MODULE 5: AM Theory

Modulation simultaneously. Broadcasting can be

➢ Is the process of altering some of done through different platforms,

the characteristic of the carrier including television, radio, and the

wave by impressing the modulating internet.

signal either by amplitude, 3. Long distance communications

frequency or by phase information ➢ Long distance communications refer

➢ Superimposing the low frequency to the transmission of information,

intelligence onto a high frequency signals, or messages over a

carrier significant distance. It involves

sending and receiving data between

Applications of Amplitude Modulation
two or more locations that are
1. Picture transmission in TV
geographically distant from each
➢ Picture transmission in TV refers to
other.
the process of transmitting visual
4. Groundwave propagations
images from a broadcasting station
➢ Groundwave propagation refers to
to television receivers. The
the transmission of
transmission typically involves
electromagnetic waves, particularly
encoding the visual information into
radio waves, along the surface of
an electronic signal, which is then
the Earth. It is a form of wave
transmitted through various means
propagation that occurs at lower
such as cable, satellite, or
frequencies, typically up to a few
terrestrial broadcast.
megahertz (MHz).
2. Broadcasting

➢ Broadcasting is the distribution of Carrier Characteristics that can be varied

audio or video content to a wide 1. Amplitude

audience through various ➢ Amplitude refers to the maximum

communication mediums. It involves displacement or variation of a wave

transmitting information, such as from its equilibrium position. In

news, entertainment, or educational simpler terms, it represents the

content, to a large number of people "height" or "strength" of a wave.

 2. Frequency 1. To minimized interference

➢ Frequency refers to the number of ❖ Signal Disturbances and

cycles or oscillations of a wave that Interference

occur per unit of time. It ✓ Your Neighbor's Network

represents how many complete ✓ Separate Wireless

wave cycles pass by a given point in Networks in Your Own

a second and is measured in hertz Home

(Hz). ✓ Bluetooth

3. Phase ✓ Baby Monitors, Walkie-

➢ It refers to the position or state of Talkies and Other Radios

a wave in its cycle at a given point in ✓ Microwave Oven

time. It describes the relationship ❖ Physical Obstacles to the Wi-Fi

between different points or Signals

particles in a wave. ✓ Concrete and Masonry

Walls
Demodulation
✓ Thick Timber Walls
➢ It Is the process of recovering the
✓ Metal and Floor Heating
modulating signal back from a
✓ Water
modulated carrier.
✓ The TV

2. To make practical the size of the

antenna

❖ Marconi Antenna

✓ The Marconi antenna is

used primarily with

frequencies below 2 MHz.

✓ The Marconi antenna is

usually a quarter-wave

grounded antenna or any

odd multiple of a quarter

wavelength.

Reason for Modulation

 a single, complex signal. When the

signal reaches its destination, a

process called demultiplexing, or

demuxing, recovers the separate

signals and outputs them to

individual lines.

❖ Hertzian Antenna

✓ The hertz antenna is also ❖ Types of Multiplexing

called a dipole antenna. ✓ FDM – Frequency Division

Multiplexing

- AM and FM

3. For frequency assignment

➢ Frequency assignment refers to the ✓ TDM – Time Division

process of allocating specific Multiplexing

frequency bands or channels to - Telephone system

different communication systems

Major Classification of Modulation
or services to ensure efficient and
1. Continuous Wave
interference-free operation.
a. Linear – Amplitude
4. For multiplexing
b. Angular – Frequency/Phase
➢ or muxing, is a way of sending
2. Pulse Discrete
multiple signals or streams of
a. Analog – PAM, PPM, PWM
information over a communications
b. Digital – PCM
link at the same time in the form of
Amplitude Modulation fashion results in their simple

algebraic addition.
➢ A modulation process wherein the
2. Non-linear device
amplitude of the carrier is made
➢ used to produce a usable AM signal
proportional to the instantaneous

amplitude of the intelligence Modulator

➢ Is a circuit used for producing AM

𝑒𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = (𝐸𝐶 + 𝑒𝑚 ) sin 𝜔c 𝑡

where

➢ 𝑒𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) - instantaneous amplitude of

the modulated signal in volts Sinewave Carrier

➢ 𝐸𝐶 - peak amplitude of the carrier in
𝑒𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑐 sin 2 π fc 𝑡
volts
where
➢ 𝑒𝑚 – instantaneous amplitude of the

modulating signal in volts ➢ 𝑒𝑐 (𝑡) - instantaneous value of the

➢ 𝜔c - radian frequency of the carrier sine wave voltage at some specific
➢ 𝑡 - time in seconds time in the cycle

➢ 𝐸𝑐 – peak value of the sine wave as

measured between 0 and maximum

amplitude of either (+) or (-)

➢ 𝑓𝑐 – carrier frequency

➢ 𝑡 – time in seconds

Sinewave Modulating Signal

𝑒𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚 sin 2 π fm 𝑡
Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals
where
1. Linear device

➢ combining two widely different ➢ 𝑒𝑚 (𝑡) - instantaneous value of the

sine-wave frequencies such as sinewave voltage at some specific

carrier and intelligence in a linear time in the cycle

 ➢ 𝐸𝑚 – peak value of the modulating Envelope
signal
➢ A replica of the intelligence signal
➢ 𝑓𝑚 – modulating frequency
that shows on both top and
➢ 𝑡 – time in seconds
bottom of the AM waveform.

Non-Linear Device
Modulation Index (m)
➢ Combining the carrier and
➢ Ratio that describes the change in
intelligence through a non-linear
the peak amplitude of the carrier
device produces the
➢ A measure of the extent to which
following:
the carrier is varied by the
1. A dc level
intelligence
2. Components at each of the two
𝐸𝑚
𝑚=
original frequencies 𝐸𝑐

3. Components at the sum and

where
difference frequencies of the two
➢ 𝐸𝑚 - peak voltage of the modulating
original frequencies
signal
4. Harmonics of the two original
➢ 𝐸𝑐 – peak voltage of the carrier
frequencies
signal
3 Components of AM Waveform
Measuring Modulation Index
➢ The lower side frequency (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
➢ The carrier frequency (𝑓𝑐 ) 𝑚=
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
➢ The upper side frequency (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 )

Percent Modulation

%𝑀 = 𝑚 𝑥 100%
 MODULE 6: AM Calculations
Power Distribution ➢ 𝐸𝐶 - Peak voltage amplitude of the

Unmodulated Carrier
➢ To communicate by radio, the AM
signal is amplified by a power Current Calculations
amplifier and fed to the antenna
➢ Peak Current of the Modulated
with a characteristic impedance
Carrier, 𝐼𝑇

𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
𝑚2
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 √1 +
➢ Efficiency of the modulator 2

𝑃𝑆𝐵 where
ŋ= 𝑥 100
𝑃𝑇
➢ 𝐼𝐶 - Peak voltage amplitude of the
Power Calculations
Unmodulated Carrier
➢ Unmodulated Carrier Power, 𝑃𝐶
Circuits for AM Generation
2
𝐸𝐶
𝑃𝐶 = ➢ Amplitude modulation is generated
2𝑅
by combining the carrier and
➢ Total Transmitted Power, 𝑃𝑇
intelligence frequencies through a
2
𝑚
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐶 (1 + ) nonlinear device.
2
➢ Simple Transistor Modulator - it
➢ Lower Sideband Power, 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 and
operates with no bias and thus
Upper Sideband Power, 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵
depends on the positive peaks of 𝑒𝑐
𝑝𝑐 𝑚2 and 𝑒𝑚 to bias it into the 1st
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 =
4
nonlinear area
Voltage Calculations Proper adjustment of the levels of

➢ Peak Voltage of the Modulated 𝑒𝑐 and 𝑒𝑚 is necessary for good

Carrier, 𝐸𝑇 operation.

➢ Their levels must be low to stay in

𝑚2
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝐶 √1 + the first nonlinear area, and the
2
intelligence power must be one-half
where
 the carrier power (or less) for ➢ These are used predominantly for

100% modulation. low-power, low-capacity systems,

➢ Resonant Circuit - tuned to the such as wireless intercoms, remote

carrier frequency, is used to tune control units, pagers, and short-

into the 3 desired frequencies range walkie-talkies

High Level Modulation

➢ An AM modulation scheme where

the intelligence is superimposed on

the carrier at the last possible

stage before the antenna

AM Transmitter
➢ High power applications such as
standard radio broadcasting (kW, ➢ An AM (Amplitude Modulation)

W)In summary, then, the high-level transmitter is a device used to

modulation requires larger generate and transmit AM radio

intelligence power to produce signals.

modulation but allows extremely ➢ It takes an audio signal, typically

efficient amplification of the high- from a microphone or an audio

powered carrier. source, and modulates it onto a

carrier wave using amplitude

modulation.

➢ The modulated carrier wave carries

the audio information and is

transmitted through an antenna to

be received by AM radio receivers.

Low Level Modulation

➢ An AM modulation scheme where

the intelligence is superimposed on

the carrier at any previous stage

before the antenna (prior to the

last stage)
 MODULE 7: Forms of AM Transmission
Facts About AM

1. Information is present only in the

sidebands.

2. During 100% modulation ⅔ of the

total power is wasted in the

carrier.

3. The LSB is identical to USB.

DSB Signals
➢ Although eliminating the carrier in

➢ The first step in generating an SSB DSB AM saves a great deal of

signal is to suppress the carrier, power, DSB is not widely used

leaving the upper and lower because the signal is difficult to

sidebands. This type of signal is demodulate at the receiver.

referred to as a double-sideband
Advantages of SSB
suppressed carrier (DSSC or DSB)
1. It occupies less bandwidth
signal. The benefit, of course, is
➢ The primary benefit of an SSB
that no power is wasted on the
signal is that the spectrum space it
carrier. Double-sideband
occupies is only one-half that of AM
suppressed carrier modulation is
and DSB signals. This greatly
simply a special case of AM with no
conserves spectrum space and
carrier.
allows more signals to be

transmitted in the same frequency

range.
2. Power saving so they are affected in slightly

➢ All the power previously devoted to different ways by the ionosphere

the carrier and the other sideband and upper atmosphere, which have a

can be channeled into the single great influence on radio signals of

sideband, producing a stronger less than about 50 MHz. The

signal that should carry farther and carrier and sidebands may arrive at

be more reliably received at the receiver at slightly different

greater distances. Alternatively, times, causing a phase shift that

SSB transmitters can be made can, in turn, cause them to add in

smaller and lighter than an such a way as to cancel one another

equivalent AM or DSB transmitter rather than add up to the original

because less circuitry and power AM signal. Such cancellation, or

are used. selective fading, is not a problem

3. Less noise in the signal with SSB since only one sideband is

➢ Because SSB signals occupy a being transmitted.

narrower bandwidth, the amount of

Single Sideband Full Carrier
noise in the signal is reduced.

➢ An SSB signal produced by a 2-kHz ➢ Single sideband full carrier

sine wave modulating a 14.3-MHz (SSBFC) is a form of amplitude

sine wave carrier. modulation in which the carrier is

transmitted at full power but only

one of the sidebands is

transmitted.

4. Less subject to the effects of

selective fading

➢ There is less selective fading of an

SSB signal over long distances. An

AM signal is multiple signals, at

least a carrier and two sidebands.

These are on different frequencies,

Disadvantages of SSB and reinserted to recover the

original information. Such a low-

1. More complex
level carrier is referred to as a pilot
➢ The main disadvantage of DSB and
carrier. This technique is used in
SSB signals is that they are harder
FM stereo transmissions as well as
to recover, or demodulate, at the
in the transmission of the color
receiver. Demodulation depends
information in a TV picture.
upon the carrier being present. If

the carrier is not present, then it Power Saving

must be regenerated at the
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
%𝑃𝑆 𝑥100%
receiver and reinserted into the 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

signal. To faithfully recover the

Power Saving
intelligence signal, the reinserted
➢ means that the signal alternately
carrier must have the same phase
increases and decreases in strength
and frequency as those of the
as it is picked up by the receiver.
original carrier. This is a difficult

requirement. When SSB is used for Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves

voice transmission, the reinserted
➢ The propagation characteristics of
carrier can be made variable in
𝑒𝑚 waves used in wireless channels
frequency so that it can be
are highly dependent on the
adjusted manually while listening to
frequency.
recover an intelligible signal.
1. Ionized Region Above the Earth
2. More expensive
➢ Ionization of air is caused by UV
➢ to solve this problem, a low-level
rays from the sun.
carrier signal is sometimes
➢ Ionized air shows different
transmitted along with the two
properties at different levels
sidebands in DSB or a single
(Density and pressure).
sideband in SSB. Because the
➢ Speed of the wave differs with the
carrier has a low power level, the
changing Properties
essential benefits of SSB are
➢ Dominant regions are named as D, E,
retained, but a weak carrier is
F1 and F2
received so that it can be amplified
 ➢ The disadvantage of LOS is that

the signal path has to be above the

horizon and the receiver antennas

need to be placed on tall towers so

that they can see each other.

Sideband Generation

➢ A single-sideband transmission

requires:

1. Carrier elimination or suppression.

2. One of the two sidebands must be

filtered out.

➢ BALANCED MODULATION is a
2. Skywave Propagation
system of adding intelligence to a
➢ Dominant mode of propagation for
carrier whereby only the
EM waves in the frequency range of
sidebands are produced; the carrier
2 MHz to 30 MHz.
is eliminated.
➢ Long coverage is obtained by

reflection of wave at the Types of Radio Emission

ionosphere and at the Earth’s ❖ Character 1 - Type of Modulation

boundary.

➢ This mode is used in HF band

International Broadcasting

(Shortwave Radio).

➢ Sky-wave propagation is caused

primarily by reflection from the F

layer (90 to 250 miles in altitude).

3. Line-of-Sight Propagation

➢ Dominant mode of propagation for

EM waves above 30 MHz

➢ This mode can be used in Satellite

Communications.
 ❖ Character 2 - Type of Modulating amateur communications

Signal AM speech communication –

used for aeronautical &

amateur communications

➢ R3E - Single Sideband Reduced

Carrier–A3A

✓ SSB with reduced carrier

(AME) speech

communication, primarily

used on HF bands by the

military (a.k.a. compatible

sideband)

➢ H3E - Single Sideband Full Carrier

–A3H

❖ Character 3 – Type of ➢ J3E - Single Sideband Suppressed

Transmitted Information Carrier–A3J

✓ SSB speech communication,

used on HF bands by marine,

aeronautical and amateur

users

➢ B8E - Twin Sideband

Forms of AM Transmission and its
➢ C3F - Vestigial Sideband – A3C
Applications (Broadcasting) (Two-way ➢ 1st letter – Type of Modulation
radio) ➢ 2nd number – Nature of the

➢ A3E - Double Sideband Full Carrier Modulating Signal

–A3 ➢ 3rd letter – Type of Information

✓ Ordinary amplitude Vestigial Sideband Modulation

modulation used for low
➢ Vestigial Sideband Modulation or
frequency and medium
VSB Modulation is the process
frequency AM broadcasting
where a part of the signal called as
✓ AM speech communication –
vestige is modulated, along with one
used for aeronautical &
 sideband. A VSB signal can be 3. In point-to-point communications.

plotted as shown in the following 4. In radio communications.

figure. 5. In television, telemetry, and radar

communications.

6. In military communications, such as

amateur radio, etc.

Signal Power Considerations

➢ In conventional AM, the

transmitted power is distributed

among the carrier and two

Advantages of VSB
sidebands. For example, given a

1. Highly efficient carrier power of 400 W with 100

2. Reduction in bandwidth. percent modulation, each sideband

3. Filter design is easy as high will contain 100 W of power and the

accuracy is not needed. total power transmitted will be 600

4. The transmission of low frequency W. The effective transmission

components is possible, without power is the combined power in the

difficulty. sidebands, or 200 W.

5. Possesses good phase ➢ An SSB transmitter sends no

characteristics. carrier, so the carrier power is

zero. A given SSB transmitter will

Disadvantages of VSB
have the same communication
1. Bandwidth when compared to SSB effectiveness as a conventional AM
is greater. unit running much more power. For
2. Demodulation is complex. example, a 10-W SSB transmitter

offers the performance

Applications of SSB
capabilities of an AM transmitter
1. For power saving requirements and
running a total of 40 W, since they
low bandwidth requirements.
both show 10 W of power in one
2. In land, air, and maritime mobile
sideband. The power advantage of
communications.
SSB over AM is 4:1.
Peak Envelope Power Lattice Balance Modulator

(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
𝑃𝐸𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑥 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑅

where

➢ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 - rms voltage value of the

carrier amplitude during the

highest modulation

➢ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 - rms current value of the

Filter Method
carrier amplitude during the

highest modulation

➢ R - resistive load

Because DSB and SSB signals are difficult

to demodulate, a low-level carrier signal is

sometimes transmitted along with the

sideband(s). Because the carrier has a low

Phase Shift Method
power level, the benefits of SSB and DSB

are retained. The carrier is then amplified

and reinserted to recover the information.

Double Sideband Modulation

➢ can be generated by multiplying

signal em(t) by a frequency carrier

Weaver Method
 MODULE 8: Simultaneous AM
Simultaneous Modulation 1. Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , etc., be the

simultaneous modulation voltages.

➢ can when a carrier 𝑒𝑐 (𝑡) =
Then the total modulating voltage
𝐸𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛ώ𝑐 𝑡 is simultaneously
𝑉𝑇 will be equal to the square of the
modulated by audio waves:
sum of the squares of the individual
𝑒𝑚1 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ώ𝑚1 𝑡 voltages.
𝑒𝑚2 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ώ𝑚2 𝑡
𝑒𝑚3 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ώ𝑚3𝑡 𝑉𝑇 = √𝑉12 + 𝑉22 + 𝑉32 + … + 𝑉𝑛2

𝑒𝑚𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ώ𝑚𝑛 𝑡

𝑚 𝑇 = √𝑚12 + 𝑚22 + 𝑚32 + … + 𝑚𝑛2
➢ This is multi-tone modulation and

results to: 2. If several sine waves

𝑒𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝑒𝑚 𝑇 sin ώ𝑐 𝑡 simultaneously modulate the

carrier, the carrier power will be

where
unaffected, but the total sideband
𝑒𝑚𝑇 = 𝑒𝑚1 + 𝑒𝑚2 + 𝑒𝑚3 + . . . + 𝑒𝑚𝑛 power will now be the sum of the

expanded form individual sideband powers.

𝑚1 𝐸𝑐 𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑇 = 𝑃𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑃𝑆𝐵2 + 𝑃𝑆𝐵3 + … + 𝑃𝑆𝐵𝑛

𝑒𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ώ𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ώ𝑐 − ώ𝑚 𝑡)
2
𝑚1 𝐸𝑐 𝑚 𝑇 = √𝑚12 + 𝑚22 + 𝑚32 + … + 𝑚𝑛2
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ώ𝑐 + ώ𝑚 𝑡)
2

𝑚2 𝐸𝑐 𝑚2 𝐸𝑐 Bandwidth of AM Wave
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ώ𝑐 − ώ𝑚 𝑡) − cos ( ώ𝑐
2 2
+ ώ𝑚 𝑡) For Multi-tone

𝑚3 𝐸𝑐 𝑚3 𝐸𝑐 𝐵𝑊 = 2 𝑥 𝑓𝑚(ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟)
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ώ𝑐 − ώ𝑚 𝑡) − cos ( ώ𝑐
2 2
+ ώ𝑚 𝑡)
FCC Standard for AM Broadcast
𝑚𝑛 𝐸𝑐 𝑚𝑛 𝐸𝑐
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ώ𝑐 − ώ𝑚 𝑡) − cos ( ώ𝑐 𝐵𝑊 = 9𝑘𝐻𝑧
2 2
+ ώ𝑚 𝑡)
AM frequency band

Modulation by several Sine Waves 525 to 1705 kHz

Trapezoidal Pattern 2. 50% Modulation

➢ This refers to a moderate level of

➢ The trapezoidal pattern is used to
modulation applied to the carrier
show if the modulation has any non-
signal.
linearities or if the modulation

index is greater than one. A real-

world modulator will usually cutoff

if the base-band signal gets too

large. The result of overmodulation

is called splatter. Modulate a 455

kHz carrier with a 1 kHz sinusoid.

3. 90% Modulation

➢ This pattern indicates a high level

of modulation applied to the carrier

signal.

❖ Different Trapezoidal Pattern

➢ Different trapezoidal patterns are

used in various fields, including

signal processing and modulation

techniques. However, the

descriptions you provided appear to

be related to amplitude modulation

4. 100% Over Modulation
(AM) in particular.
➢ This refers to a situation where the
1. No Modulation
modulation applied to the carrier
➢ In this case, there is no modulation
signal exceeds its maximum
applied to the carrier signal.
permissible level.