STATISTICS

APPLIED MATHEMATICS
(MAT 101)
DIPLOMA ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
 CONTENT:

1) INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS.
2) DATA COLLECTION AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS.
3) DATA VISUALIZATION.
4) STATISTICAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES.
5) PROBABILITY AND PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this topic students should be able to:

 Know the applications of statistics in the real world.

 Know the role of statistics in decision-making.
 Know different methods of data collection.
 Organize and summarize data.(Construct frequency and
relative frequency tables)
 Determine class boundaries, class intervals and central
values for data.
 Represent data graphically.
 Create charts and graphs (bar charts, histograms, box-plot,
stem-and-leaf plot)
 Interpret graphs and charts.
Cont…:
At the end of this topic students should be able to:

 Distinguish between discrete and continuous data.

 Construct a histogram and a frequency polygon.
 Determine the mean, median and mode.
 Know and understand basic probability concepts.
 Understand different probability distributions (Binomial,
Poisson, Normal).
 Apply the one-sample and two sample t-test.
 Understand, apply and interpret the analysis of variance.
 Apply the Chi-square test
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
 Definition: Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals
with the collection, organization, visualization, analysis,
interpretation and drawing conclusions from data.
 All health care practitioners, need a basic understanding of
statistics as consumers of medical information.
 In medicine we use statistics such as length of hospital stay,
average age of in-patients on a ward, readmission rates,
hospital acquired infection rates, mortality rates, survival
rates etc.
 Statistical concepts help us to solve problems, decision
making and reduces guesswork.
Variables
 Definition: A variable is a characteristic of interest.
Types of Variables
 Quantitative variable: These are variables that can be
measured on a numerical scale, i.e. Height
1. Discrete variables
2. Continuous variables
 Qualitative variables: These are variables that can not be
measured on the numerical scale, i.e. blood group.
1. Ordinal variables
2. Nominal variables
Variables
Example:
1. Which of the following variables are categorical and
which are quantitative?
(a)Gender (female or male)
(b) Age (years)
(c) Ethnicity (African-American, Native American,
Serbian,…)
(d) Smoker (yes or no)
(e) Systolic blood pressure (SBP) (millimeters of mercury,
mmHg)
(f) Level of calcium in the blood (micrograms per milliliter,
mg/ml)
(g) Marital status (married, unmarried, divorced, widowed)
Types of data
Data: Is a set of observation or responses of a
variable.
Quantitative/Numerical Data
 Areobservations measured on a numerical
scale.
 Discrete data-takes a finite number of values
 Continuousdata-data measured on a
continuous scale.
Types of data
Qualitative/Categorical Data
 Non-numerical data that can be classified
into categories
 Ordinal data-data that follow a specific
order
 Nominal data-data that has no specific order.
 Examples include smoking habit, religion,
eye colour, nationality and vital status (dead
or alive).
Types of data
 Introduction…
 A population is the collection of all objects or measurements
of interest.
 A sample is a subset of the data selected from a population.
 The number of elements in a sample is called the sample
size.
Types of statistics
 Descriptive Statistics: Is the organizing,
summarizing and presenting of data using tables,
graphs and charts.
 Inferential Statistics: Is the drawing of
conclusions (predictions) and making decisions
about the population using a sample.
 Individuals are the objects described by a set of
data. Individuals maybe people, but they may also
be animals or things.
 Graphical Representation of data
 The common graphical display of data are:
 Frequency table
 Pie chart
 Bar graph
 Histogram
 Ogive
Types of data
 Descriptive Statistics
 Def; Is the organizing, summarizing and presenting
of data using tables, graphs and charts.
Measurements of patients status
 Descriptive statistics consists of three categories.
1) The Distribution/frequency (graphs and charts)
2) The central tendency (mean, median and mode)
3) The variability/dispersion (range, standard
deviation, variance, etc..)
 Frequency Distribution
 A Frequency table is a table that divides a data set into
classes.
 frequency table is a way to organize and summarize a set of
data by displaying the number of times each data point or
class interval occurs.
 It consists of two columns: one for the data categories (or
intervals) and one for their corresponding frequencies.
𝑓𝑖
 The relative frequency is given as 𝑟. 𝑓 = , where 𝑓𝑖 is the
𝑛
frequency of the class 𝑖.
𝑖 𝑓𝑘
 The cumulative relative frequency is given as 𝑐. 𝑟. 𝑓 = 𝑘=1 𝑛 .
 Example (Frequency Table)
1. The following data set represents the age of 20 first year
students at Levy Mwanawasa Medical University.
20, 22, 22, 20, 22, 22, 20, 22, 22, 2030, 28, 35, 30, 35, 28, 30, 28, 30, 35

(i) Construct a frequency table.

2. The following data set represents the grades obtained by 30
first year students at Levy Mwanawasa Medical University.
C+, B, B, C+, B, B, B, C+, D, B, D, D+, C, D, D, C+, B, B+, A, A+,
B, B, A, B, B, D, C+, C+, A, A+
(i) Construct a frequency table.
Frequency Table
Frequency Table
 Stem-and-leaf plot
 Stem and Leaf plot: In a stem-and-leaf plot, the values are
split into the “stem” and “leaf”. The leaf is usually the last
digit and the stem the digits on the left of leaf.
Example
1. Construct a stem-and-leaf plot for the 20 test scores in a
Mathematics test.
Stem-and-leaf plot
 Stem-and-leaf plot
Example
1. Suppose you have a set of blood pressure readings (systolic
pressure) for a group of individuals: 120, 125, 130, 135,
135, 140, 142, 145, 150, 155, 160. Construct a stem-and-
leaf plot.
2. Construct a stem-and-leaf plot for the following data set:
2.5, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.5, 3.7, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.5, 5.0.
 Bar Graph
 Bar Graph: A graph of bars whose height represents
frequencies of the respective categories.
Example
1. The distribution of the primary sites for cancer is given in
the table below for the residents of Mtendere.
Bar Graph
 Pie Chart
 Pie Chart: A circle that is divided into sectors that
represent the percentages of a population or a sample that
belong to different categories.
Example
1. The distribution of the primary sites for cancer is given in
the table below for the residents of Mtendere.
Pie Chart
Pie Chart
 Example
1. A public health inspector carried out a survey on the sanitation of
M’tendere make, below are the responses from 20 marketeers.
Very good, Poor, Good, Poor, Very good, Good, Poor, Neutral,
Poor, Neutral, Very poor, Very Poor, Good, Very poor, Neutral,
Poor, Very poor, Good, Neutral, Very poor, Poor, Poor, Very poor,
Neutral, Very poor, Neutral, Very Poor, Poor, Very poor, Very poor.
a) Construct for the given data the:
i) frequency table
ii) Bar Graph
iii) Pie Chart
 Example
1. Births are not, as you might think, evenly
distributed across the days of the week. Here are the average
numbers of babies born on each day of the week at M’tendere
clinic.

a) Construct for the given data the: i) frequency table ii) Bar
Graph iii) Pie Chart
 Histogram
 A histogram is a graph in which classes are marked
on the horizontal axis and the frequencies/relative
frequency/percentages are represented by the
vertical axis.
 A histogram is a graphical representation of a
frequency distribution. It displays data in bins or
intervals on the x-axis and the frequency (or
relative frequency) on the y-axis.
 Histograms are used for continuous data and help
visualize the distribution pattern.
 Constructing a Freq. table and Histogram

1. Find the range, 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

2. Select from 5 to 20 classes, using 2𝑘 ≥ 𝑛, where 𝑘 is the
number of classes and 𝑛 the data set size.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
3. The class width is given by
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

4. Construct a table a table that shows the freq., relative

freq. etc.
5. Draw bars over each interval with heights being the
frequencies.
 Example
1. The following data refer to a chemical impunity measured
in parts per million in 25 drinking water samples randomly
collected from different areas of a country.

a) Construct the frequency table

b) Construct a histogram
 Solution
1. The number of class is 𝑘 = 5, the range is 𝑅 = 35 − 11 =
4.8 ≈ 5.
Histogram
 Example:
1. Construct a histogram for the following data:
12,13,17,21,24,24,26,27,27,30,32,
35,37,38,41,43,44,46,53,58
 Frequency Polygon
 A frequency polygon is a graph that displays data
similar to a histogram, but it uses line segments to
connect the midpoints of the intervals.
 It is useful for showing the trend or pattern of data
distribution
 Example:
1. Construct a histogram for the following data:
12,13,17,21,24,24,26,27,27,30,32,
35,37,38,41,43,44,46,53,58
 Example
1. Example: Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the
ages of 32 people who were found positive for covid-19 in
Kafue on 20th June 2020. Their ages are listed below:
49 57 38 73 81 74 59 76
56 69 68 78 65 85 49 69
68 37 43 78 82 43 64 85
40 85 59 80 60 71 57 61
i) Construct the GROUPED frequency distribution.
ii) Construct a Histogram.
iii) Construct the frequency polygon.
 Cumulative Distribution:

 A cumulative distribution shows the total frequency

up to a certain point in a data set.
 It is obtained by adding up the frequencies as you
move through the data set from lowest to highest
values.
 Ogive:

 An ogive is a graph representing the cumulative frequency

distribution. It displays the cumulative frequency on the y-axis
and the data points or class intervals on the x-axis.
 It helps in visualizing how many observations fall below a certain
value.
Example
1. For the following data construct
i) Cummulative frequency
ii) Ogive for the following data
12,13,17,21,24,24,26,27,27,30,32,35,37,38,41,43,44,46,53,58
 Two variable tables (contingency tables)

Contingency table are cross tabulations that are

used to summarize data from two qualitative
variables. The rows of the table identify the
categories of one variable and the columns identify
the categories of the other variable.
 Two variable tables (contingency tables)

Table 1 Association between gender and study program at LMMU

Study program
Mbchb Biomed PH Total
Gender Male 200 150 50 400
Female 250 300 50 600
Total 450 450 100 1000
 Two variable tables (contingency tables)

Table 1 Association between gender and study program at LMMU

Study program
Mbchb Biomed PH Total
Gender Male 200 150 50 400
Female 250 300 50 600
Total 450 450 100 1000
 Two variable tables (contingency tables)

Task
Two Nutritionists investigated whether there is an association
between taste preferences for Corn Flakes and Educational
level of women. Using Structured Interviews, they identified
that of the total women who like Corn Flakes75 have been to
University and College, 90 have been to college only and 135
have been to Secondary only. Among the 200 women who
don’t like Corn Flakes 60 have been to college only and 115
have been to Secondary only.
i) Write down the contingency table for the information
above.
 Measure of Central Tendency:

 Measures of central tendency describe the center or

average of a data set.
 Common measures include mean (average), median (middle
value), and mode (most frequently occurring value).
 Mean: The mean 𝑥 of a data set with n observations 𝑥 is
given by
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝒙
𝑥= ⇒
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝒏
 Measure of Central Tendency:

 Mode: The mode of a data set is the observation with the

highest frequency. For example, in the set of values 2, 2, 6,
7, 7, 7, 10, 13, the mode is 7.
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
1. Find the mode for the sample: 23, 25, 25, 25, 27,
27, 28, 28, 28.
 Measure of Central Tendency:

 Measures of central tendency describe the center or

average of a data set.
 Common measures include mean (average), median (middle
value), and mode (most frequently occurring value).
Example:
1. For data set 3, 5, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 14
Mean = (3+5+5+6+8+9+11+14+14) / 9 = 75 / 9 = 8.33 (approx.)
Median = 8
Mode = 5 and 14
THANK YOU