operates two robotic
transiting planetary candidates, including 2248 confirmed plan- telescope arrays, each consisting of eight Canon 200m, f/1.8
ets (according to the NASA Exoplanet Archive1 , August 2017). lenses with e2v 2048 × 2048, Peltier-cooled CCDs, giving a
This sample revealed various features of the exoplanet popula- field of view of 7.8 × 7.8 degrees and a pixel scale of 13.700
tion demonstrating the necessity of a very large sample to en- (Pollacco et al. 2006). SuperWASP is located at the Roque de los
compass the exoplanets’ diversity (see Borucki 2017, for a re- Muchachos Observatory on La Palma (ORM – ING, Canary Is-
cent review). One of many surprising results from Kepler is lands, Spain), while WASP-South is located at the South African
that the orbital distance of exoplanets appears to be nearly ran- Astronomical Observatory (SAAO – Sutherland, South Africa).
dom regardless of their size (e.g., Fabrycky et al. 2014). One Each array observes up to eight pointings per night with a typ-
striking exception to this observation is the so called sub- ical cadence of 8 min and an exposure time of 30 s, with each
jovian desert or short period Neptunian desert (e.g. Mazeh et al. pointing being followed for roughly five months per observing
2016; Matsakos & Königl 2016; Kurokawa & Nakamoto 2014; season. In January 2009, SuperWASP received a significant sys-
Szabó & Kiss 2011). It corresponds to a depletion of plan- tem upgrade that improved our control of red noise sources such
ets at short orbital periods (P < 10 days) with masses or ra- as temperature-dependent focus changes (Barros et al. 2011;
dius between super-Earth and sub-jovian planets (see Fig. 10). Faedi et al. 2011), leading to substantially improved data quality.
One possible explanation for this desert is the strong irradi- All WASP data are processed by the custom-built reduc-
ation (bolometric and in particular extreme ultra-violet) from tion pipeline described in Pollacco et al. (2006), producing one
the parent star at those short orbital distances, especially at light curve per observing season and camera. These light curves
the early stages of the star’s life. The strong stellar irradiation are passed through the SysRem (Tamuz et al. 2005) and TFA
might have striped away the atmosphere of sub-jovian plan- (Kovács et al. 2005) de-trending algorithms to reduce the effect
ets which had quickly migrated to the vicinity of their parent of known systematic signals, before a search for candidate transit
star and were not massive enough to retain their atmosphere, signals is performed using a custom implementation of the Box
only leaving a super-Earth size core (e.g., Lundkvist et al. 2016; Least-Squares algorithm (BLS; Kovács et al. 2002), as described
Lecavelier Des Etangs 2007). The mechanism responsible for in Collier Cameron et al. (2006, 2007). Once candidate planets
the presence of giant planets in the vicinity of their parent star have been identified, a series of multi-season, multi-camera anal-
is still debated. However, the discovery by David et al. (2016) yses are carried out to confirm the detection and improve upon
of a super-Neptune size planet orbiting close to a 5–10 Myr old initial estimates of the candidates’ physical and orbital parame-
star suggests that high eccentricity migration (e.g., Rasio & Ford ters, which are derived from the WASP data in conjunction with
1996; Fabrycky & Tremaine 2007) is unlikely for this system publicly available catalogs (e.g., UCAC4, Zacharias et al. 2013;
(the tidal circularisation happening at longer timescales) and 2MASS, Skrutskie et al. 2006). These additional analyses are es-
only leaves disk migration (e.g., Lin et al. 1996; Ward 1997) and sential for rejection of false positives, and for identification of
in-situ formation as possible scenarios. Understanding the origin the best candidates. This process allowed to detect three transit
of the Neptunian desert could thus change our vision of gas and planets that we will now introduce.
ice giant planet formation and evolution. 1SWASPJ231615.22+001824.5 (2MASS23161522+0018242),
Unfortunately a large fraction of the planets discovered by hereafter WASP-151, lies very close to the celestial equator
Kepler surrounding the Neptunian desert do not have an ac- and is thus visible to both WASP arrays. A total of 45 945 data
curate (precision .10%2 ) determination of their mass and ra- were obtained between 2008-06-12 and 2012-11-28, 16 375
dius due to the faintness of their parent star. In this con- from SuperWASP and 29 570 by WASP-South. A search for
text ground based transit photometry surveys like SuperWASP periodic modulation in the WASP light curves, such as might
(Pollacco et al. 2006), targeting bright stars, are essential con- be caused by stellar activity or rotation, was carried out using
tributors. In this paper, we present the WASP and SOPHIE dis- the method of Maxted et al. (2011). No significant periodicity
covery of two hot Saturns and one warm super-Neptune, with was identified, and we place an upper limit of 2 mmag on
mass and radius measured with a precision better than 15%, the amplitude of any modulation. During these observations
and discuss their impact on the formation and evolution theo- a total of 195 transits were covered of which 27 were full or
ries of ice and gas giants. In Sect. 2, we describe the photometric quasi-full events. The WASP data show a periodic reduction
and radial velocity observations acquired on the three systems. in stellar brightness of approximately 0.01 mag, with a period
In Sect. 3, we present our analysis of the data with the result- of roughly 4.5 days, a duration of approximately 3.7 h, and a
ing stellar and planetary parameters. Finally in Sect. 4, we dis- shape indicative of a planetary transit. The WASP thumbnails
cuss the nature and composition of these planets and their im- of WASP-151 show some contamination from a background
pact on planet formation and evolution theory with a focus on galaxy about 2000 from the target and thus within our first
aperture. The galaxy is about 3 mag fainter in V than our target.
1
http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/
We calculated a dilution factor for WASP-151 of about 1% and
2
The exact precision required is difficult to assess, but a precision thus negligible when considering WASP data.
of 20 to 30% on the planetary density is usually required to be able 1SWASPJ183702.97+400107.4 (2MASS18370297+4001073),
to discriminate between the main families of planets (see for exam- hereafter WASP-153, is our second transiting planet host.
ple Benz et al. 2013; Grasset et al. 2009). This corresponds to an un- 42 349 photometric measurements were made by SuperWASP
certainty on the radius of roughly 10%. between 2004-05-14 and 2010-08-24, with no observations by

A63, page 2 of 19
 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

Table 1. Summary of the photometric observation of WASP-151, WASP-151b. Two full transits of WASP-151 were observed
WASP-153 and WASP-156. on 2015-09-03 and 2015-11-01 with the CAMELOT camera of
the 0.82 m ( f /11.3) IAC-80 telescope, which is operated on the
Date Instrument Filter Comment island of Tenerife by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias
WASP-151b (IAC) at the Spanish Observatorio del Teide. CAMELOT has
a 2048 × 2048 pixel CCD with a scale of 0.30400 pixel−1 and a
06/2008→11/2012 WASP Johnson R detection
10.60 field-of-view. Images were bias and flat-field corrected us-
03/09/2015 IAC80 Johnson R full transit
ing standard techniques.
01/11/2015 IAC80 Johnson R full transit
15/06/2016 TRAPPIST Sloan z full transit An additional full transit was observed on 2016-06-15
04/09/2016 EulerCam NGTS partial transit with the robotic 0.6 m TRAnsiting Planets and PlanetesImals
24/10/2016 EulerCam NGTS full transit Small Telescope (TRAPPIST; Jehin et al. 2011; Gillon et al.
12/2016→03/2017 K2 Kepler 13 full transits 2011) at the La Silla Observatory operated by the European
Southern Observatory (ESO). TRAPPIST is equipped with a
WASP-153b
thermoelectrically-cooled 2K × 2K CCD with a pixel scale of
05/2004→08/2010 WASP Johnson R detection 0.6500 , giving a 220 × 220 field of view. A Sloan-z0 filter was used
17/07/2015 Liverpool Johnson R partial transit for the transit observations of this system, during which the po-
05/08/2017 RISE-2 V +R full transit sitions of the stars on the chip were maintained to within a few
WASP-156b pixels thanks to a software guiding system that regularly derives
07/2008→12/2010 WASP Johnson R detection an astrometric solution for the most recently acquired image and
29/12/2014 EulerCam Gunn z full transit sends pointing corrections to the mount if needed. After carrying
07/11/2016 EulerCam Gunn r full transit out bias, dark, and flat-field corrections we extract stellar fluxes
27/12/2016 NITES Johnson I partial transit from our images using the IRAF4 / DAOPHOT aperture photom-
etry software (Stetson 1987). Several sets of reduction param-
eters were tested on stars of similar brightness to WASP-151,
from which we selected the set giving the most precise photom-
WASP-South owing to the high declination of the target (+40◦ ). etry. After a careful selection of reference stars, the transit light
We found no significant periodic modulation, and we place an curves were finally obtained using differential photometry.
upper limit of 1.5 mmag on the amplitude of any such light The 1.2 m Swiss telescope using EulerCam (Lendl et al.
curve variation. There are a total of 688 transits observed of 2012), also at La Silla, observed a full transit of WASP-151b on
which 54 are good events3 . Our BLS searches identified the 2016-10-24 and a partial transit on 2016-10-24. In both cases, a
signature of a candidate transiting planet on a 3.3 days orbit, filter with a central wavelength of 698 nm and an effective band-
in the form of a periodic 0.006 mag, 3 h reduction in stellar width of 312 nm was used; this filter is the same as that used
brightness. by the Next Generation Transit Survey (NGTS; Wheatley et al.
1SWASPJ021107.61+022504.8 (2MASS02110763+0225050), 2013, 2014). The Swiss telescope employs an absolute tracking
hereafter WASP-156, is our third and last transiting planet system which matches point sources in each image with a cat-
host. We again found no significant periodic modulation, and alog and adjusts the telescope’s pointing between exposure to
we place an upper limit of 1 mmag on the amplitude of any compensate for drift. In this manner, the pixel position of the
such light curve variation. As with WASP-151, the equatorial star is maintained throughout. All data were reduced as outlined
declination of WASP-156 allows both WASP arrays to monitor in Lendl et al. (2012), and light curves were produced through
the star for flux variations. 22809 flux measurements were differential aperture photometry. To minimize scatter in the light
made, 13481 by SuperWASP and 9328 by WASP-South. A total curves, we carefully selected the most stable field stars to use as
of 230 transits were observed of which 23 are good events2 . references.
A 2.3 h long, 0.007 mag reduction in brightness was found to
repeat on a 3.8 days period with a typical planetary transit-like
shape. WASP-153b. A partial transit of WASP-153b was observed on
2015-07-17 in the Johnson-R filter using the RISE instrument
mounted on the robotic Liverpool Telescope (LT; Steele et al.
2.2. Photometric follow-up 2004) at ORM. RISE is equipped with a back-illuminated,
frame-transfer, 1024 × 1024 pixel CCD. Images were automat-
2.2.1. Ground-based photometric follow-up observations ically bias, dark, and flat-field corrected by the standard RISE
reduction pipeline, which uses standard IRAF routines.
The WASP consortium has access to multiple observing facili- A full transit was later obtained with RISE-2 mounted on the
ties that can be used to obtain additional in-transit photometric 2.3 m telescope situated at Helmos observatory in Greece on 5
observations. These follow-up light curves are used to confirm August 2017. The CCD size is 1K × 1K with a pixel scale of
the presence of the candidate signal, particularly useful in the 0.5100 and a field of view of 90 × 90 (Boumis et al. 2010). The
case of unreliable initial ephemerides, and are also used to im- exposure time was 12 s and the V + R filter was used. As for the
prove the accuracy of our light-curve modeling, and to constrain previous transit observation, the images were processed standard
the system parameters more precisely. A list of the follow-up RISE reduction pipeline.
photometric observations for our three planets is presented in
Table 1.
4
IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observato-
ries, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research
3
Good events refers to full transit observations which did not suffer in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Sci-
from obvious deformations due to the conditions of observation. ence Foundation.

A63, page 3 of 19
 A&A 610, A63 (2018)

WASP-156b A partial transit of WASP-156b was observed in calibration by subtracting the background and dark values thanks
the Johnson-I filter on 2016-12-27 using the Near Infra-red Tran- to estimates obtained on the images themselves. In parallel to the
siting ExoplanetS (NITES) Telescope (McCormac et al. 2014), Polar reduction, we also reduced the image time series with the
located at ORM. NITES is a semi-robotic, 0.4 m ( f /10) Meade Python package Everest (Luger et al. 2016) to check the scien-
LX200GPS Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope, mounted with a Fin- tific validity of our reduction. Everest has been recently used
ger Lakes Instrumentation Proline 4710 camera and a 1024 × to extract the light curve of the TRAPPIST-1 system observed
1024 pixel deep-depleted CCD made by e2v. The telescope by K2 during the same campaign (Luger et al. 2017) and thus in
has a field of view of 11 × 110 squared, and a pixel scale of the same conditions. The two light curves are almost identical
0.6600 pixel−1 . Autoguiding was performed using the DONUTS and compatible at 1 sigma giving us confidence in the scientific
algorithm (McCormac et al. 2013). After performing bias and quality of our data reduction.
flat-field corrections using PyRAF5 and the standard routines The light curve clearly displays transit features at the
in IRAF, aperture photometry was performed using DAOPHOT ephemeris inferred from the WASP data with no sign of out-
and multiple comparison stars, selected to minimize the RMS of-transit variations. A search for periodic modulation caused by
scatter in the out-of-transit light curve. stellar activity showed a tentative detection with an amplitude
In addition to the NITES observations, EulerCam was used of 1 ppt (∼1 mmag) at a period of 35 days. We then searched
to observe two full transits of WASP-156b, on 2014-12-29 us- the light curve for additional transit features (apart from WASP-
ing a Gunn-z filter and on 2016-11-07 using a Gunn-r filter. The 151b’s transit). We investigated a tentative mono transit-shaped
2014 observations, however, are unreliable owing to large PSF feature which proved to be an artifact due to the position-flux
variations, and stellar counts in the non-linear regime of the Eu- decorrelation technique used by Polar. For this decorrelation,
lerCam CCD. we cut the K2 image time series in several parts where the be-
havior of the pointing jitter of the Kepler satellite can be safely
2.2.2. K2 observations of WASP-151 assumed to be 1 dimensional (for more details see Barros et al.
2016). The mono transit-shaped feature was appearing precisely
In addition to the ground-based photometric observa- at the junction of two of those parts. A slight change of the loca-
tions described in the previous sections, WASP-151 (alias tion of the cut made the feature disappear. Finally, no additional
EPIC 246441449) was observed by NASA’s Kepler Space transit features was detected. For the analysis, we kept only inter-
Telescope in its two-reaction wheel mission K2 (Howell et al. vals of twice the transit duration before and after each transit of
2014) during Campaign 12. The observations span ∼79 days WASP-151b. The phase-folded Polar-K2 light curve of WASP-
(from 15 December 2016 to 4 March 2017) except for the 151 is shown in the bottom panel of Fig. 2.
five days from 1 to 6 February 2017 when the spacecraft was in
safe mode.
Since Campaign 9, the K2 consortium releases the raw ca- 2.3. Spectroscopic follow-up
dence data shortly after downlink from the Kepler satellite. The spectroscopic follow-up of these three candidates was
These data are raw, as opposed to the science cadence data like mainly performed with SOPHIE, the spectrograph dedicated to
the target pixel files (TPF), for two main reasons6 . First their for- high-precision radial velocity measurements at the 1.93-m tele-
mat, the raw cadence data are provided as one file per cadence scope of the Haute-Provence Observatory, France (Bouchy et al.
delivering the pixel counts for the whole focal plane as a table. In 2009). For two systems, it was also complemented by radial ve-
order to construct the image time series of a target, we need the locities obtained with the CORALIE spectrograph at the 1.2-m
pixel mapping reference file which specifies the (column, row) Euler-Swiss telescope at La Silla (Queloz et al. 2000), Chile.
CCD coordinates for each value in the raw cadence data tables. The first goal of these spectroscopic observations is to establish
Second, the raw cadence data are not calibrated. It means that the planetary nature of the transiting candidates found in pho-
they are not reduced with the Kepler pipeline (Quintana et al. tometry (see Sect. 2.3.2) The second goal is to characterize the
2010) and thus not corrected for background, dark, smearing secured planets by measuring in particular their masses and or-
trails, undershoot or non-linearity of the pixels response. The bital eccentricities (see Sect. 3.2.1).
formatting and calibration of the raw cadence data for all the tar-
gets of a K2 campaign is a very lengthy procedure and even if
the raw cadence data for Campaign 12 have been released several 2.3.1. Description of the observations
months ago, the calibrated TPF are, at this moment, still unavail-
able. Therefore, to be able to benefit from the high quality light SOPHIE was used in High-Efficiency mode with a resolving
curves of the WASP-151 system provided by the K2 mission, we power R = 40 000 to increase the throughput for these faint stars.
decided to format and reduce ourselves the raw cadence data. The exposure times ranged from 400 to 2200 s depending on
To obtain an image time series, we used the Kadenza7 the targets, and they were adjusted as a function of the weather
software (Barentsen 2017) provided by the NASA’s Kepler/K2 conditions to keep the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) as constant as
Guest Observer Office. Then, to extract the light curve, we used possible for any given star. The spectra were extracted using
the Polar software (Barros et al. 2016) which performs a partial the SOPHIE pipeline, and the radial velocities were measured
from the weighted cross-correlation with numerical masks char-
5
PyRAF is a product of the Space Telescope Science Institute, which acteristic of the spectral type of the observed star (Baranne et al.
is operated by AURA for NASA. 1996; Pepe et al. 2002). We adjusted the number of spectral or-
6
For more details of the Kepler raw and science cadence data, we ders used in the cross-correlation to reduce the dispersion of the
refer the reader to the technical note entitled Format Information for
measurements. Some spectral domains are noisy (especially in
Cadence Pixel Files available at https://archive.stsci.edu/k2/
manuals/KADN-26315.pdf the blue part of the spectra) and using them would have degraded
7
The Kadenza software is available on GitHub at https://github. the accuracy of the radial-velocity measurement.
com/KeplerGO/kadenza or on Zenodo at https://doi.org/10. The error bars on the radial velocities were computed from
5281/zenodo.344973 the cross-correlation function using the method presented by
A63, page 4 of 19
 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

Boisse et al. (2010). Some spectra were contaminated by moon- HTS/BES where the star responsible for the RV signal has
light. Following the method described in Pollacco et al. (2008) a different spectral type than the target star. In such a case,
and Hébrard et al. (2008), we estimated and corrected for the the RV amplitude will vary significantly with the mask used
moonlight contamination by using the second SOPHIE fiber (e.g., Santos et al. 2002).
aperture, which is targeted on the sky, while the first aperture 4. If the RV signal observed is due to a HTS/BES, it will dis-
points toward the star. This results in radial velocity corrections play variation in the cross-correlation function bisector span
up to 40 m/s, and below 40 m/s in most of the cases. Removing (BS) correlated with the RV signal (Santerne et al. 2015). It
these points does not significantly modify the orbital solutions. is thus important to properly assess the correlation between
The CORALIE spectrograph has a resolution of ∼60 000. RV and BS, since a significant correlation would exclude the
The observing strategy is made to ensure that observations are planetary hypothesis10 .
taken exclusively without Moon contamination and the second
fiber is used to obtain a simultaneous calibration. Prior to April
For our three planetary candidates, radial velocities were mea-
2015 the calibration was done with a thorium-argon lamp, but
sured using different stellar masks (F0, G2, and K5) and pro-
since then it is done with a Fabry-Pérot unit. The reduction of
duced variations with similar amplitudes. Furthermore, Fig. 1
the spectra and the production of the radial velocities proceed in
shows the correlation diagram of the RV and BS signal along
a fashion very similar to the procedure applied to SOPHIE data.
with the posterior probability density function of the correla-
The radial velocity measurements are reported in Tables A.1–
tion coefficient, obtained with the method and tools described
A.3 (available at the CDS) and are displayed in Figs. 3, 5 and 7
in Figueira et al. (2016). The values and 95% confidence inter-
together with their Keplerian fits and the residuals.
vals that we obtained are 0.19+0.28 +0.26 +0.25
−0.31 , −0.01−0.26 and −0.13−0.24 for
WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b respectively, mean-
2.3.2. Validation of the planetary nature ing that no significant correlation is detected.
The transit photometry method suffers from a high rate of false The final step that is rarely performed (a would-be step 5),
positives. Eclipsing binaries (EB), background eclipsing systems when an RV variation is significantly detected, is to check
(BES) and hierarchical triple systems (HTS) can mimic the tran- whether or not a correlation could have been detected assuming
sit of a planet orbiting the target star and induce an erroneous that the RV variation is due to an HTS or a BES. Santerne et al.
identification of the nature and parameters of the transiting sys- (2015) described in detail the expected RV and BS signals for
tem (e.g., Díaz et al. 2014; Torres et al. 2011). Whenever it is HTS/BES. The exact degree of correlation and the exact am-
possible, radial velocity measurements are used to rule out these plitude ratio of BS over RV depend on the following factors:
false positive scenarios and validate the planetary nature of the flux ratio, full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the cross-
transiting object. This validation is made in several steps. correlation functions, mean radial velocity difference (φ) and
spectral types. However in most configurations11 , to be able to
1. The inspection of the spectra allows us to identify double produce the ∼30 m s−1 RV variation that we observe, the asso-
lines spectrum which are a sign of spectroscopic binaries ciated BS signal must have an amplitude equal to a significant
(SB2) or BES/HTS where the contaminating eclipsing sys- fraction of the RV signal. This in turn implies that the ratio of
tem has a similar brightness than the target star. the dispersion over the average error bar of the BS measurements
2. Phase-folding the data at the period inferred from the transits ( std(BS)
hσBS i ) has to be greater than one. Consequently, we computed
allows us to estimate the amplitude of the RV signal at this std(BS)
hσBS ifor our three stars and this ratio is compatible with one in
period. Assuming that this amplitude is due to the reflex mo-
tion of the target star, it allows us to estimate the mass of the all cases (see first column of Table 2). This implies that the dis-
gravitationally bound companion and to identify single line persion of the BS values can be explained by the measurement
binaries (SB1). uncertainties solely and discards cases where the additional BS
signal due to the HTS/BES could have been detected. To quan-
If those two steps are successfully passed, the EB scenario can tify these cases, we computed the maximum fraction of the RV
be ruled out8 . For our three planetary candidates, none of the amplitude that the BS signal can have without producing a 2σ
measurements showed double lines. Furthermore, they showed departure from one of std(BS)
hσBS i (see second column of Table 2).
variations in phase with the SuperWASP transit ephemeris and With Table 2, we can identify the configurations of HTS/BES
with semi-amplitudes between 20 and 40 m s−1 , implying com- that are excluded by our correlation and BS dispersion analyses,
panion masses below 0.4 Jupiter mass. Therefore, we were able given the number and the precision of our RV and BS measure-
to exclude the EB hypothesis for our three cases. The remain- ments. We thus conclude that for our three stars, we would have
ing false positive scenarios are thus BES and HTS with faint9 been able to detect the increase in the dispersion of the BS, and
contaminating eclipsing systems. thus the correlation between RV and BS associated with the pres-
3. Extracting the radial velocities using masks corresponding ence of most HTS/BES configurations. We are thus confident
to different spectral types allows us to identify some cases of that the most likely explanation for our transits and RV signals
is a planet orbiting the target stars.
8
The following steps (3 and 4) rely on the fact that a significant RV
variation is detected during the second step. If this is not the case,
10
the only remaining solution is often to assess the nature of the tran- A correlation can be explained by a BES or a HTS but also by stellar
siting signal through probabilistic validation. There exist very few soft- activity (e.g., Queloz et al. 2001).
ware programs able to perform this probabilistic validation: BLENDER 11
According to Santerne et al. (2015), the only HTS or BES configura-
(Torres et al. 2011), PASTIS (Díaz et al. 2014) and under more restric- tion which might produce a RV signal with a comparatively low BS sig-
tive assumptions VESPA (Morton 2015, 2012). nal is when the FWHM or the target and the contaminating systems are
9
As described in the first step, we can also exclude BES and HTS similar and φ is low compared to this FWHM value. Given the FWHM
configurations involving bright contaminating eclipsing systems up to a of ∼5 km s−1 of our observation, this is only possible in a specific kind
flux ratio between the contaminant and the greater than ∼1%. of HTS system.

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 A&A 610, A63 (2018)

Fig. 1. Bisector span as a function of the radial velocities with 1σ error bars for WASP-151, 153 and 156 (from left to right). SOPHIE data are the
red circles; CORALIE data are the blue squares. The ranges here have the same extents in the x- and y-axes. For each star, the posterior probability
function of the correlation coefficient is displayed in an insert located in the upper left corner.

Table 2. Analysis of the dispersion of the bisector span. Here again, the v sin i∗ values agree with those obtained from
the cross-correlation function following Boisse et al. (2010).
std(BS) BS
! Lithium is detected in WASP-151 and WASP-153, with an
Star max [%] equivalent width of 17 mÅ and 98 mÅ, corresponding to an
hσBS i RV
abundance log A(Li) of 1.73 ± 0.05 and 2.77 ± 0.05 respectively.
WASP-151 0.93 ± 0.15 84 This implies an age of several Gyr and several Myr respectively.
WASP-153 1.15 ± 0.12 22 There is no significant detection of lithium in WASP-156, with
an equivalent width upper limit of 11 mÅ, corresponding to an
WASP-156 1.03 ± 0.11 48
abundance upper limit of log A(Li) < 0.2. This implies an age of
Notes. std(BS) indicates the standard deviation of the BS measure- at least 500 Myr (Sestito & Randlich 2005).
ments. hσBS i indicates the average error bar on the individual BS mea- The rotation rate (P = 14.8 ± 4 d) implied by the v sin i∗
BS
surements. Max( RV ) is the maximum fraction of the RV amplitude ob- gives a gyrochronological age of ∼1.80+2.03−1.00 Gyr using the Barnes
served that the BS signal can have without producing a value of std(BS) (2007) relation for WASP-151. Similarly, the rotation rate of P =
11.7 ± 2 d gives an age of ∼1.21+1.19
hσBS i
which is significantly superior than one (see Sect. 2.3.2 for more de- −0.60 Gyr for WASP-153, and the
tails). rotation rate of P = 12.6 ± 4 d gives an age of ∼0.58+0.51
−0.31 Gyr for
WASP-156.
Finally from T eff , log g and [Fe/H], we inferred stellar mass
3. Results and radius estimates using the Torres et al. (2010) calibration.
The parameters and error bars obtained from this analysis are
3.1. Stellar parameters from spectroscopy
listed in the section stellar parameters of Table A.4.
A total of 26, 46, and 40 individual SOPHIE spectra of WASP-
151, WASP-153 and WASP-156 were co-added to produce a sin- 3.2. System parameters
gle spectrum with a typical S/N of around 50:1, 50:1 and 70:1,
respectively. Here we used only the spectra without moonlight 3.2.1. Transit and RV analysis
contamination; this enabled a sufficiently high S/N to be reached
with R = 40 000, and prevented any possible contamination in We followed the same method to perform inference of the pa-
the spectra. rameters for the three systems. We jointly analysed all the ra-
dial velocity and photometric datasets available for a given sys-
The standard pipeline reduction products were used in the
tem. To model the radial velocity and photometric data, we used
analysis, which was performed using the methods given in
the Python packages ajplanet12 (Espinoza et al. 2016) and
Doyle et al. (2013). The effective temperature (T eff ) was deter-
batman12 (Kreidberg 2015) respectively. In order to decrease the
mined from the excitation balance of the Fe i lines. The ioni-
correlation between the parameters of our model and ease the
sation balance of Fe i and Fe ii was used as the surface grav-
fit, we adopted the parametrisation suggested by Eastman et al.
ity (log g) diagnostic. The metallicity ([Fe/H]) was determined
(2013) with Rp /R∗ the ratio of the planet’s radius to that of the
from equivalent width measurements of several unblended lines.
star, P√the orbital period,
√ tc the planet’s time of inferior conjunc-
They are more accurate and agree with the measurements se-
tion, e cos ω∗ and e sin ω∗ where e is the orbital eccentricity
cured from the cross-correlation function following Boisse et al.
and ω∗ is the stellar orbital argument of periastron, K the radial
(2010). A value for microturbulence (ξt ) was determined from
velocity semi-amplitude, i the orbital inclination, a/R∗ the ra-
Fe lines by requiring that there is no slope between the abun-
tio of the planet’s orbital semi-major axis over the stellar radius,
dance and the equivalent width. The error estimates for ξt in-
v0 the systemic radial velocity, u and v the two coefficients of
clude the uncertainties in T eff and log g, as well as the scatter
the limb-darkening quadratic law. To this set of parameters we
due to the measurement and the atomic data uncertainties. Val-
added a logarithmic multiplicative jitter factor (ln fσ ) for each
ues for macroturbulence (vmac ) were determined from the cali-
bration of Doyle et al. (2014), however the value for WASP-156 12
Several of the Python packages used for this work are pub-
is extrapolated from the calibration as this star is not within the licly available on Github: ajplanet at https://github.com/
correct temperature range. With the vmac fixed to the calibra- andres-jordan/ajplanet, batman at https://github.com/
tion value, the projected stellar rotation velocity (v sin i∗ ) was lkreidberg/batman, emcee at https://github.com/dfm/emcee,
determined by fitting the profiles of several unblended lines. ldtk at https://github.com/hpparvi/ldtk

A63, page 6 of 19
 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

Fig. 3. Radial velocities of WASP-151. The data points are represented

with their associated 1σ error bars.

Fig. 4. Photometry of WASP-153. The black or gray points are the data
points at the original cadence of the observations, displayed without
Fig. 2. Photometry of WASP-151. The black or gray points are the data error bars for clarity. The red points corresponds to the same data points
points at the original cadence of the observations, displayed without er- binned in phase with a bin width equivalent to eight minutes. These
ror bars for clarity. The red points corresponds to the same data points points are represented with their associated 1σ error bars. The black
binned in phase with a bin width equivalent to 29.424 min (Kepler long dashed and solid lines correspond to the best-fit model at the original
cadence). These points are represented with their associated 1σ error and binned cadence respectively.
bars. The black dashed and solid lines correspond to the best-fit model
at the original and binned cadence respectively. When several datasets
have been gathered with the same instrument, they are displayed on
the same figure but with different symbols and colors. September Eu- instrument to account for a possible bias in the data’s error bars
lerCam and IAC80 data are red dots, October EulerCam and first part due to overestimated, underestimated or even non-considered
of the November IAC80 data are green pentagons, and second part of sources of noise (see Baluev 2009). Finally, we added a pa-
the November IAC80 data are blue triangles. rameter for the shift of the radial velocity zero point between
two instruments (∆RV) and three coefficients to model a linear
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 A&A 610, A63 (2018)

Fig. 5. Radial velocities of WASP-153. The data points are represented Fig. 7. Radial velocities of WASP-156. The data points are represented
with their associated 1σ error bars. with their associated 1σ error bars.

To infer accurate values for these parameters, we used the

maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimator of the Bayesian infer-
ence framework (e.g., Gregory 2005). The prior probability den-
sity functions (PDF) assumed for the parameters are given by
Table A.5. Along with the posterior PDF provided in Table A.4,
it allows for a qualitative assessment of the impact of the prior
on the inferred values.
The prior on the limb darkening coefficients deserves a
specific consideration. We used Gaussian PDF s whose first
two moments were defined using the Python package ldtk12
(Parviainen & Aigrain 2015). Using a library of synthetic stellar
spectra, it computes the limb darkening profile of a star, observed
in a given spectral bandpass (specified by its transmission curve),
and defined by its T eff , log g and [Fe/H]. Provided the values and
error bars for these stellar parameters and the spectral bandpass,
ldtk uses a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm to
infer the mean and standard deviation of the Gaussian PDF s
for the coefficients of a given limb-darkening law (quadratic in
our case). ldtk relies on the library of synthetic stellar spec-
tra generated by Husser et al. (2013). It covers a wavelength
range, from 500 Å to 5.5 µm, and a stellar parameter space de-
limited by: 2300 K ≤ T eff ≤ 12 000 K, 0.0 ≤ log g ≤ +6.0,
−4.0 ≤ [Fe/H] ≤ +1.0, and −0.2 ≤ [α/Fe] ≤ +1.2. This pa-
rameter space is well within the requirements of this study (see
Tables 1 and A.4)
The likelihood functions used are multi-dimensional Gaus-
sians, including logarithmic multiplicative jitter factors as
described by Baluev (2009). To estimate the MAP and infer reli-
able error bars, we explored the parameter space using an affine-
invariant ensemble sampler for MCMC thanks to the Python
package emcee12 (see Foreman-Mackey et al. 2013; Hou et al.
2012). We adapted the number of walkers to the number of free
parameters in our model. As a compromise between the speed
and the efficiency of the exploration, we chose to use dnfree ×
2.5 × 2e/2 walkers, where nfree is the number of free parameters
Fig. 6. Photometry of WASP-156. The black or gray points are the data and d e the ceiling function. This allows us to have an even num-
points at the original cadence of the observations, displayed without ber of walkers which is at least twice (∼2.5 times) the number of
error bars for clarity. The red points corresponds to the same data points free parameters, as suggested by Foreman-Mackey et al. (2013).
binned in phase with a bin width equivalent to eight minutes. These The introduction in the model of a multiplicative jitter factor
points are represented with their associated 1σ error bars. The black
dashed and solid lines correspond to the best-fit model at the original
complicated the exploration of the parameter space since it intro-
and binned cadence respectively. duced local maxima. For the affine-invariant ensemble sampler
MCMC algorithm implemented by emcee, when different chains
converge toward different disconnected maxima, the exploration
becomes less efficient (the acceptance fraction of the chain de-
or quadratic variation of the out-of-transit relative flux (∆FOOT , creases). Consequently, we separated the exploration into two
∆FOOT
0
and ∆FOOT00
) when it was necessary. The final list of main phases. In a first exploration, we used values randomly gener-
√ √
parameters is Rp /R∗ , P, tc , e cos ω∗ , e sin ω∗ , K, cos i, a/R∗ , ated from the priors as initial values for the free parameters. This
v0, u and v, ln fσ , ∆RV, ∆FOOT , ∆FOOT
0
and ∆FOOT
00
. first exploration allowed us to locate several (usually two) local
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 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

maxima, to extract the global maximum (the one with the highest added 8 parameters to our model to account for these linear
posterior probability) and to estimate its location and 68% con- variations of the out-of-transit (two per light curve). When do-
fidence level interval. Then we ran a second exploration to pre- ing so, we used the time of the first sample (tmin ) as the ori-
cisely sample the global maximum. For this one, the initial val- gin for the linear function: ∆FOOT + (t − tmin ) ∆FOOT 0
. tmin
ues were randomly generated with normal distributions whose is equal to 2 457 187.753440000124, 2 457 269.443920060061,
mean and standard deviation were set accordingly to the loca- 2 457 328.353823559824, 2 457 328.502696809825 HJD for the
tion and width of the global maximum found by the previous TRAPPIST, the September IAC80, the first part and the second
step. The final best-fit values for each parameter were estimated part of the November IAC80 light curves respectively.
from this second exploration after removing any residual burn- We re-analyzed jointly all the datasets with these eight ad-
in phase with the Geweke algorithm (see Geweke et al. 1992). ditional free parameters in our model. The inferred parameter
The MAP value for each parameter was finally estimated with values and error bars are reported in Table A.4. Figures 2 and
the 50th percentile of the associated marginal posteriordistribu- 3 show the photometric and radial velocity data phase folded at
tion. The extrema of the 68% confidence level intervals were the best-fit ephemeris (see Table A.4) with the best-fit model and
estimated with the 16th and 84th percentiles. These values are residuals. The error bars displayed take into account the best-fit
reported in Table A.4. jitter values obtained by the Bayesian inference (see Table A.4).
In Table A.4, we also reported the MAP and the 68% con-
fidence level interval for the secondary parameters. As opposed
to the main (or jumping) parameters described in the first para- WASP-153: the exposure times of the WASP, Liverpool and
graph of this section, secondary parameters are not used in the RISE-2 data being below 40 s, no supersampling was required
parametrisation chosen for our modeling and are not necessary for this system. The analysis did not show any abnormal behav-
to perform the MCMC exploration. However, they provide quan- ior. The inferred parameter values and error bars are reported
tities that can be computed from main parameter’s values and are in Table A.4 and the Figs. 4 and 5 show the photometric and
of interest to describe the system. The secondary parameters that radial velocity data phase folded at the best-fit ephemeris (see
we computed were: ∆F/F the transit depth, i the orbital inclina- Table A.4) with the best-fit model and residuals. The error bars
tion, e the eccentricity, ω the argument of periastron, b the im- displayed take into account the best-fit jitter values obtained by
pact parameter, D14 the outer transit duration (duration between the Bayesian inference (see Table A.4).
the 1st and 4th contact), D23 the inner transit duration (duration
between the 2nd and 3rd contact), Rp the planetary radius, Mp WASP-156: the exposure times of the WASP and NITES data
the planetary mass, a the semi-major axis, τcirc the timescale for being both below 40 s, no supersampling has been applied for
the circularisation of the orbit, Fi the incident flux on the top of those two datasets. The exposure time of the EulerCam data be-
the planetary atmosphere, T eq the equilibrium temperature of the ing around 80 s and the ingress and egress for this system being
planet (assuming an albedo of 0), H the scale height of the atmo- relatively short (∼10 min), we decided to supersample the model
sphere assuming a mean molecular weight of 2.2 g/mol, ρ∗ the by a factor of four.
stellar mean density and log g the stellar log gravity. Both ρ∗ and
A first analysis of this system showed that the two datasets
log g are, in this case inferred from the transit profile13 . These es-
collected with EulerCam were not compatible. The 2014 Eu-
timates are marked with (tr.) in Table A.4. After the full MCMC
lerCam dataset displayed a very pronounced V-shape that was
analysis, we computed the value of all these secondary param-
not supported by the other datasets. As described in Sect. 2.2.1,
eters from the main parameters values and at each step of each
this dataset was identified earlier as being affected by large PSF
walker of the second emcee exploration. Then we estimated their
variations, and stellar counts in the non-linear regime of the Eu-
MAP and 68% confidence level interval with the same method
lerCam CCD. So we decided to discard it from the final analysis.
than the main parameters.
We also noticed that the residuals of the 2016 EulerCam light
The specificities for the analysis of each system were:
curve seemed to exhibit a quadratic trend and introduced three
additional parameters to our model to account for a possible
WASP-151: the exposure times of the WASP, IAC80, Eu- quadratic variation of the out-of-transit level. When doing so, we
lerCam and TRAPPIST data are all below 90 s which is negligi- used the time of the first sample (tmin = 2 457 700.517166 HJD)
ble compared to the time scale of the transit variations (typically as the origin for the quadratic function: ∆FOOT +(t−tmin ) ∆FOOT
0
+
30 min for the transit ingress and egress). However the exposure (t − tmin ) ∆FOOT ).
2 000
time of the K2 light curve is 29.424 min. Consequently, for the We re-analyzed jointly all the datasets with these three ad-
model of the K2 data, we supersampled14 the model by a factor ditional free parameters in our model. The inferred parameter
of ten. This means that for each exposure, we computed the in- values and error bars are reported in Table A.4. Figures 6 and
stantaneous value predicted by the model at ten different times 7 show the photometric and radial velocity data phase folded at
evenly distributed over the exposure and then used the average the best-fit ephemeris (see Table A.4) with the best-fit model and
of these ten values as the model value for the whole exposure. residuals. The error bars displayed take into account the best-fit
A first analysis of this system showed a linear trend in the jitter values obtained by the Bayesian inference (see Table A.4).
residuals of the TRAPPIST and the September IAC80 light
curves. We also noticed a more complex behavior in the Novem-
ber IAC80 light curves that we decomposed into two linear 3.2.2. Stellar modeling
trends with a break point at t = 2 457 328.5022 HJD. There-
fore we split the November IAC80 light curves into two and In Sect. 3.1, we derived stellar masses and radii from T eff ,
log g and [Fe/H] using the Torres et al. (2010) calibration and
13
To obtain log g, we also used the estimate of the stellar mass obtained ages using lithium abundances and gyrochronology. If those
in the next Sect. 3.2.2. two age estimates seem to agree for our three systems, the
14
We refer the reader to Kipping (2010) for more details regarding the lithium constraint on the age is very weak and gyrochronol-
need of supersampling in light-curve modeling. ogy is known to sometimes contradict other age estimators such
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 A&A 610, A63 (2018)

as isochronal ages (e.g., Buzasi et al. 2016; Angus et al. 2015; robust with typical uncertainties .5% depending on the quality
Kovács 2015; Maxted et al. 2015b). Furthermore, the additional of the light curve and the photometric stellar variability. As de-
constraint brought by the stellar density inferred from the transit scribed in Sect. 2.1, our three stars are not particularly active. We
and a dedicated modeling of the star should result in more ac- will thus rely on the stellar mass and radius estimates obtained in
curate estimates of the stellar masses and radii. Consequently this section for the rest of the paper, even if we show in Figs. 9,
to provide a more comprehensive view of our three systems, 10, and Table A.4 the estimates which rely on the spectroscopic
we modeled the stars using the Fortran software bagemass15 log g for completeness.
(Maxted et al. 2015a).
Bagemass relies on a grid of stellar models16 produced with
the GARSTEC stellar evolution code (Weiss & Schlattl 2008). 4. Discussion and conclusion
This grid covers the mass range between 0.6 to 2.0 M , the initial Table A.4 gives us an exhaustive picture of these three systems
metallicity range between −0.75 to 0.55 dex and the age range and allows us to put them in context. WASP-151b and WASP-
between the end of the pre-main-sequence phase up to 17.5 Gyr 153b are relatively similar. Their masses of 0.31 and 0.39 MJup
(or a maximum radius of 3 R depending on which one occurs and semi-major axes of 0.056 AU and 0.048 AU respectively in-
first). In order to obtain stellar properties for any mass, metal- dicate two Saturn-size objects around early G type stars of V
licity and age within these ranges, and not only for the points in magnitude ∼12.8. WASP-156b’s radius of 0.51 RJup suggests a
the grid, bagemass uses the cubic spline interpolation algorithm super-Neptune19 and makes it the smallest planet ever detected
PSPLINE17 . Given measurements (values and error bars) for the by WASP. Its mass of 0.128 MJup is also the third lightest planet
T eff , [Fe/H] and density (ρ∗ ) of the star studied, it then explores detected by WASP after WASP-139b (Hellier et al. 2017) and
this parameter space using a MCMC method which computes WASP-107b (Anderson et al. 2017). It is also interesting that
the posterior probability as a function of mass and age. WASP-156 is a bright (mag V = 11.6) K type star.
Using the T eff and [Fe/H] estimates provided by the spectral In the following two sections, we compared the posi-
analysis and the stellar density estimates obtained from the anal- tion of our three planets in the mass-radius diagram with the
ysis of the transit (see Sect. 3.2 and Table A.4), we obtained es- isochrones of Baraffe et al. (2008) to constrain their composi-
timates and 68% confidence interval error bars for the ischronal tion. Baraffe et al. (2008) provide two types of models, one with-
age and the mass of our three stars18 . These values are reported in out irradiation and one with the irradiation received at 0.045 AU
Table A.4. Figure 8 shows the marginalized probability distribu- from the Sun. Given the semi-major axes of our planets, the latter
tion in the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram along with the best-fit is the most suited to this study and is the one we used in Fig. 9.
evolutionary model and isochrones for our three stars. To pro- We refer readers interested in the details of these models to the
vide more robust error bars, the error provided in Table A.4 for associated publication.
the mass estimate (M∗ (tr. + ev. track)) is the square-root of the In the third section, we discuss the age estimates of those
quadratic sum of the internal error and the sensitivities to the three systems. More specifically, we address the apparent dis-
mixing length parameter and the helium-enhancement. Finally, crepancy between the gyrochronological and isochronal ages
we also computed new estimates for the secondary parameters and the possible insight that it provides regarding the migration
of the transit and RV analysis (see Sect. 3.2.1) which rely on the mechanism of the planets in these systems. Finally, the fourth
stellar mass and radius estimates. The most sensitive of those pa- section is devoted to the impact of these three planets on our
rameters are R p , M p , ρ p , H and Fi . We reported these estimates understanding of the Neptunian desert (Mazeh et al. 2016).
in Table A.4.
The interpretation of the isochronal age estimate is the sub-
ject of Sect. 4.3, so we will now focus on the stellar mass and ra- 4.1. Two hot Saturns: WASP-151b and WASP-153b
dius estimates. For WASP-151, this analysis provides estimates
WASP-151b and WASP-153b’s positions in the mass-radius dia-
that are compatible within one sigma with the ones obtained
gram indicate two low density gaseous planets (see Fig. 9). Their
with the Torres et al. (2010) calibration (Sect. 3.1). However for
masses are close to that of Saturn but their radii are significantly
WASP-153 and WASP-156, it’s not the case. The stellar mod-
bigger, especially for WASP-153b. According to its isochronal
eling predicts a significantly bigger radius for WASP-153 and a
age and its relative position compared to the isochrones of
significantly lower radius for WASP-156 while the masses are
Baraffe et al. (2008), WASP-151b should have a heavy-element
compatible within one sigma (see Table A.4). This difference is
mass fraction slightly smaller than 2%. Similarly, WASP-153b’s
mainly explained by the difference in log g between the spec-
heavy-element mass fraction should be significantly smaller than
troscopic and transit analyses (see tr. and spec. values of log g
2%. Knowing that WASP-151 has a metallicity compatible with
in Table A.4). The comparison of log g estimates from spec-
that of the Sun, that WASP-153 is super-metallic ([Fe/H] =
troscopy made by Smalley (2005) showed that a realistic error
0.34 ± 0.11 dex) and that the Sun’s heavy element mass fraction
bars for a log g estimator from spectroscopy is ∼20%, while the
is close to 2% (e.g., Baraffe et al. 2008), these heavy element
one inferred from the transit density is more direct and more
mass fractions inferior to 2% are unlikely. Consequently, WASP-
15
We used the version 1.1 available at http://sourceforge.net/
151b appears to be slightly more bloated than the models predict
projects/bagemass and WASP-153b exhibits a significant radius anomaly. This in-
16
bagemass provides several grids with different mixing length (αMLT terpretation is, of course, dependant on the accuracy of our mass,
equals 1.78 or 1.50) and different helium-enhancement (0.0 or 0.2). For radius and age estimates. As shown in Fig. 9, if we rely on the
this work, we used the default values which correspond to no helium- planetary radius inferred from the purely spectroscopic stellar
enhancement and αMLT = 1.78. However, in Table A.6, we present esti- parameters (Sect. 3.1), WASP-151b and WASP-153b are com-
mates of the sensitivity of the results to this assumptions. patible within one sigma with the model of Baraffe et al. (2008).
17
The PSPLINE algorithm is available at http://w3.pppl.gov/
ntcc/PSPLINE 19
Bakos et al. (2015) defined the class of super-Neptunes as the plan-
18
The complete output table provided by bagemass is available in ets whose mass lies between 0.054 MJup (the mass of Neptune) and
Table A.6. 0.18 MJup (halfway between the mass of Neptune and Saturn).

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 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

Fig. 8. WASP-151, WASP-153 and WASP-156 marginalized posterior distribution in the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. The dotted black lines
correspond to the zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) at best-fit [Fe/H]. This is defined as the time at which the star reaches its minimum luminosity
and stellar ages are measured relative to this time. The blue lines are stellar mass evolutionary tracks and the orange ones are age isochrones. For
both isochrones and evolutionary tracks the solid line correspond to the best-fit model (maximum of joint likelihood distribution) and the dashed
lines correspond to the two extrema of the 68% confidence interval. For more details see Sect. 3.2.2 and Table A.6.

Fig. 9. WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b in the mass-radius diagram. The black points with 1σ error bars are the known confirmed
planets according to exoplanet.eu (Schneider et al. 2011). Their transparency reflect the relative precision on their mass and radius. The better the
parameter of a planet are constrained the more opaque the point is. The red and blue points with 1σ errors bars are the planets announced by this
paper. For the red points the mass and radius estimates rely on stellar parameters obtained via evolutionary tracks and the stellar density inferred
from the transit (see Sect. 3.2.2), while for the blue points, they rely on purely spectroscopic stellar parameters (see Sect. 3.1). The solar system
planets (Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) have also been reported in this diagram for reference. The two shaded areas at the bottom of the graph define
the non-planetary regime (gray striped) and the rocky-water world regime (green) as defined by Zeng & Sasselov (2013). Consequently the rest
of the diagram represents the gaseous-ice giant regime. The solid, dotted and dashed lines represent the mass-radius relations for gaseous planets
of different age and different heavy element mass fraction (Z) as described by (Baraffe et al. 2008). The type of line (solid, dashed, or dotted)
represents the heavy element mass fraction and the color of the line represents the age. These models have been used to constrain the nature and
composition of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b, see Sects. 4.1 and 4.2.

However as discussed in Sect. 3.2.2, these estimates appear less exceeds both thresholds and WASP-151b exceeds the incident
precise and less accurate than the ones above, which rely on the flux threshold, but is slightly below the radius threshold.
stellar densities inferred from the transit and stellar models.
Given the relatively high incident flux received by these
4.2. A warm super-Neptune: WASP-156b
two planets (460 Fi,⊕ for WASP-151b and 1400 Fi,⊕ for WASP-
153b), the radius anomalies that they exhibit was expected. WASP-156b’s position in the mass-radius diagram suggests a
Indeed, it is in agreement with the empirical thresholds de- composition significantly different from the ones of WASP-151b
fined by Miller & Fortney (2011) and Lopez & Fortney (2016) and WASP-153b. Baraffe et al. (2008) models indicate a high
for an abnormally inflated radius: R > 1.2 RJup and Fi > heavy element mass fraction around 90 %, in agreement with the
2 × 108 erg s−1 cm−2 ∼ 150 Fi,⊕ . WASP-153b significantly one of Neptune and Uranus (Helled & Guillot 2017), depicting
A63, page 11 of 19
 A&A 610, A63 (2018)

WASP-156b as a warm super-Neptune. Super-Neptunes with Table 3. Age estimates of WASP-151, WASP-153 and WASP-156.
precise determination of the mass and radius (better than 15 %)
are relatively rare since only nine of these objects are known Star Iso. [Gyr] Gyro. [Gyr] Li
at the moment: Kepler-9c (Torres et al. 2011), Kepler-35b
WASP-151 5.13+1.33
−1.33 1.80+2.03
−1.00 several Gyr
(Welsh et al. 2012), Kepler-101b (Bonomo et al. 2014), HATS-
7b (Bakos et al. 2015), HATS-8b (Bayliss et al. 2015), WASP- WASP-153 4.00+0.77
−0.77 1.21+1.19
−0.60 several Myr
107b (Anderson et al. 2017), WASP-127b (Lam et al. 2017), WASP-156 6.50+4.03
−4.03 0.58+0.51
−0.31 &500 Myr
WASP-139b (Hellier et al. 2017), and WASP-156b. Amongst
this class of planets, WASP-156b, as a warm (T eq = 970 K) Notes. Iso. stands for isochronal age, Gyro. for gyrochronological
and dense (ρp = 1.0 ρJup ) super-Neptune, is particularly interest- age and Li for the age constraint based and lithium abundance. The
ing to investigate the gaseous to ice giant transition as described isochronal age estimates in this table are obtained using the mean value
by Anderson et al. (2017) and Bakos et al. (2015). WASP-156 of the marginalized posterior distribution of the age. For WASP-151
is also currently the brightest super-Neptune host star, with a V and WASP-153, these are compatible with the maximum-likelihood es-
magnitude of 11.6, making it a target of prime interest for future timate. However for WASP-156, it is not the case since the latter give
atmospheric characterization. an age of 0.5 Gyr (see Table A.6).

4.3. Discrepancy between the ages estimators, an insight transfer of angular momentum from the giant planet to the star
on migration mechanisms? during the tidal circularisation of the planet’s orbit involved in
high eccentricity migration. On the contrary, disk driven migra-
In Sects. 3.1 and 3.2.2, we derived ages for our three stars tion implies an exchange of angular momentum between the
with Lithium abundance, gyrochronology and isochrone fitting. planet and the disk and cannot directly explain an increase of
These results are reported in Table 3. The tendency that arises the stellar rotation. Furthermore, contrary to disk driven migra-
from this table is that our stars tend to have isochronological tion, high eccentricity migration is not bounded to the short
ages that are significantly higher than their gyrochronological protoplanetary disk lifetime and can occur at an older stage of
ages. This tendency, limited here to three cases, has already been the system amplifying even more the discrepancy between the
observed by Maxted et al. (2015b) for a broader sample of 28 two age estimates. If this hypothesis is confirmed for stars host-
transiting exoplanets where at least half of the sample exhibits ing short period planets, a gyrochronological age significantly
this discrepancy. Interestingly for more than 80% of the stars in smaller the isochronal age (e.g., the three host star presented in
this sample, and for our three stars, the planetary companion is a this paper) would indicate that the planet migrated through high-
short-period (less than five days) giant planet. eccentricity migration while a gyrochronological age compatible
Discrepancies between gyrochronological and isochrono- with the isochronal one (e.g., WASP-33; Collier Cameron et al.
logical ages have been reported by several studies and not 2010) would suggest a disk driven migration (or an in-situ for-
only in the context of planet host stars, see for exam- mation).
ple Angus et al. (2015), Kovács (2015), Buzasi et al. (2016). Obviously, a more thorough analysis is necessary to investi-
Maxted et al. (2015b) found that gyrochronological age esti- gate all the possible implications behind this hypothesis. Such
mates were significantly lower than the isochronological ones an analysis is beyond the scope of this paper but we think
for about half of their sample of planetary hosts. Kovács (2015) that this hypothesis is worth investigating. In this context, a
reached a similar conclusion from a galactic field stars sam- search for long period companions that might have triggered
ple. Finally Buzasi et al. (2016) and Angus et al. (2015) brought the high eccentricity migration or an independent age estimate
to light inconsistencies in the gyrochronological age estimator through asterosismology with TESS (Campante et al. 2016) or
when applied to different samples. This problem is thus complex Plato (Rauer et al. 2014) would be particularly interesting.
and has multiple facets. Consequently, it will not be solved solely
by the three stars discussed in this paper. However they can give
us insights regarding the specific question of the underestimation 4.4. Three planets at the border of the Neptunian desert
provided by the gyrochronological age estimator observed for a As described in the introduction, Mazeh et al. (2016) studied the
fraction of the short period planet host stars population. distribution of the planet population in the orbital period, mass
To explain the hot giant planet population, the core-accretion and radius domain and reported the lower and upper mass and ra-
scenario requires a mechanism to migrate these planets from dius boundaries of the short period Neptunian desert. Figure 10
their formation location, beyond the ice line, to the vicinity shows that WASP-151b and WASP-153b lie near the upper
of their parent star. There are currently two mechanisms de- boundaries of the desert, while WASP-156b stands well inside it.
bated in the literature for this migration: disk driven migration The authors mentioned that the period limit of the desert was not
(e.g., Lin et al. 1996; Ward 1997) and high eccentricity migra- well constrained, however they also indicated that these borders
tion (e.g., Rasio & Ford 1996; Fabrycky & Tremaine 2007). The delineate the boundaries for periods below five days, which is
main observational arguments to favor one over the other are: the case of WASP-156b. Understanding the differences between
spin-orbit misalignment (e.g., Naoz et al. 2012), stellar metal- WASP-156b on the one side and WASP-151b and WASP-153b
licity (e.g., Dawson & Murray-Clay 2013), the presence of ad- on the other side might allow us to shed light on the mecha-
ditional companions (e.g., Schlaufman & Winn 2016) and the nism responsible for the upper boundary of the Neptunian desert.
Roche separation (e.g., Nelson et al. 2017). Mazeh et al. (2016) proposed two explanations for the origin of
In the light of Table 3 and the study performed by the upper boundary of the desert:
Maxted et al. (2015b), we suggest that a gyrochronological age
significantly smaller than the isochronal one could be evidence – Gaseous planets cannot exist below the upper boundary, be-
to identify the mechanism responsible for the migration of giant cause they would lose their gaseous envelope due to stellar
planets. A gyrochronological ages significantly lower than the insolation (e.g., Lopez & Fortney 2014) or Roche-lobe over-
isochronological one might indeed be explained by the important flow (e.g., Kurokawa & Nakamoto 2014).
A63, page 12 of 19
 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

Fig. 10. WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b in the radius versus orbital period (left) and the mass versus orbital period (right) domains. The
colored points correspond to the known exoplanet and the color reflect their bolometric incident flux. WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b
are circled in black and the black dashed lines correspond to the upper and lower boundaries of the Neptunian desert as reported by Mazeh et al.
(2016), see Sect. 4.4 for details.

– Gaseous planets are formed further away from their parent vicinity of the Roche limit of their host star and suggest that the
star and cannot migrate below the upper boundary, because slopes and positions of the upper and lower boundaries are a di-
at this distance from the star the disk is not dense enough to rect consequence of the different mass-radius relations for rocky
sustain inward migration. and gaseous planets.
While a detailed analysis of the origin of the Neptunian desert Acknowledgements. O.D.S.D acknowledges the support from Fundação para a
is beyond the scope of this paper, it is still interesting to look Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through national funds and by FEDER through
into the similarities and differences between WASP-156b and COMPETE2020 by grants UID/FIS/04434/2013&POCI-01-0145-FEDER-
WASP-151b/WASP-153b since they might provide useful in- 007672 and PTDC/FIS-AST/1526/2014&POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016886.
S.C.C.B. also acknowledges support from FCT through Investigador FCT
sights on the nature of this desert. These three planets pos- contract IF/01312/2014/CP1215/CT0004. C.A.H. was supported by STFC
sess similar orbital parameters (see Table A.4). Their ages are under grant ST/P000584/1. A.S.B. acknowledges funding from the European
subject to caution (as discussed in Sect. 4.3), but a given es- Union Seventh Framework programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement
timator provides similar ages for these three stars. Their gy- No. 313014 (ETAEARTH). D.J.A.B acknowledges funding from the UKSA and
rochronological ages indicate relatively young systems (∼1 Gyr the University of Warwick. F.F. acknowledges financial support from “Accordo
ASI–INAF for PLATO” No. 2015-019-R.0 July 29, 2015. L.D. acknowledges
for WASP-151 and WASP-153 and ∼0.5 Gyr for WASP-156), support from the Gruber Foundation Fellowship. The SuperWASP Consortium
while their isochronal ages indicate ∼5 Gyr old systems. How- consists of astronomers primarily from University of Warwick, Queens Univer-
ever, their radiative environments are significantly different. sity Belfast, St. Andrews, Keele, Leicester, The Open University, Isaac Newton
WASP-151b and WASP-153b receive a higher bolometric irradi- Group La Palma and Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. The SuperWASP-N
camera is hosted by the Issac Newton Group on La Palma and WASPSouth
ation (460, 1400 and 150 Fi,⊕ for WASP-151b, WASP153b and is hosted by SAAO. We are grateful for their support and assistance. Funding
WASP-156b respectively). Moreover, the spectral types of their for WASP comes from consortium universities and from the UK’s Science and
host stars are different (early G for WASP-151 and WASP-153 Technology Facilities Council. The research leading to these results has received
and early K for WASP-156) implying a different spectral con- funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework programmes
(FP7/2007-2013 and FP7/2013-2016) under grant agreement number RG226604
tent of the irradiation, especially in extreme ultra-violet (EUV). and 312430 (OPTICON), respectively. This work is based on radial velocity
The EUV flux is particularly interesting in this context since observations made at Observatoire de Haute Provence (CNRS), France and
it is the main contributor for exoplanet atmosphere evapora- at ESO in La Silla (Chile) with the CORALIE Echelle spectrograph mounted
tion. Lecavelier Des Etangs (e.g., 2007) provided estimates for on the Swiss telescope. We thank the staff at Haute-Provence Observatory.
TRAPPIST is funded by the Belgian Fund for Scientific Research (Fond
the EUV flux emitted by stars of different spectral types. Ac- National de la Recherche Scientifique, F.R.S.-FNRS) under the grant FRFC
cording to these estimates, the EUV flux received by WASP- 2.5.594.09.F, with the participation of the Swiss National Science Fundation
156b is approximately three times higher than the one received (SNF). The research leading to these results has received funding from the
by WASP-151b and WASP-153b, FEUV@1AU is 15 erg cm−2 s−1 ARC grant for Concerted Research Actions, financed by the Wallonia-Brussels
for K type stars and 5 erg cm−2 s−1 for G type stars. This sug- Federation. M.G. and E.J. are, respectively, Research Associate and Senior
Research Associate at the F.R.S.-FNRS. The Swiss Euler Telescope is a project
gests that photo-evaporation is the mechanism responsible for financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation. The Liverpool Telescope
the presence of WASP-156b below the upper boundary of the is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University
short-period Neptunian desert. WASP-156 may be in the process in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto
of losing its gaseous envelope in a short-lived evolutionary phase de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and
Technology Facilities Council. The Aristarchos telescope is operated on Helmos
which places it within the underpopulated short-period Neptu- Observatory by the Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications
nian desert. and Remote Sensing of the National Observatory of Athens. This paper includes
Finally, in the context of the hypothesis formulated in data collected by the K2 mission. Funding for the K2 mission is provided by
Sect. 4.3, it is also interesting to mention the alternative expla- the NASA Science Mission directorate. Used Simbad, Vizier, exoplanet.eu. The
authors also want to thank Pedro Figueira, Nuno Santos and Mahmoud Oshagh
nation defended by Matsakos & Königl (2016) for the origin of for fruitful discussions and Joao Faria for his Python figure styler. Most of the
the Neptunian desert. The authors present the desert as the re- analyses presented in this paper were performed using the Python language
sult of high-eccentricity migration of planets that arrive in the (version 3.5) available at http://www.python.org and several scientific

A63, page 13 of 19
 A&A 610, A63 (2018)

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 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

Appendix A: Additional tables

Table A.4. System parameters from Bayesian MCMC analysis.

WASP-151b WASP-153b WASP-156b

Planetary parameters
Rp [RJup ] (adopted, from tr. + ev. track) 1.13+0.03
−0.03 1.55+0.10
−0.08 0.51+0.02
−0.02
Rp [RJup ] (from spec.) 1.2+0.2
−0.2 1.1+0.2
−0.2 0.63+0.10
−0.10
Mp [MJup ] (adopted, from tr. + ev. track) 0.31+0.04
−0.03 0.39+0.02
−0.02 0.128+0.010
−0.009
Mp [MJup ] (from spec.) 0.33+0.04
−0.03 0.37+0.02
−0.02 0.13+0.01
−0.01
ρp [ρJup ] (adopted, from tr. + ev. track) 0.22+0.03
−0.02 0.11+0.02
−0.02 1.0+0.1
−0.1
ρp [ρJup ] (from spec.) 0.18+0.11
−0.06 0.3+0.2
−0.1 0.5+0.3
−0.2
1.29 × 103 +2×10 1.70 × 103 +4×10 9.7 × 102 +3×10
1 1 1
T eq [K] −1×101 −4×101 −2×101
4.533471+4×10 3.332609+2×10 3.836169+3×10
−6 −6 −6
P • [days] −4×10−6 −2×10−6 −3×10−6
57 741.0081+1×10 53 142.542+0.003 54 677.707+0.002
−4
tc • [BJD – 2 400 000] −2×10−4 −0.003 −0.002
a [AU] 0.055+0.001
−0.001 0.048+0.001
−0.001 0.0453+0.0009
−0.0009
e <0.003 <0.009 <0.007
−5 × 101 +1.2×10
2
ω∗ [◦ ] −3×101
unconstrained unconstrained
i [◦ ] 89.2+0.6
−0.6 84.1+0.7
−0.7 89.1+0.6
−0.9
√ •
0.000+1.0×10 −0.00+0.05 −0.01+0.04
−2
e cos ω∗ −9×10−3 −0.05 −0.10
√ •
e sin ω∗ 0.00+0.03
−0.04 −0.00+0.05
−0.05 0.00+0.05
−0.05
cos i • 0.015+0.009
−0.010 0.10+0.01
−0.01 0.02+0.02
−0.01
a/R∗ • 10.34+0.11
−0.19 6.0+0.3
−0.2 12.8+0.3
−0.7
Rp /R∗ • [%] 10.11+0.05
−0.03 9.2+0.1
−0.1 6.85+0.12
−0.08
∆F/F [%] 1.021+0.01
−0.007 0.85+0.02
−0.02 0.47+0.02
−0.01
D14 [h] 3.66+0.02
−0.01 3.84+0.05
−0.05 2.41+0.04
−0.03
D23 [h] 2.97+0.01
−0.02 2.83+0.07
−0.06 2.08+0.03
−0.03
K • [m s−1 ] 37+4
−3 44+2
−2 19+1
−1
τcirc [Gyr] 0.03+0.004
−0.003 0.0022+0.0006
−0.0006 0.26+0.06
−0.05
8.0 × 102 +9×10 1.6 × 103 +2×10 3.0 × 102 +4×10
1 2 1
H [km] (adopted, from tr. + ev. track) −8×101 −2×102 −3×101
9.0 × 102 +3×10 8 × 102 +3×10 5 × 102 +2×10
2 2 2
H [km] (from spec.) −3×102 −2×102 −1×102
4.6 × 102 +2×10 1.4 × 103 +2×10 1.5 × 102 +1×10
1 2 1
Fi [Fi,⊕ ] (adopted, from tr. + ev. track) −2×101 −1×102 −1×101
5 × 102 +2×10 7 × 102 +3×10 2 × 102 +8×10
2 2 1
Fi [Fi,⊕ ] (from spec.) −1×102 −2×102 −7×101

Stellar parameters
RA [hours:minutes:s] 23:16:15.22 18:37:02.97 02:11:07.61
Dec [degrees minutes s] 00 18 24.5 40 01 07.4 02 25 04.8
Sp. Type (spec.) G1 G0 K3

Notes. (spec.) indicates that the estimate has been performed using the spectroscopic data only (Sect. 3.1). (tr.) indicates that the estimate has
been performed using transit and RV analysis only (Sect. 3.2.1). (spec., tr.) indicates that the estimate has been performed using both transit and
spectroscopic data (Sect. 3.2.1). M∗ and R∗ (spec.) estimates are performed using the spectroscopic T eff , log g, [Fe/H] and the Torres et al. (2010)
calibration. M∗ and R∗ (tr. + ev. track) are provided by bagemass using ρ∗ (tr.), T eff and [Fe/H] (spec.) (Sect. 3.2.2). (from spec.) indicates that
the estimate has been performed using M∗ and R∗ (spec.) estimates. (adopted, from tr. + ev. track) indicates that the estimate has been performed
using M∗ and R∗ (tr. + ev. track) estimates and that we adopted those values as final values for the system. We believe that those values are more
accurate than the one provided the spectroscopic parameters and the Torres et al. (2010) calibration. Spectral Types are estimated from T eff using
the table in Gray (2008). Abundances are relative to the solar values obtained by Asplund et al. (2009). • indicates that the parameter is a jumping
parameter in the MCMC analysis. For more details of the meaning of the notations used for the parameters name, see Sect. 3.2.

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Table A.4. continued.

WASP-151b WASP-153b WASP-156b

V mag 12.9 12.8 11.6
J mag 11.5 11.4 9.9
V−K 1.7 1.7 2.2
M∗ [M ] (adopted, tr. + ev. track.) 1.077 ± 0.081 1.336 ± 0.086 0.842 ± 0.052
M∗ [M ] (spec.) 1.14 ± 0.09 1.20 ± 0.09 0.87 ± 0.07
R∗ [R ] (adopted, tr. + ev. track.) 1.14+0.03
−0.03 1.73+0.10
−0.09 0.76+0.03
−0.03
R∗ [R ] (spec.) 1.24 ± 0.18 1.18 ± 0.20 0.95 ± 0.15
Age [Gyr] (adopted, Isochrone) 5.1+1.3
−1.3 4.0+0.8
−0.8 6.4+4.0
−4.0
Age [Gyr] (Gyrochronology) 1.80+2.03
−1.00 1.21+1.19
−0.60 0.58+0.51
−0.31
ρ∗ [ρ ] (tr.) 0.72+0.02
−0.04 0.26+0.04
−0.03 1.9+0.1
−0.3
T eff [K] (spec.) 5871 ± 57 5914 ± 64 4910 ± 61
log g (spec.) 4.30 ± 0.11 4.36 ± 0.13 4.40 ± 0.12
log g (adopted, tr.) 4.35+0.02
−0.03 4.10+0.06
−0.06 4.60+0.04
−0.07
[Fe/H] [dex] (spec.) 0.10 ± 0.10 0.34 ± 0.11 0.24 ± 0.12
v sin i∗ [km s−1 ] (spec.) 4.25 ± 0.90 5.19 ± 0.95 3.80 ± 0.91
vmac [km s−1 ] (spec.) 3.73 ± 0.73 3.73 ± 0.73 2.77 ± 0.73
ξt [km s−1 ] (spec.) 0.32 ± 0.10 0.59 ± 0.06
log A(Li) (spec.) 1.73 ± 0.05 2.77 ± 0.05 <0.19 ± 0.08
Distance [pc] (spec.) 480 ± 75 430 ± 35 140 ± 25 pc
−12.369+0.002 −29.004+0.002 9.5891+9×10
−4
v0SOPHIE • [km s−1 ] (tr.) −0.002 −0.001 −9×10−4
uJohson R • (spec., tr.) 0.478+0.002
−0.002 0.486+0.002
−0.002 0.591+0.003
−0.003
vJohson R • (spec., tr.) 0.129+0.005
−0.005 0.126+0.005
−0.005 0.082+0.008
−0.008
uSloan z • (spec., tr.) 0.341+0.001
−0.001
vSloan z • (spec., tr.) 0.127+0.004
−0.004
uKp • (spec., tr.) 0.549+0.003
−0.003
vKp • (spec., tr.) 0.114+0.005
−0.005
uNGTS • (spec., tr.) 0.487+0.002
−0.002
vNGTS • (spec., tr.) 0.131+0.004
−0.005
uV+R • (spec., tr.) 0.549+0.002
−0.002
vV+R • (spec., tr.) 0.118+0.006
−0.006
uJohson I • (spec., tr.) 0.461+0.002
−0.002
vJohson I • (spec., tr.) 0.0995+0.0066
−0.0074
uGunn r • (spec., tr.) 0.461+0.002
−0.002
vGunn r • (spec., tr.) 0.103+0.007
−0.007

Parameters of instruments
∆RVCORALIE/SOPHIE • [km s−1 ] 0.055+0.008
−0.009 0.043+0.002
−0.002
ln fσSOPHIE • 0.03+0.04
−0.05 0.04+0.04
−0.04 0.08+0.04
−0.04
ln fσCORALIE • −0.01+0.06
−0.06 −0.01+0.05
−0.05
ln fσK2 • 1.71+0.02
−0.02
ln fσEulerCam • 0.24+0.03
−0.03 0.43+0.03
−0.03
ln fσTRAPPIST • 0.01+0.03
−0.02

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Table A.4. continued.

WASP-151b WASP-153b WASP-156b

ln fσWASP •
0.112+0.008
−0.009 −0.056+0.008
−0.008 0.31+0.01
−0.01
ln fσLiverpool • −1.601+0.006
−0.006
ln •
fσRISE2 −0.81+0.02
−0.02
ln fσNITES • 0.39+0.03
−0.02
ln fσIAC80 • −0.32+0.04
−0.05
−0.26+0.05
−0.05
−0.14+0.05
−0.05
0.0042+4×10
−4
∆FOOT,IAC80 • −4×10−4
−7 × 10−4 +6×10
−4

−6×10−4
−1 × 10−4 +8×10
−4

−8×10−4
∆FOOT,IAC80
0 •
[day−1 ] −0.024+0.004
−0.003
−0.008+0.007
−0.007
0.02+0.02
−0.02
−2 × 10−6 +3×10
−4
∆FOOT,TRAPPIST • −3×10−4
+0.004
∆FOOT,TRAPPIST
0 •
[day−1 ] 0.008−0.004
7 × 10−6 +1×10
−4
∆FOOT,EulerCam • −1×10−4
−5 × 10−4 +9×10
−4
∆FOOT,EulerCam
0 •
[day−1 ] −9×10−4
∆FOOT,EulerCam [day−2 ]
00 •
−0.001+0.001
−0.001

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Table A.5. Prior functions for each free parameters.

Parameters WASP-151b WASP-153b WASP-156b

P [days] N(4.5334, 0.003) N(3.333, 0.001) N(3.83616, 3 × 105 )
tc [BJD – 2 400 000] N(57 741.0, 0.1) N(53 142.5, 0.1)[µ − 2σ, µ + 2σ] N(54677.71, 0.01)
√ √
e cos ω∗ ————- N(0, 0.05)[0, 1/ 2] ————-
√ √
e sin ω∗ ————- N(0, 0.05)[0, 1/ 2] ————-
cos i ————- N(0, 0.1)[0., 1.] ————-
a/R∗ N(8.67, 1)[1., 30] N(8.4, 1)[1, 50] U(1., 30)
Rp /R∗ [%] ————- U(1, 20) ————-
K [m s−1 ] ————- U(0, 1) ————-
v0SOPHIE [km s−1 ] N(−12.4, 0.02) N(−29, 0.1) N(9.58, 0.01)
uJohson R N(0.4781, 0.0022) N(0.4859, 0.0020) N(0.5911, 0.0032)
vJohson R N(0.1304, 0.0055) N(0.1258, 0.0053) N(0.0805, 0.0082)
uSloan z N(0.3412, 0.0013)
vSloan z N(0.1269, 0.0039)
uKp N(0.5501, 0.0025)
vKp N(0.1191, 0.0054)
uNGTS N(0.4861, 0.0021)
vNGTS N(0.1286, 0.0052)
uJohson I N(0.4608, 0.0024)
vJohson I N(0.1013, 0.0070)
uGunn r N(0.4608, 0.0024)
vGunn r N(0.0812, 0.0085)
∆RVCORALIE/SOPHIE [km s−1 ] N(0.05, 0.01) N(0.05, 0.005)
ln fσSOPHIE ————- N(0, 0.05) ————-
ln fσCORALIE N(0, 0.05) N(0, 0.05)
ln fσWASP ————- N(0, 0.05) ————-
ln fσK2 N(0, 0.05)
ln fσEulerCam N(0, 0.05) N(0, 0.05)
ln fσTRAPPIST N(0, 0.05)
ln fσLiverpool N(0, 0.05)
ln fσRISE2 N(0, 0.05)
ln fσNITES N(0, 0.05)
ln fσIAC80 N(0, 0.05)
∆FOOT,IAC80 N(0.005, 0.01)
N(0.0, 0.01)
N(0.0, 0.01)
∆FOOT,IAC80
0
[day−1 ] N(0.0, 0.33)
N(0.0, 0.1)
N(0.0, 0.1)
∆FOOT,TRAPPIST N(0.0, 0.001)
∆FOOT,TRAPPIST
0
[day−1 ] N(0.0, 0.005)
∆FOOT,EulerCam N(−0.00036, 0.001)
∆FOOT,EulerCam
0
[day−1 ] N(0.0012, 0.001)
∆FOOT,EulerCam
00
[day−2 ] N(−0.001, 0.001)

Notes. N(µ, σ) designate normal distributions of mean µ and standard deviation σ. N(µ, σ)[min, max] designate truncated normal distributions
with min and max as minimum and maximum value. U(min, max) designate uniform distributions with min and max as minimum and maximum
value. ————- distribution ————- indicates that the same prior distribution has been used for the analysis of the three systems.

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 O. Demangeon et al.: Discovery of WASP-151b, WASP-153b and WASP-156b

Table A.6. Complete bagemass output table giving the Bayesian mass and age estimates for WASP-151, WASP-153, and WASP-156.

Star τiso,b [Gyr] Mb [M ] [Fe/H]i,b χ2 hτiso i [Gyr] hM? i [M ] pMS στ,Y στ,α σ M,Y σ M,α
WASP-151 5.0 1.07 +0.162 0.002 5.13 ± 1.33 1.077 ± 0.048 1.00 −0.42 2.59 0.044 −0.049
WASP-153 3.8 1.35 +0.339 0.015 4.00 ± 0.77 1.336 ± 0.065 0.87 −0.08 0.79 0.052 −0.021
WASP-156 0.5 0.87 +0.255 0.02 6.50 ± 4.03 0.842 ± 0.036 1.00 −0.68 1.37 0.034 −0.017

Notes. Columns 2–4 give the maximum-likelihood estimates of the age, mass, and initial metallicity, respectively. Column 5 is the chi-squared
statistic of the fit for the parameter values in Cols. 2–4. Columns 6 and 7 give the mean and standard deviation of their marginalized posterior
distributions. Column 8 (pMS ) is the probability that the star is still on the main sequence. The systematic errors on the mass and age due to
uncertainties in the mixing length and helium abundance are given in Cols. 9 to 12. For more details see Sect. 3.2.2 and Maxted et al. (2015a).

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