CRN: 32718

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING & ENVIRONMENT

TRIMESTER TWO EXAMINATION

PROGRAMMES:

BEng/MEng AERONAUTCAL ENGINEERING

BEng/MEng AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING WITH PILOT STUDIES

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES E2 (P1)

Monday 11th May 2020 10:00-13:00

Instructions to Candidates

Exam Duration: THREE HOURS

Full marks may be obtained for correct answers to Five full questions.

Answer TWO questions from SECTION A and TWO questions from SECTION B.
The FIFTH question may be answered from either SECTION A or SECTION B.

Answer ONLY a total of five questions (only the first five relevant questions will be
marked). Additional answers will be ignored. Cross out any answers that you don’t
want to be marked.

Selected Formulae and relevant data sheets are included at the back of this Exam
Paper.

Approved electronic calculators may be used.

You are not allowed to remove this exam paper from the venue

1
 CRN: 32718

SECTION A

1. For the cross-section shown in Figure 1, show that the position of the centroid, C, is
in the middle of the web and calculate the values of the section second moments of
area, Iyy, Izz and Iyz using the tabular method with reference from the centroidal axes
yz. Hence, calculate the bending stress at point A for the applied bending moments as
shown.
(20 marks)

Figure 1

2
 CRN: 32718

2. The pin-jointed framework, which is shown in Figure 2, is made of steel with

Young’s modulus 208 kN/mm2 and the cross-sectional area of all the members is 70
mm2. The framework is loaded with a downward vertical force of 20 kN at joint D.
Ignore the weight of the bars.

(a) Demonstrate that the pin-jointed framework is statically determinate.

(2 marks)

(b) Calculate the reaction forces at A and C and the loads in each member.
(10 marks)

(c) Calculate the vertical and horizontal deflection of point D and hence, calculate
the magnitude and direction of the resultant displacement of the loaded joint.

(8 marks)

Figure 2

3
 CRN: 32718

3. A cylindrical shell, subjected to an internal pressure (P), has an internal diameter of

1100 mm (D) and is made from an aluminium alloy of 20 mm thickness (t) with an
elastic limit of 245 N/mm2 as shown in Figure 3.

(a) Calculate the principal stresses

(6 marks)

Hence, calculate the allowable internal pressure P using:

(b) Tresca failure criterion

(4 marks)

(c) VMH failure criterion

(4 marks)

(d) Discuss the significance of the above two failure criteria and conclude which
of the above two criteria is more flexible in design.
(6 marks)

Internal pressure
P

Figure 3

4
 CRN: 32718

4. Figure 4 shows a uniform simply supported beam of bending stiffness 725 Nm 2.

Using singularity functions, determine an expression for the bending moment at any
point along the beam. Hence, determine the slope of the beam at A and the deflection
of the beam at the point of application of the 40 N load.
(20 marks)

Figure 4

5
 CRN: 32718

SECTION B

5. (a) An elliptical defect was detected in a 0.22m circular shaft that suffered a
catastrophic fracture as a result of a tensile stress, σ. The defect had a 22mm
major axis (2b) and a 10mm minor axis (2c), lying on a cross sectional plane
close to the centre of the fractured shaft surface.

Assuming that this elliptical defect was the critical crack that led to catastrophic
fracture of the shaft, determine the magnitude of the axial tensile stress, σ, being
carried by the shaft at failure. Also check the validity of your answer.

Assume that the shaft is thick and use plane strain plastic zone tip correction.

The shaft was made of a material with a yield stress, σ y = 860 MPa and a
fracture toughness, KIc = 35 MPam1/2.

The stress intensity, KI, expression for an embedded elliptical crack of minor
axis, 2c, and major axis, 2b, in a uniform tensile stress field, σ, may be written
as;

[ () ]
0.25
σ √ πa 2 c 2 2
K I= sin + cos β
Φ b

where, β, is the angle locating a point on the elliptical crack front with respect to
the major axis of the ellipse and, Φ, represents an elliptical integral of the
second kind that may be obtained from tables or written in the form;

Φ = 0.6548(c/b)2 + 1.0463
(8 marks)

(b) A three-point bend test was carried out on a metal specimen to determine the
plane strain fracture toughness value, KIc. Calculate the value of KIc and
determine if the test is valid.
Use the following information, related to specimen properties and test results;
Fracture Load, PQ = 20.5 KN
Yield stress = 520 MPa
Width, W = 50 mm
Breadth, B = 25.5 mm
Fracture length, a = 22.75 mm
(including fatigue pre crack)
a/w 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009

Stress intensity factor coefficient (Compliance factor)Y1

0.450 9.10 9.13 9.15 9.18 9.21 9.23 9.26 9.29 9.32 9.35
0.460 9.37 9.40 9.43 9.46 9.49 9.52 9.54 9.57 9.60 9.63
0.470 9.66 9.69 9.72 9.75 9.78 9.81 9.84 9.87 9.90 9.93
0.480 9.96 9.99 10.03 10.06 10.09 10.12 10.15 10.18 10.21 10.25
0.490 10.28 10.31 10.34 10.38 10.41 10.44 10.48 10.51 10.54 10.58
0.500 10.61 10.65 10.68 10.71 10.75 10.78 10.82 10.85 10.89 10.93
Part of the Stress intensity factor coefficients for three point bend specimen

6
 CRN: 32718

(8 marks)
5. Continued
(c) A structural component in the form of a wide plate is to be fabricated from a
metal alloy with a yield strength of 720 MPa and a plain strain fracture
toughness, KIC of 41 MPam1/2. If the safety factor on the yield strength is 2,
determine whether a critical crack for this plate is subject to detection by a
flow detection device with a resolution of 14 mm. Assume an internal circular
crack with radius, a, and the value of ψ is 2/π.
(4 marks)

6. (a) During routine non-destructive inspection, an edge crack with length, a o, of 2

mm was discovered on the surface of a flat plate. For the rest of its life, the
plate will be used under a repeated, fatigue, stress with a maximum tensile
value of 160 MPa. Determine the remaining fatigue life (residual life) of the
component. Use the following data;

KIc = 28 MPa m1/2

ψ =1.1

The general Paris law for the component is expressed in the following form;

da = 3.8x10-12 (ΔK)4 (for Δσ in MPa, ΔK in MPam-1/2 and crack length, a, in m).

dN
(7 Marks)

(b) Sinusoidal fatigue tests (about a zero mean stress) were carried out on two
identical metal alloy specimens.

(i) Determine the Basquin’s law equation for the alloy.

Use the following fatigue data, (about a zero mean stress), for the above
alloy.

Stress Range (MPa) Number of cycles to failure

380 105
205 1011

(Note: for the Basquin’s equation, present the values of the constants, a and
logC1, to four decimal places)
(9 marks)

(ii) Determine the number of cycles for a component, made from the same
material as above, and subject to a stress range of 270 MPa.
(1 Mark)

7
 CRN: 32718

(iii) Determine the new, reduced, stress range if the above component has
encountered 150x106 Cycles, at a stress range of 270 MPa, and it is required to
extend the component’s life by a further 150x106 cycles.
(3 Marks)
7. (a) A component is made of a metal alloy and is subjected to three different creep
combinations, as shown in the table below. A diagram of the Larson Miller
Parameter, LMP, for the alloy is presented in Figure 5.

(i) Show that the component will survive the required creep conditions.
(10 marks)

(ii) Determine the remaining number of additional hours that the

component may survive, at a stress of 120 MPa and a temperature of
500 0C, having completed the above creep conditions.
(2 marks)
Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3
Stress (MPa) 270 140 100
Temperature (0C) 450 400 370
Time (hours) 5000 20000 30000
Creep combinations for the alloy

Stress (MPa)

270
Figure 5
Larson Miller Parameter
140 for the Titanium Alloy

120 (not to scale)

100

17.3 18 21.1 22.3 LMP

The Larson Miller Parameter, LMP, for the nickel based alloy may be
expressed by the following empirical relationship;

LMP = T (20 + log10tr)×10-3 where; T = Temperature (K)

tr= Rupture Time (hours)
Use 0 0C = 273 K

(b) Determine the aging time for an aluminium-copper alloy, which is required to
reach maximum hardness for an aging temperature of 150 0C. Age hardening
tests were carried out on two aluminium-copper alloy samples identical to the
alloy in question. The following results are reported as follows;

Aging Temperature (0C) Time to reach maximum hardness (hours)

167 14
204 5

8
 CRN: 32718

Use 0 0C = 273 K.
(8 Marks)
8. (a) A laminate composite system is made of epoxy resin reinforced with long
continuous length Aramid fibres. A tensile stress of 55 MPa is acting on the
laminate composite system, at angle of + 160 to the direction of the fibres.

(i) Determine the longitudinal and transverse Young’s Moduli and Shear Modulus
of the composite laminate.
(4 Marks)

(ii) Determine the Transformation Matrix and stresses acting on the principal axes
(parallel and perpendicular to the direction of fibres) of the laminate.

(4 Marks)

(iii) Determine the Compliance Matrix and strains acting on the principal axes of
the composite laminate.

(6 Marks)
Use the following information;

Fibre reinforcement (by volume) = 25 %

Young’s Modulus of the Aramid fibres = 107 GPa
Young’s Modulus of the Epoxy matrix = 7.80 GPa
Shear Modulus of Aramid fibres = 20 GPa
Shear Modulus of Epoxy matrix = 4.50 GPa
Poison’s Ratio, υ12 = 0.25

(b) Describe and discuss, using sketches, the Autoclave process that is used for
the manufacture of composite systems.
(6 Marks)

9
 CRN: 32718

FORMULAE SHEET (Section A)

The singularity function is defined as:

The singularity functions for the four most common types of loading are:

i) Concentrated moment

ii ) Concentrated transverse force

iii ) Uniformly distributed load

iv ) Linearly varying distributed load

10
 CRN: 32718

11
 CRN: 32718

Element A z' Az' Az'2 Ioyy y' Ay' Ay'2 Iozz Ay'z' Ioyz
:
:
:
S

m z I yz m y I yz
m y− mz −
I zz I yy
my= m z=
I I
yz2 yz2
1− 1−
( I yy I zz ) ( I yy I zz )

m̄ z y m̄ y z
σ x= +
I zz I yy

12
 CRN: 32718

Cylinder: Circumferential Stress = & Longitudinal Stress =

13
 CRN: 32718

FORMULAE SHEET (SECTION B)

FRACTURE

Plane Strain Fracture Toughness; K IC=σψ √ πa

Leak-Before-Break Condition : K IC=σ √ πt (if no crack is detected)

Fracture Toughness with crack tip correction; Plain strain condition (thick sections),


KIc  Ψσ πa  ry   Ψσ π a 

KIc  
2



σ2 
6πy 2 
 Ψσ πa  6σy 2 
1 
  

PQ Y
Three Point Bend; K IC= 1
, and For Validity; B  2.5(KIc/y)2
B √W

FATIGUE
 N  C1 a
Basquin Equation; f

Miner's Rule; Σ N/Nf = N1/Nf1 + N2/Nf2 +N3/Nf3 + …. = 1

ac
1 da
Nf 
A  m
m2
a0
 m
am 2
Paris law;
Nf = Number of cycles to failure, between a0 and ac
a = Crack length
ao = Initial crack length
ac (or acrit) = Final, critical, length
Δσ = Stress range (can be taken as the maximum fatigue stress in tension)
A and m are material constants
Ψ = Flow shape parameter

f     FOS 
a  1   m 

FOS   y 
Soderberg Relation;
σa = Stress amplitude
σm = Mean stress
σy = Yield stress
σf = Fatigue limit (or Endurance limit or Fatigue strength, when applicable)
FOS = Factor of Safety

CREEP

Robinson’s Rule; Σ t/tr = Σ t1/tr1 + t2/tr2 + t3/tr3 + …. = 1

AGE HARDENING

14
 CRN: 32718

Rate = 1/t = Ae(-Q/RT) , where, t, is in hours and, T, in Kelvin.

LONG CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE LAMINATES

Vf + Vm = 1

Ec = E1 = EmVm + EV

1 = 1 = Vm + V
E tc E 2 E m E

1 = Vf + Vm
G12 Gf Gm

COMPOSITE LAMINATES (Strains)

The strain law for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions, referred to the
material axis (1 and 2), has the following form;

 1   1 
    S  
 2  2
 12   12 

Where, [S], is termed the Compliance matrix, written in the form;

 S11 S12 S13 

 
 
S   S 21 S 22 S 23 
 
 
 S 31 S 32 S 33 

Where; S11 = 1/E1 S22 = 1/E2 S33 = 1/G12

S21 = -υ12 = S12 = -υ21
E1 E2
And, S13 = S23 = S31 = S32 = 0, for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions.

Also; υ12 = υ21

E1 E2

Where;
G12 = In-plane shear modulus
E1 = Young’s Modulus in the 1 direction
E2 = Young’s Modulus in the 2 direction
υ12 = Poisson’s ratio with stress in the 1 direction and contraction in the 2 direction.
υ21 = Poisson’s ratio with stress in the 2 direction and contraction in the 1 direction.

15
 CRN: 32718

COMPOSITE LAMINATES (Stresses)

The stress law for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions, referred to the
material axis (1 and 2), has the following form;

 1   1 
   Q   
 2  2
 12   12 

Where, [Q], is termed the Stiffness matrix (which is the inverse of [S]). In general, the
stiffness matrix is written in the form;

Q11 Q12 Q13 

 
 
Q  Q21 Q22 Q23 
 
 
Q31 Q32 Q33 

E1 E2
Q11  Q22 
Where; 1   12 21 1   12 21 Q33= G12
 21 E1  E
Q12  Q21  12 2
1   12 21 = 1   12 21

And, Q13 = Q23 = Q31 = Q32 = 0, for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions.

COMPOSITE LAMINATES (Arbitrary Orientation)

If the principal materials axis, or material axis (1 and 2) of the lamina do not coincide with
the reference axis, or laminate axis (x and y), at some arbitrary orientation with angle, θ, then
use the following relations to transform the stresses and strains;

 1   x   x   1 
   T     1  
 2  y  y   T   2 
 12   xy   xy   12 
  and  

 1  x  x   1 
    T      1  
 2  y   y   T    2 
 12   xy   xy   12 
  and  

Where, [T] is the transformation matrix and [T]-1 is the inverse of [T], written in the form;

 c2 s2 2cs  c 2 s 2  2cs 
   
   
T    s 2 c 2  2cs  T 1  s 2 c 2 2cs 
   
   
 cs cs ( c 2  s 2 )  cs  cs ( c 2  s 2 )
  and  

16
 CRN: 32718

Where, c = cosθ and s = sinθ

END OF EXAMINATION PAPER

17