Mizan Tepi University

School Of Computing And Informatics

Department of Information Systems
Assignment of wireless networking

No Name ID
01 Biniyam abebe NSR/0386/13
02 Mesemo Tadiwos NSR/1201/13
03
04
05
Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse is a technique used in wireless networking to maximize the
utilization of the available radio frequency spectrum. It involves dividing the
available frequency spectrum into smaller cells and reusing the same frequencies in
different cells that are sufficiently far apart to minimize interference.
By using frequency reuse, wireless networks can accommodate a larger number of
users and devices within a given area without experiencing significant interference
or degradation in performance. This technique is commonly used in cellular
networks, Wi-Fi networks, and other wireless communication systems to efficiently
manage the limited available frequency spectrum.

At its core, frequency reuse is a technique used in wireless communication, that

allows the same frequency band to be used in multiple geographical areas, known as
cells, as long as these cells are sufficiently far apart to prevent interference.

This technique hinges on the principle that by carefully managing the allocation of
frequencies, we can accommodate more users and devices within the same
spectrum without sacrificing performance.

Frequency Reuse Factor

The frequency reuse factor is a key parameter in frequency reuse. It signifies the
number of cells that must be separated before the same frequency band can be
reused.

A smaller frequency reuse factor indicates that more cells can share the same
spectrum, amplifying network capacity.

Nevertheless, a lower reuse factor also raises the likelihood of interference, which
can impede the quality of communication.
Factors Influencing Frequency Reuse

Several factors determine the optimal frequency reuse factor for a given scenario.
These include;

 User density,
 Terrain characteristics,
 Radio wave propagation behaviors.

Generally, urban areas with dense populations lean towards smaller reuse factors
due to high demand, while rural areas with lower demand opt for larger reuse
factors.

Frequency Reuse in Practice

To illustrate frequency reuse, consider a cellular network with a hexagonal grid of

cells.

If we have seven cells, and the reuse factor is three, the same frequency band can be
assigned to any group of three non-adjacent cells.

For instance, cells 3, 5, and 7 can share the same frequencies, but not cells 2, 3, or 4.
Benefits of Frequency Reuse

Frequency reuse offers some numbers of benefits that contribute to the efficiency
and expansion of wireless communication networks:

1. Increased Spectral Efficiency

By allowing more cells to utilize the same spectrum, frequency reuse enhances the
overall network capacity, accommodating more users and traffic.

2. Reduced Interference

Careful cell spacing minimizes the potential for interference between cells sharing
the same frequencies, resulting in higher quality communication.

3. Improved Scalability

Frequency reuse simplifies network expansion by enabling the addition of cells

without acquiring additional spectrum.

4. Lower Costs

Through effective spectrum utilization and reduced infrastructure demands,

frequency reuse aids in cost reduction for network deployment and operation.

Challenges Associated with Frequency Reuse

Despite its advantages, frequency reuse poses certain challenges that require careful
consideration:

1. Co-channel Interference

When cells using the same frequency are situated too closely, co-channel
interference can occur, degrading the quality of service.
2. Handover Complexity

Managing handovers, the process of transferring calls between cells, becomes more
difficult due to frequency reuse.

3. Complexity of Network Planning

Planning networks with frequency reuse demands meticulous cell spacing and
interference assessment, elevating the complexity of network design.

Frequency reuse in wireless communication is a technique that enables the same

frequency band to be used in multiple distinct areas, as long as they are adequately
separated.

It helps to enhance spectrum efficiency while minimizing interference.

why Frequency Reuse

Frequency reuse is necessary because the radio frequency spectrum is a limited and
valuable resource. With the increasing demand for wireless communication and the
proliferation of devices that rely on wireless connectivity, it is crucial to maximize the
utilization of the available frequency spectrum.
By implementing frequency reuse, wireless networks can efficiently use the available
frequencies to serve a larger number of users and devices within a given area. This
helps to alleviate congestion and improve the overall performance of the network.
Additionally, frequency reuse allows for more efficient use of the available spectrum,
which can lead to cost savings for network operators and better overall service for
users. It also enables the deployment of high-capacity, high-performance wireless
networks that can support a wide range of applications and services.
In summary, frequency reuse is essential for maximizing the utilization of the limited
radio frequency spectrum, accommodating a larger number of users and devices,
and improving the efficiency and performance of wireless networks.
types of Frequency Reuse
There are several types of frequency reuse techniques that are commonly used in
wireless communication systems:
1. Fixed Frequency Reuse: In this approach, the available frequency spectrum is
divided into a number of non-overlapping frequency bands, and each band is
assigned to a different cell or sector within the network. This allows for the
simultaneous use of the same frequencies in different cells, with minimal
interference between them.
2. Dynamic Frequency Reuse: This technique involves dynamically allocating
frequencies to different cells based on their traffic load and interference conditions.
Cells with high traffic demand may be assigned more frequencies, while cells
withlower demand may share frequencies with neighboring cells to maximize
spectrum
utilization.
3. Fractional Frequency Reuse: In this approach, the available frequency spectrum is
divided into two or more sub-bands, with one sub-band being used for cell-edge
users and another sub-band being used for cell-center users. This allows for more
efficient use of frequencies in areas with varying signal strengths and interference
levels.
4. Soft Frequency Reuse: This technique involves allowing some level of interference
between cells, but using advanced interference management techniques such as
power control and beamforming to mitigate the effects of interference and improve
overall network performance.
These frequency reuse techniques can be combined and tailored to specific network
deployment scenarios to optimize spectrum utilization and improve the quality of
service for wireless users.

advantage of Frequency Reuse

The main advantage of frequency reuse techniques is that they allow for more
efficient use of the available frequency spectrum. By reusing frequencies in different
cells or sectors, the overall capacity of the network can be increased without
requiring additional spectrum allocation. This can lead to improved network
performance, higher data rates, and better quality of service for wireless users.
Additionally, frequency reuse techniques can help to reduce interference between
cells, which can improve the overall reliability and stability of the network. This is
particularly important in dense urban areas or other environments with high levels
of interference.
By dynamically allocating frequencies based on traffic load and interference
conditions, frequency reuse techniques also allow for more flexible and adaptive use
of the spectrum, which can help to optimize network performance and capacity in
real time.
Overall, frequency reuse techniques are essential for maximizing the efficiency and
capacity of wireless communication systems, particularly in the face of increasing
demand for wireless services and limited available spectrum.disadvantage of
Frequency Reuse
One potential disadvantage of frequency reuse techniques is the increased
complexity of network planning and management. Implementing frequency reuse
requires careful coordination and optimization of frequency assignments across
different cells or sectors, which can be challenging and time-consuming.
Additionally, frequency reuse can lead to increased co-channel interference,
especially in densely populated areas where cells are located in close proximity to
each other. This interference can degrade the quality of service for wireless users
and impact network performance.
Furthermore, frequency reuse may not be suitable for all types of wireless
communication systems or environments. For example, in rural or sparsely
populated areas, the benefits of frequency reuse may not outweigh the added
complexity and potential interference issues.
Overall, while frequency reuse techniques offer significant advantages for
maximizing spectrum efficiency and network capacity, they also come with
challenges and limitations that need to be carefully considered and managed.
2. Channel Assignment Strategies

Channel assignment strategies play a critical role in optimizing the perforChannel

assignment strategies refer to the methods and algorithms used to allocate
frequency channels to different cells or sectors within a wireless communication
network. These strategies are crucial for optimizing spectrum utilization, minimizing
interference, and maximizing network capacity.
Channel assignment techniques are used extensively in frequency reuse systems to
assign time-frequency resources to each user. There are many methods of allocating
a channel upon a new call arrival or handoff attempt. A good channel allocation
algorithm is the one that yields high spectral efficiency for a specified quality of
service (including link quality, probability of new call blocking, and the probability of
forced termination) and given degree of computational complexity and
decentralization of control. It keeps the planned cell boundaries intact, allocates a
channel to a MS quickly, maintains the best service quality for the MS at any instant,
and relieves undesired network congestion.

There are several channel assignment strategies, including:

1. Fixed channel assignment: In this strategy, each cell or sector is assigned a specific
set of non-overlapping frequency channels that remain constant over time. This
approach is simple and easy to implement but may not be efficient in dynamically
changing network conditions.

2. Dynamic channel assignment: This strategy dynamically allocates frequency

channels to cells or sectors based on real-time traffic and interference conditions.
This allows for more efficient use of available frequencies but requires sophisticated
algorithms and real-time monitoring of network parameters.

3. Hybrid channel assignment: This strategy combines aspects of both fixed and
dynamic channel assignment, allowing for a balance between simplicity and
adaptability. It may involve a mix of per-assigned channels and dynamically allocated
channels based on network demand.4. Frequency hopping: In this strategy, each
user or cell periodically switches
between different frequency channels according to a predetermined pattmance of
wireless communication networks, and the choice of strategy depends on factors
such as network topology, traffic patterns, interference levels, and available
spectrum.

3. Handoff Strategies
Handoff strategies, also known as handover strategies, are another important aspect
of wireless communication networks. Handoff refers to the process of transferring
an ongoing call or data session from one cell or sector to another as a mobile device
moves through the network. This is essential for maintaining seamless connectivity
and quality of service for users.

There are several handoff strategies that can be employed in wireless

communication networks, including:

1. Hard handoff: In this strategy, the mobile device completely releases its
connection with the current cell before establishing a new connection with the
target cell. This can result in a brief interruption in the communication, but it is
relatively simple to implement.
2. Soft handoff: Soft handoff allows the mobile device to establish a connection with
the target cell before releasing the connection with the current cell. This overlapping
period ensures seamless transition and minimal disruption to the ongoing
communication.
3. Macrodiversity handoff: This strategy involves coordinating multiple base stations
to simultaneously serve a mobile device during the handoff process, improving signal
strength and reducing the likelihood of dropped calls.
4. Mobile-assisted handoff: In this strategy, the mobile device plays an active role in
determining when and how to initiate a handoff, based on measurements of signal
strength and quality from neighboring cells.
5. Network-controlled handoff: In this strategy, the network infrastructure makes all
decisions regarding handoff initiation and target cell selection based on network
conditions and performance metrics.
The choice of handoff strategy depends on factors such as network topology,
mobility patterns, available resources, and quality of service requirements. Effective
handoff strategies are crucial for ensuring seamless connectivity and optimal
performance in wireless communication networks

.4. Interference and System Capacity

Interference in wireless communication networks refers to the presence of
unwanted signals that can degrade the quality of the communication. Interference
can occur due to various factors such as overlapping frequency bands, co-channel
interference from neighboring cells, and external sources of electromagnetic
radiation. Interference can lead to reduced signal strength, increased error rates,
and degraded overall performance of the network.
System capacity, on the other hand, refers to the maximum number of users or
devices that a wireless communication network can support simultaneously while
maintaining acceptable levels of service quality. System capacity is influenced by
factors such as available spectrum, bandwidth, modulation techniques, and
interference levels. Efficient management of interference is crucial for maximizing
system capacity and ensuring optimal performance for all users in the network.
Techniques such as frequency reuse, power control, and interference mitigation
strategies are employed to increase system capacity and enhance the overall
efficiency of wireless communication networks.
Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio systems.

Sources of interference:
There are two types of sources of interference:
a. Active
b. Passive
a. Active
Active interference sources that emits a radio signals on the same frequency.
1. another mobile in the same cell.
2. a call in progress in a neighboring cell.
3. other base stations operating in the same frequency band, or any noncellular
system which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency band.
b. Passive
Passive source of wireless interference is any substance that restricts to degrade a
wireless signal that attempt to pass through it.
Examples of such substances are metal, concrete, paper, fabric, glass, stone wood,
bricks, etc..
Problems because of interference:
1. Interference on voice channels causes cross talk, where the subscriber hears
interference in the background due to an undesired transmission.
2. On control channels, interference leads to missed and blocked calls due to errors
in the digital signaling.

Interference is more severe in urban areas, due to the greater RF noise floor and the
large number of base stations and mobiles. Interference has been recognized as a
major bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls.
why Interference and System Capacity
Interference and system capacity are important considerations in wireless
communication networks because they directly impact the quality of service and
overall performance of the network. Interference can degrade signal quality and lead
to increased error rates, which can result in poor communication experiences for
users. By effectively managing interference, the network can maintain high-quality
connections and support a larger number of users simultaneously, thus maximizing
system capacity.
System capacity is crucial for ensuring that the network can accommodate the
growing number of devices and users accessing the network. As the demand for
wireless communication continues to increase, it is essential to optimize system
capacity to provide reliable and efficient service to all users. Efficient management of
interference is key to achieving this, as it allows for the effective use of available
spectrum and resources, ultimately enhancing the overall performance and capacity
of the network.
In summary, interference and system capacity are critical factors in wireless
communication networks, as they directly impact the quality of service and the
network's ability to support a growing number of users.

Interference in wireless communication networks can be caused by

various factors, including:
1. Co-channel interference: This occurs when multiple devices or users share the
same frequency channel, leading to signal degradation and reduced network
capacity.
2. Adjacent channel interference: This occurs when signals from adjacent frequency
channels interfere with each other, causing degradation in signal quality and
impacting system capacity.
3. Inter-symbol interference: This occurs when the symbols of a transmitted signal
overlap with each other, leading to errors in data transmission and reduced network
capacity.
4. External interference: This includes interference from external sources such as
other electronic devices, weather conditions, or physical obstacles, which can impact
signal quality and system capacity.
System capacity in wireless communication networks is determined by various
factors, including:
1. Spectrum availability: The amount of available spectrum for wireless
communication directly impacts the system capacity, as more spectrum allows for
more users and devices to access the network simultaneously.
2. Network infrastructure: The design and architecture of the network infrastructure,
including the number of base stations, antennas, and other equipment, can impact
the overall system capacity.
3. Modulation and coding schemes: The use of efficient modulation and coding
techniques can improve the system capacity by allowing for higher data rates and
better utilization of available spectrum.
4. Traffic management: Effective traffic management strategies, such as dynamic
resource allocation and load balancing, can optimize system capacity by efficiently
allocating resources to meet the demands of users and applications.
Overall, managing interference and optimizing system capacity are essential for
ensuring high-quality service and accommodating the increasing demand for wireless
communication in today's connected world.

5.Trunking and Grade of Service

Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to accommodate a large number of users in a
limited radio spectrum. The concept of trunking allows a large number of users to
share the relatively small number of channels in a cell by providing access to each
user, on demand, from a pool of available channels.
In a trucked radio system, each user is allocated a channel on a per call basis, and
upon termination of the call, the previously occupied channel is immediately
returned to the pool of available channels.
The telephone company uses trunking theory to determine the number of
telephone circuits that need to be allocated for office buildings with hundreds of
telephones, and this principle is used in designing cellular radio systems. In a trucked
mobile radio system, when a particular user requests service and all of the radio
channels are already in use, the user is blocked, or denied access to the system. The
fundamentals of trunking theory were developed by Erlang, a Danish mathematician,
in the late 19th century.

One Erlang represents the amount of traffic intensity carried by a channel that is
completely occupied (i.e. 1 call-hour per hour or 1 call-minute per minute). For
example, a radio channel that is occupied for thirty minutes during an hour carries
0.5 Erlang of traffic.
The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trucked
system during the busiest hour. The busy hour is based upon customer demand at
the busiest hour during a week, month, or year. The busy hours for cellular radio
systems typically occur during rush hours, between 4 p.m. and 6 p.m. on a Thursday
or Friday evening. The grade of service is used to define the desired performance of
a particular trucked system by specifying a desired likelihood of a user obtaining
channel access given a specific number of channels available in the system

GOS is given as the likelihood that a call is blocked, or the likelihood of a call
experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing time. The traffic. intensity
offered by each user is equal to the call request rate multiplied by the holding time.
That is, each user generates a traffic intensity of Au Erlang's given by
Au = H
where H is the average duration of a call and k is the average number of call
requests per unit time. For a system containing U users and an unspecified number
of channels, the total offered traffic intensity A, is given as
A = U Au
Set-up Time: The time required to allocate a trucked radio channel to a requesting
user. Blocked Call: Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due to
congestion. Also referred to as a lost call. Holding Time: Average duration of a typical
call. Denoted by H (in seconds). Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization,
which is the average channel occupancy measured in Erlang's.

This is a dimensionless quantity and may be used to measure the time utilization of
single or multiple channels. Denoted by
A. Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trucked radio system, measured in Erlang
s.
B. Grade of Service (005): A measure of congestion which is specified as the
probability of a call being blocked (for Erlang B), or the probability of a call being
delayed beyond a certain amount of time (for Erlang C). Request Rate: The average
number of call requests per unit time. Denoted by A seconds1. In a C channel
trucked system, if the traffic is equally distributed among the channels, then the
traffic intensity per channel Ac , is given as

AC= UA/C.

Trunking in wireless networking refers to the method of efficiently sharing a limited

number of communication channels among a large number of users. This is
commonly used in cellular networks, where a small number of channels are shared
among a large number of mobile devices. Trunking allows for efficient use of the
available channels and helps to minimize the likelihood of congestion and dropped
calls.
Grade of Service (GoS) in wireless networking refers to the quality of service
provided to users, taking into account factors such as call blocking probability and
call dropping probability. It is a measure of the reliability and performance of a
communication system, and it is important for ensuring that users receive a
satisfactory level of service.
In wireless networking, trunking and Grade of Service are closely related, as the
efficient use of communication channels through trunking can help to maintain a
high Grade of Service by minimizing congestion and ensuring reliable connectivity for
users.
Overall, trunking and Grade of Service are important considerations in the design
and operation of wireless communication systems, and they play a crucial role in
ensuring that users receive a high-quality and reliable wireless experience.

why Trunking and Grade of Service in wirless networking

Trunking and Grade of Service are important in wireless networking because they
both contribute to the efficient and reliable operation of communication systems.
Trunking allows for the efficient sharing of limited communication channels among a
large number of users, which helps to minimize congestion and dropped calls. This,
in turn, contributes to a high Grade of Service by ensuring that users receive a
satisfactory level of service with minimal call blocking and dropping probabilities.
In wireless networking, where the demand for communication channels is high and
the available spectrum is limited, the efficient use of channels through trunking is
essential for maintaining a high Grade of Service. By optimizing the use of
communication channels, trunking helps to ensure that users have reliable
connectivity and receive a high-quality wireless experience.
Overall, trunking and Grade of Service are crucial in wireless networking to ensure
that communication systems can effectively handle the demands of a large number
of users while providing reliable and satisfactory service. Therefore, understanding
and implementing these concepts are essential for designing and operating wireless
communication systems.

6.Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems

One way to improve coverage and capacity in cellular systems is through the use of
advanced antenna technologies, such as MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) and
beam forming. These technologies allow for better utilization of available spectrum
and can improve signal strength and coverage, especially in areas with high user
density.
Another method to improve coverage and capacity is through the deployment of
small cells, which are low-powered radio access nodes that can be strategically
placed in areas with high user demand. Small cells help to offload traffic from macro
cells, improving capacity and coverage in dense urban areas or indoor environments.
Additionally, the use of carrier aggregation, which allows for the simultaneous use of
multiple frequency bands, can improve capacity by increasing the available
bandwidth for data transmission. This can lead to faster data speeds and better
overall network performance.
Furthermore, the implementation of network declassification, which involves
deploying
more cell sites in a given area, can help to improve coverage and capacity by
reducing the distance between users and base stations, thereby improving signal
strength and capacity.
Overall, improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems requires a combination
of advanced antenna technologies, small cell deployment, carrier aggregation, and
network denitrification to meet the increasing demands for wireless connectivity. By
implementing these strategies, wireless networks can provide better coverage and
capacity for users, leading to improved overall network performance.

Here are some approaches to enhance coverage and capacity:

1. Increasing the Number of Base Stations: Deploying more base stations in an area
helps to increase both coverage and capacity. This approach reduces the distance
between users and base stations, leading to better signal strengths and higher data
rates.

2. Small Cell Deployment: Small cells are low-power base stations that are installed
in densely populated areas to augment coverage and capacity. These cells can be
placed indoors (e.g., offices, malls) or outdoors (e.g., street lamps, utility poles) and
help improve service in specific locations with high user demand.

3. Expanding Frequency Bands: Utilizing additional frequency bands, especially

higher frequency bands, can increase capacity in cellular systems. Higher frequency
bands have a larger available bandwidth, allowing for more simultaneous
connections and higher data rates. This approach requires new spectrum allocations
and compatible devices.

4. Carrier Aggregation: Carrier aggregation combines multiple frequency bands to

increase the overall bandwidth and capacity. This technique allows devices to
simultaneously connect to multiple carriers, utilizing aggregated bandwidth for
higher data rates. Carrier aggregation requires compatible devices and network
infrastructure.

5. MIMO Technology: Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) technology uses

multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve coverage and
capacity. MIMO enables spatial multiplexing, where multiple data streams are sent
simultaneously, increasing the capacity of the network. By exploiting multi-path
propagation, MIMO improves signal quality, especially in areas with challenging
radio conditions.

6. Het Nets and Interference Management: Het Nets (Heterogeneous Networks)

combine different types of base stations, such as macro cells, small cells, and Wi-Fi
access points, to improve coverage and capacity. Efficient interference management
techniques, such as coordinated scheduling and resource allocation, can help
mitigate interference and enhance network performance.
7. Advanced Antenna Techniques: Using advanced antenna techniques like beam
forming and beam tracking can improve coverage and capacity in cellular systems.
Beam forming focuses the transmission and reception of signals towards specific
users, increasing signal strength and reducing interference. Beam tracking
dynamically adjusts the beam direction to maintain optimal connectivity as users
move.
8. Network Optimization and Planning: Continuous network optimization, including
proper cell planning, interference management, and resource allocation, is essential
to improve coverage and capacity. Effective algorithms and tools should be
employed to optimize network parameters, such as transmit power, antenna
configurations, and handover mechanisms.

9. Back haul Capacity Enhancement: Provisioning sufficient back haul capacity is

crucial to ensure efficient cellular network operation. Upgrading back haul links,
utilizing fiber optic connections, and implementing reliable microwave links can
enhance capacity and reduce network latency.
10. Network Declassification: Increasing the number of base stations or cells in an
area, especially in high-demand locations, can significantly improve coverage and
capacity. Network densification involves reducing cell sizes, installing more small
cells, and employing advanced interference management techniques to maximize
network performance.
Implementing these techniques requires careful planning, collaboration among
stakeholders, and investments in infrastructure. By deploying a combination of these
approaches, cellular systems can achieve improved coverage and capacity, ensuring
a seamless wireless networking experience for users.

why improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems

Improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems is important for several reasons.
Firstly, with the increasing demand for wireless connectivity, especially in densely
populated urban areas, it is essential to ensure that the network can handle the high
user density and provide reliable coverage and capacity. This is crucial for supporting
the growing number of mobile devices and applications that require high-speed data
transmission.
Additionally, improved coverage and capacity can lead to better user experience,
with faster data speeds, reduced latency, and more consistent connectivity. This is
particularly important for applications such as video streaming, online gaming, and
video conferencing, which require a high-quality and reliable connection.
Moreover, as the Internet of Things (IoT) continues to grow, with an increasing
number of connected devices and sensors, it is important to have a robust and
efficient cellular network that can support the diverse range of IoT
applications.Furthermore, improving coverage and capacity can also lead to
economic benefits,
as it can support business productivity, innovation, and economic growth. Reliable
and high-speed connectivity is essential for businesses to operate efficiently and for
individuals to access educational, healthcare, and other essential services.
Overall, improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems is essential for meeting
the increasing demands for wireless connectivity, supporting a wide range of