Members:

Labra, Marc Joseph

Leop, Jacob Marion
Manrique, Emmanuel
Marco, Mark Anthony
Paypa, Larry
Tapiz, Marvin

DEMONSTRATION

Demonstration
- the act of showing someone how to perform a skill or how something works.
- a specific form of modeling that involves displaying a skill or process to learners, often with
the goal of helping them understand and replicate the behavior.

McCullagh and Weiss (2001) and McCullagh, Law, & Ste-Marie (2012)
- that demonstration is more effective when learners are already familiar with the skill or when
the skill is complex and requires a high level of precision.

Williams and Hodges (2005)

- questioned the effectiveness of demonstration as a universal instructional strategy, highlighting
that it may not be effective for all learners and all skills.

Reviews of research related to the effectiveness of demonstrations as an instructional strategy

concluded that the practitioner should use demonstration only after determining that the instructional
situation indeed warrants the use of demonstration, rather than some other form of providing
information about skill performance.

What the Observer Perceives from a Demonstration

Situations where demonstrations would be perceived should be based on what you actually “see”.

Distinction between “see” and “look at”

- Look at: Observing something
- See: what we perceive from what we looked at

Basic Difference: “Look at” is simply looking at something. “See” is looking and interpreting the
information you are receiving.

What a person sees from a demonstration is not necessarily something that he/she specifically looks
at or looks for

Ashford, Bennett, & Davids, 2006; Horn & Williams, 2004 - the observer perceives and uses the
invariant relative motions that characterize the coordinated movement pattern to develop his or her
own movement pattern to perform the skill.

Supporting Evidence:
1. Investigation into Visual Perception of Motion
2. Investigation into the Influence of Demonstration on Learning a Complex Skill

The Visual Perception of Motion

Research investigating the perception of human motion attempts to answer questions about how
people recognize movement patterns they see in their world.

Important Principle: people rarely use specific characteristics of the individual components of a
pattern. They use relative information about the relationships among the various components to make
judgments about the pattern.

Point-light technique - a research procedure used to determine the information people use to perceive
and identify coordinated human actions; it involves placing LEDs or light-reflecting material on certain
joints of a person, then filming or videotaping the person performing an action; when an observer
views the film or video, he or she sees only the points of light of the LEDs or light-reflecting markers,
which identify the joints in action.
(Johansson, 1973) showed that people could accurately label different gait patterns, such as walking
and running, by observing the moving dot patterns.

Cutting and Kozlowski (1977) showed that from observing moving dot patterns, people actually could
identify their friends.

Abernethy and Zawi (2007) have shown that expert badminton players could predict the direction of
an opponent’s strokes in advance of racquet-shuttlecock contact just as well when they viewed full-
body videos or point-light displays.

The research has shown that observers are able to detect a range of different movements and a
range of different movement characteristics based on point-light displays.

Hoenkamp (1978) showed that the movement characteristic people use to identify different gait
patterns is not any one kinematic variable, but the ratio of the time duration between the forward and
return swings of the lower leg.

From the various researches conducted on the perception of human movement, two important
conclusions were reached.
Conclusion #1: People can recognize different gait patterns accurately and quickly without
seeing the entire body or all the limbs move.

Conclusion #2: The most critical information people perceive in order to distinguish one type
of gait pattern from another is not any one characteristic of the gait, such as velocity of the
limbs. Instead, people use the invariant relative time relationship between two components of
gait.

Changes in Movement Characteristics and Their Influence on Skill

I. Introduction
Importance of understanding changes in movement characteristics
Changes in movement characteristics profoundly impact skill acquisition and execution.
• Schoenfelfelder – Zohdi
• Two right corvex, parallel

II. Movement Characteristics

Definition and types of movement characteristics (e.g., coordination, timing, sequencing)

Importance of each characteristic in skill performance

• Kinesmatic analysis and limb movements
• Ashford, Davids and Benneth (2006)

III. Factors Influencing Changes in Movement Characteristics

Biological factors (e.g., growth, aging)
Environmental factors (e.g., training, equipment)
Psychological factors (e.g., motivation, attention)
• Williams and Hodges
• Hodges, Hayes, Beslin and Williams (2005)
-Scoop, leg, foot and Toe

When learners view a skilled demonstration several movement characteristics may change
1. ACCURACY: Learners may improve thier accuracy in performing the movement by observing
the skill demonstration.
2. TIMING: Observing a skilled demonstration can help learners better Understand the timing of
movements involves in a task.
3. COORDINATION: Learners may enhance their coordination by mimicking the movements
demonstrated by skilled individuals
4. EFFICIENCY: Viewing a skilled demonstration can lead to improvements in the efficiency of
movement execution.
5. TECHNIQUE: Observing a skilled demonstration can provide learners with valuable insights
into proper technique.
IV. Influence of Changes in Movement Characteristics on Skill
Enhancements in performance due to improved movement characteristics
Challenges and limitations associated with changes in movement characteristics
Case studies or examples illustrating the influence of movement characteristics on skill execution
• Magil and Schoenfelfelder – Zahdi (1996)
• Acquisition of a new pattern of coordination

V. Strategies for Optimizing Movement Characteristics

Targeted training methods for improving specific movement characteristics
Rehabilitation approaches for restoring movement characteristics post-injury
Environmental modifications to support optimal movement characteristics

VI. Future Directions and Considerations

Emerging research areas related to movement characteristics and skill acquisition
Ethical considerations in manipulating movement characteristics for performance enhancement
Importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in understanding and optimizing movement
characteristics

VII. Conclusion
Recap of the significance of movement characteristics in skill execution

The Neural Basis for Observational Learning: Mirror Neurons in the Brain
Mirror neurons are a crucial component in the process of observational learning. These neurons have
been proposed as the neurophysiological basis of the perceptual-motor transformation mechanism,
which allows individuals to transform visual information into motor commands. This visuo-motor
transformation enables humans to learn how to execute an action based on the information taken
from observing others.

Several studies have provided evidence that supports Mirrorlike neurons in the human brain.

In the early 1990s, neuroscientists in Italy, led by Giacomo Rizzolatti, discovered that when monkeys
observed another monkey reach out its arm to grasp something, neurons in the F5 area of their
premotor cortex became active (see Miller, 2005; Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004).

In an early study, a group of neuroscientists in Los Angeles, California, pooled data from seven fMRI
studies in which people observed and imitated simple finger movements (Molnar-Szakacs, Iacoboni,
Koski, & Mazziotta, 2005).

Subsequent research by Catmur, Walsh, and Heyes (2009) showed that theta-burst transcranial
magnetic stimulation of the IFG disrupts automatic imitation of finger movements.

Researchers in Germany (Zentgraf et al., 2005) used fMRI to assess brain activity during the
observation of whole-body gymnastics movements

Other fMRI research has found mirrorlike neuron activity in the parietal cortex, which is involved in
interhemispheric visuomotor integration (Iacoboni & Zaidel, 2004), and lateral temporal cortex, which
is involved in processing complex visual motion (Beauchamp, Lee, Haxby, & Martin, 2003).

In addition to using fMRI, researchers have also used EEG recordings to provide evidence of the
involvement of a mirror neuron system during action observation (e.g., Calmels, Hars, Holmes, Jarry,
& Stam, 2008).

Observing Skilled Demonstrations

refers to the process of learning through watching the actions of an expert or a skilled individual. This
is a common instructional method used to convey information to the learner, especially in the context
of motor skill acquisition.

Two reasons are evident from the research literature. The first reason follows our discussion of
perception of information in the preceding section. If the observer perceives and uses information
related to invariant movement patterns, it is logical to expect the quality of performance resulting from
observing a demonstration to be related to the quality of the demonstration. Another reason is that in
addition to picking up coordination information, an observer also perceives information about the
strategy used by the model to solve the movement problem.

Novices Observing Other Novices Practice

Although the theoretical predictions and the empirical evidence indicate that it is preferable for
beginners to observe skilled demonstrators, evidence indicates that beginners can derive learning
benefits even from observing unskilled demonstrators, especially if both the observers and the
models are beginners. What this means is that the models are “demonstrators” only in that the
observers are watching them practice.

We can trace evidence for the benefit of this approach to the 1930s (e.g., Twitmeyer, 1931), although
widespread interest in this approach did not develop until Adams (1986) published some experiments.
Since then, others have pursued the investigation of the use and benefit of observing an unskilled
model (e.g., McCullagh & Meyer, 1997; Pollock & Lee, 1992; Ste-Marie, Law, Rymal, O, Hall, &
McCullagh, 2012; Weir & Leavitt, 1990). This research has consistently shown that beginners who
observe other beginners practicing a skill will perform at a higher level when they begin to perform
than the beginners they observed

The Timing and Frequency of Demonstrating a Skill

COMMUNICATION IS THE KEY

- One of the reasons for demonstrating a skill is to effectively communicate how to perform the
skill.
- For the beginner, demonstration provides an effective means of communicating the general
movement pattern of the action or skill
First Stage of Learning: Gentile’s View
- The first is that it is beneficial to demonstrate a skill before the person begins practicing it. The
second is that the instructor should continue demonstrating during practice as frequently as
necessary.
- Beginners who watch skilled demonstrations more often will have more chances to learn the
movement pattern
At least two research studies support this latter point. One, by Carroll and Bandura (1990), involves
the learning of complex movement patterns of a computer joystick. They likely explored how
individuals acquire and improve their skills in controlling the joystick for various tasks or games on a
computer. Hand and Sidaway (1993),involves the learning of a golf skill. Both experiments provided
evidence that more frequent observations of the model yielded better skill learning.

Weeks and Anderson (2000) conducted an experiment to understand when and how often
demonstrations should be shown during practice sessions. They used a volleyball serve as the skill to
be learned.

There were Three Groups

 Interspersed group
 Precede group
 Combination group

Retention Test: 5mins and 48hrs. After the practice

The results showed that watching demonstrations before practicing or in a combination during
practice led to better performance than watching them in between practice sets. This suggests that
seeing demonstrations before practicing is important for learning.

Learners choose when they want to watch demonstrations. Surprisingly, when given this choice,
learners tend to request demonstrations very rarely, sometimes less than 10% of the time. Ong and
Hodges (2012) summarized this research and pointed out that we still have gaps in understanding
how to effectively schedule observational practice sessions.
Novices Observing Other Novices Practice
Learning from Novices: Beginners can learn by watching other beginners practice a skill, not just
skilled performers.

Active Problem Solving: Watching novices encourages active problem solving to figure out the best
movements for the skill.

Historical Context: This approach has been around since the 1930s but gained more attention in the
1980s with experiments by Adams.

Consistent Findings: Studies consistently show that beginners who watch other beginners perform
tend to perform better themselves.

Pairing Method: Pairing up learners, where one practices while the other observes, then they switch
roles, is an effective way to implement this approach.

Feedback Importance: It's helpful to have someone knowledgeable provide feedback to the person
practicing the skill.

Checklist Strategy: Providing the observer with a checklist of key aspects of the skill helps them focus
on important elements and give useful feedback.

Active Engagement: The observer actively engages in problem-solving by identifying errors and
providing feedback, which enhances learning.

Observation Process: Learners watch what the unskilled model does, listen to feedback, see error
corrections, and gauge improvement on subsequent attempts.

Application in Medical Education: This paired practice method has been discussed as beneficial for
enhancing medical education by Wulf, Shea, and Lewthwaite (2010).

Auditory Modeling
An auditory model is a mathematical algorithm that mimics part of the human auditory system. There
are at least two main motivations for developing auditory processing models: First, to represent the
results from a variety of experiments within one framework and to explain the functioning of the
auditory system.

The results of the experiment by Weeks and Anderson showing form and accuracy scores for practice
trials and retention tests for an overhand volleyball serve for three groups that observed ten skilled
demonstrations in different amounts and at different times before and during practice. The form
scores represent the mean of ten aspects of form, each rated on a scale of 0 to 5, with 0 indicating a
complete absence of the aspect, and 5 indicating the aspect was performed as recommended.
Experiment by Doody, Bird, and Ross (1985). The task required people to perform a complex
sequential movement with one hand in a criterion movement time of 2.1 sec. Visual and auditory
demonstration groups observed a videotape of a skilled model before each practice trial. The visual
demonstration group saw only the video portion of the tape and heard no sound. The auditory
demonstration group heard only the audio portion of the modeled performance but did not see the
model perform the task. Results indicated that the group that heard the audio portion of the
performance did better than the visual demonstration–only group.

In an experiment by Wuyts and Buekers (1995), people who had no prior dance or music experience
learned a sequence of thirty-two chore-graphed steps. For acquiring the rhythmic timing of this
sequence, participants who heard only the timing structure learned it as well as those who both saw
and heard the model perform the sequence.

The second example is an experiment by Lai, Shea, Bruechert, and Little (2002) in which they found
that auditory modeling enhanced the learning of a sequence of five time intervals when two keyboard
keys were alternately depressed. Before each practice trial, participants heard a sequence of tones
that represented the timing sequence they were to learn.

Cognitive Mediation Theory

Cognitive mediation theory a theory for explaining the benefit of a demonstration proposing that
when a person observes a skilled model, the person translates the observed movement information
into a cognitive code that the person stores in memory and uses when the observer performs the skill.

The predominant view is based on the work of Bandura (1986) concerning modeling and social
learning. This view, called the cognitive mediation theory, proposes that when a person observes a
model, he or she translates the observed movement information into a symbolic memory code that
forms the basis of a stored representation in memory.

According to Bandura, four subprocesses govern observational learning. The first is the attention
process, which involves what the person observes and the information he or she extracts from the
model’s actions. The second is the retention process, in which the person transforms and restructures
what he or she observes into symbolic codes that the person stores in memory.

Motivation process involves the incentive or motivation to perform the modeled action.

Ste-Marie (2000) provided support for the prediction that attention is an important process in
observational learning.

Smyth and Pendleton (1990) showed that the prevention of the rehearsal process hindered learning a
skill.

Blandin and Proteau (2000) provided evidence that observational learning involves the development
of effective error detection and correction, which the cognitive mediation theory describes as an
important function of the memory representation that develops during observational learning.

Final Caveats
Though considerable evidence indicates that patterns of coordination can be acquired more quickly
when learners are provided with demonstrations, we should keep in mind that there are potential
downsides to providing demonstrations.
Spaeth (1972) and J. Higgins (1977)
- argued that so many factors influence how movements are organized, it is highly unlikely
that a single, universal way of performing a skill is appropriate for every learner.
Consequently, what researchers consider a skilled demonstration does not necessarily
represent the ideal form for every learner.
S. Higgins (1991)
- has argued that providing learners with other people’s solutions to movement problems, via
demonstrations, can actually subvert the problem solving that is so central to learning.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we discussed demonstration and verbal instructions and cues as effective means of
communicating information about how to perform motor skills.
Demonstration
- A benefit of observing a skilled demonstration is that the observer detects the invariant
characteristics of the movement pattern involved in the performance of the skill.
- The point-light technique and research about what an observer perceives from a skilled
demonstration shows that demonstration tends to be a more effective means of instruction
when the skill being learned requires a new movement coordination than when it involves a
new parameter of a well-learned coordination pattern.
- Observation by a beginner of another beginner practicing a skill can facilitate skill learning.
- Skills should be demonstrated several times before a beginner practices a skill, with
additional demonstrations during practice as needed.
- Auditory forms of demonstration are effective for the learning of motor skills that have a
specific overall movement time goal or require a specific rhythmic sequence or beat.
Two prominent theoretical views that propose explanations for the benefit of demonstration on skill
learning are:
- The cognitive mediation theory, which proposes that observation of a demonstration leads
to the development of a memory representation of the observed skill that the performer
must access prior to performing the skill.
- The dynamic view, which proposes that people do not need cognitive mediation because
the visual system can constrain the motor control system to act according to what has been
observed.
What is the purpose of demonstration?
A) Explaining theoretical concepts
B) Showing how to perform a skill
C) Providing written instructions
D) Conducting experiments

What technique is used to analyze human motion patterns?

A) Point-light technique
B) Auditory modeling
C) Visual perception analysis
D) Kinematic analysis

According to research, what kind of information do people use to perceive movement patterns?
A) Specific characteristics of individual components
B) Absolute information for judgment
C) Relative information about relationships among components
D) Speed and velocity only

What does the cognitive mediation theory propose about observational learning?
A) Observers passively absorb information
B) Observers translate observed movement information into memory codes
C) Observers mimic movements without processing
D) Observers rely solely on auditory stimuli

What is a benefit of observing a skilled demonstration?

A) Immediate mastery of the skill
B) Detection of important movement patterns
C) Elimination of the need for practice
D) Entertainment for the audience

When should demonstrations occur during practice sessions according to research?

A) Before practice sessions only
B) During practice sessions only
C) Before and during practice sessions
D) After practice sessions

What did researchers find regarding the learning of specific rhythmic sequences in auditory modeling
experiments?
A) Visual demonstrations were more effective
B) Auditory demonstrations enhanced learning
C) Both auditory and visual demonstrations were equally effective
D) Auditory demonstrations had no impact on learning

What did Williams and Hodges (2005) question about demonstration?

A) Its effectiveness for all learners and skills
B) Its necessity in educational settings
C) Its impact on auditory learners
D) Its relevance in modern teaching methods

What is the primary goal of demonstrating a skill?

A) To test the learner's knowledge
B) To provide theoretical explanations
C) To entertain the audience
D) To show how to perform a skill

Why is observing a skilled demonstration beneficial?

A) It guarantees immediate mastery of the skill
B) It helps learners understand theoretical concepts
C) It provides entertainment for the audience
D) It assists in detecting important movement patterns