CHAPTER 2

THE CONCEPT OF COMBUSTION AND FUEL

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Define Combustion;
2. Differentiate the Fire triangle and the Fire Tetrahedron;
3. Identify the difference between Chemical reaction and Chain Reaction;
4. Explain Exothermic Chemical Reaction;
5. Define Fuel;
6. Identify the different types of Fuel;
7. Enumerate some examples of Fuel according to its typologies; and
8. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of
fuels in the industry.

What is Combustion?

Combustion is a chemical reaction between substances, usually

including oxygen and usually accompanied by the generation of heat and
light in the form of flame (Kondratiev, 2020). In simpler terms, it is a
chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives
off heat (NASA, 2021).

Types of Combustion

The following are the types of combustion:

1. Complete Combustion

In Complete combustion, the burning fuel will produce only

water and carbon dioxide (no smoke or other products). The flame is
typically blue. For this to happen, there needs to be enough oxygen to
combine completely with the fuel gas (sciencelearn.org.nz, 2009).

2. Incomplete Combustion
 Incomplete combustion occurs when the supply of air or
oxygen is poor. Water is still produced, but carbon monoxide and
carbon are produced instead of carbon dioxide. The burning flame is
typically yellow or orange and there is smoke.

3. Rapid Combustion

Rapid energy needs external heat energy for the reaction to

occur. The combustion produces a large amount of heat and light
energy and does so rapidly. The combustion will carry on as long as
the fuel is available.

4. Spontaneous Combustion

The combustion in which no external heat is given is known as

spontaneous combustion. It requires no external energy for the
combustion to start. It happens due to self- heating. A substance with
low-ignition temperatures gets heated and this heat is unable to
escape. The temperature rises above ignition point and in the presence
of sufficient oxygen combustion will happen.

5. Explosive Combustion

Explosive Combustion happens when the reaction occurs very

rapidly. The reaction occurs when something ignites to produce heat,
light and sound energy.

The Fire Triangle

Combustion is another word for burning. The fire triangle is also

referred to as the combustion triangle. It is an easily understandable
model that explains the ingredients required for combustion. It graphically
illustrates the three criteria required for a fire, which are ignition, fuel and an
oxidizing agent. Without one of these three ingredients, fire is impossible.
 Figure 1

Fire Triangle

Three things must be present at the same time in order to produce fire:

Oxygen

 Enough oxygen to sustain combustion

 Oxygen is needed to sustain the combustion reaction since it
reacts with the burning fuel release with the burning fuel to
release carbon dioxide and heat. the atmosphere of the earth
consists of 21 percent oxygen, which means that there's enough
to trigger a fire as long as the other two components are
present.

Heat

 enough heat to raise the material to its ignition temperature;

 A heat source is necessary for ignition to occur and different
materials have different ‘flash points’ or the lowest temperatures
at which they can ignite.
  Combustion reactions, however, also produce heat as they burn,
which further increase the fuels temperature. The heat may be
cooled by applying water, but this is only possible for some types
of fire.

Fuel

 These are combustible material.

 Fire cannot start if there isn’t any material available to burn.
Businesses and homes alike are full of flammable materials
including fabrics, wood, oil, and paper. Any of these materials
can serve as fuel for a fire.
 Some of the materials burn more easily compared to others. Fuel
is probably the hardest ‘side’ of the fire triangle to remove, so it
is advisable to ensure that they are appropriate stored so that
they don’t become a fire hazard.

The Fire Tetrahedron

Further research into fire led to the conclusion that a fourth element as a
necessary component of fire, which is an exothermic chemical chain
reaction. The fire triangle was subsequently changed to a fire tetrahedron
to reflect the fourth element.

Figure 2
 Fire Tetrahedron

Chain Reaction and Chemical Reaction

Chain Reaction is a self-sustaining sequence, a process yielding products

that initiate further processes of the same kind. It is a series of reaction
where the products contribute to the reactants of another reaction without
outside influence. A chemical chain reaction is a series of chemical
reactions where the products of the reaction contribute to the reactants of
another reaction.

There are three stages in chemical chain reaction

1. Initiation

This is where a reactive intermediate, which may be an atom, an ion,

or a neutral molecular fragment, is formed, usually through the action
of an agent such as light, heat, or a catalyst.

2. Propagation

The intermediate reacts with the original reactants, producing stable

products and another intermediate, whether of the same or different
kind; the new intermediate reacts as before, so a repetitive cycle
begins.

3. Termination

This may be natural, as when all the reactants have been consumed or the
containing vessel causes the chain carriers to recombine as fast as they are
formed, but more often is induced intentionally by introduction of substances
called inhibitors or antioxidants.

Chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances, the

reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, the products.
Substances are either chemical elements or compounds. It rearranges the
constituent atoms of the reactants to create different substances as
products.

Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are

formed or broken. Energy plays a key role in chemical processes. Bonds
between atoms in the reactants must be broken, and the atoms or pieces of
molecules are reassembled into products by forming new bonds. The
substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants, and
the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the
products. An arrow is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate
the direction of the chemical reaction.

Chemical element is defined as a material which cannot be broken

down or changed into another substance using chemical means. It is
considered to be the building blocks of matter. Chemical compounds are
any substance composed of identical molecules consisting of atoms of two or
more chemical elements. It can be classified into two; inorganic and organic
compound. Inorganic compound are compounds that are made up of two
or more elements other than carbon (C). Organic compounds are
substances that contain carbon (C), and carbon atoms provide the key
structural framework that generates the vast diversity of organic
compounds.

Endothermic Reaction and Exothermic Reaction

As indicated earlier, energy plays a key role in chemical processes.

Energy is used to break bonds in reactants, and energy is released when
new bonds form in products. Endothermic reaction is any chemical
reaction that absorbs heat from its environment. The word endothermic is
derived from “endo”, the Greek word for inside, and “therme” the Greek
word for heat. The absorbed energy provides the activation energy for the
reaction to occur. A hallmark of this type of reaction is that it feels cold. An
example of endothermic reaction is the melting ice cubes.
 Figure 3

Endothermic Reaction

Exothermic reactions are chemical reactions that produce heat. The

word exothermic is derived from exo, the Greek word for outside, and
therme, the Greek word for heat. Energy, often in the form of heat, is
released as an exothermic reaction proceeds. The general equation for an
exothermic reaction is:

Reactants → Products + Energy

All combustion reactions are exothermic reactions. During a

combustion reaction, a substance burns as it combines with oxygen. When
substances burn, they usually give off energy as heat and light. For
example, the combustion of wood is an exothermic reaction that releases a
lot of energy as heat and light. The light energy the fire is giving off is
visible. If a person is standing near the fire, he/she would also feel its heat.
 Figure 4

Exothermic Reactions

What is a Fuel?

A fuel is any compound which has stored energy. It is any substance

that can provide heat and produce energy when it is burned. In other words,
fuel is any material used to produce heat or power by burning. This energy
that releases is generally in the form of chemical energy or heat energy. The
recent invention of nuclear technology means now even nuclear energy may
be released due to nuclear fission or fusion.

The substances classified as fuel must necessarily contain one or

several of the combustible elements: carbon, hydrogen, Sulphur, etc. In the
process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat
energy. To utilize the energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to
transform the fuel from its one state to another (from solid to liquid or
gaseous state, liquid to gaseous state) or from its chemical energy to some
other form of energy via single or many stages. In this way, the energy of
fuels can be utilized more effectively and efficiently for various purposes.

Types of Fuels

Here are the types of fuels and their characteristics:

1. Solid Fuels
 Solid Fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used
to produce energy and provide heating, released through combustion
(de Souza-Santos, 2004). The various advantages and disadvantages
of solid fuels are given below:

Advantages Disadvantages
They are easy to transport Their ash content is high
They are convenient to store Their large portion of heat is
without any risk of spontaneous wasted.
explosion
Their cost of production is low They burn with clinker formation.
They posses moderate ignition Their combustion operation
temperature cannot be controlled easily
Their cost of handling is high.

Solid Fuels are mainly classified into two categories:

 Natural Solid Fuels- these are natural occurring fuels.

 Wood-It is vegetable tissue of trees and bushes. It is the
most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel. It is
the oldest type of fuel which man had used for centuries
after the discovery of the fire itself. It consists of mainly
cellular tissue and lignin and lesser parts of fat and tar, as
well as sugar.
 Coal- It is a black sedimentary rock that can be burned for
fuel. It is defined as having more than 50 percent by
weight (or 70 percent by volume) carbonaceous matter
produced by the compaction and hardening of altered plant
remains-namely, peat deposits.

 Manufactured Solid Fuels- is any solid fuel made from coal,

wood, plant-derived materials, waxes or petroleum products, mixed
with other ingredients.
 Charcoal- it is an odorless, tasteless, fine black powder, or
black porous solid consisting of carbon, and any remaining ash,
obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from
 animal and vegetation substances. It is produced by the
incomplete combustion of plant or animal products.
 Coke-it is a fuel used in the steel making process that is created
by heating coal in the absence of air. It is produced by heating
coal at high temperatures, for long periods of time. This heating
is called "thermal distillation" or "pyrolysis."
 Briquette- it is a compressed block of coal dust or other
combustible material (such as charcoal, sawdust, wood chips,
peat, or paper) used for fuel as well as for kindling to start a fire.

2. Liquid Fuels

Liquids Fuels are any fuel in liquid form at standard

temperature and preasure. The various advantages and disadvantages
of liquid fuels are given below.

Advantages Disadvantages
They posses higher calorific value The cost of liquid fuel is relatively
per unit mass than solid fuels. much higher as compared to solid
fuel.
They burn without dust, ash, Costly special storage tanks are
clinkers, etc. required for storing liquid fuels.
Their firing is easier and also fire There is a greater risk of five
can be extinguished easily by hazards particularly, in case of
stopping liquid fuel supply. highly inflammable and volatile
liquid fuels.
They can be stored indefinitely For efficient burning of liquid
without any loss. fuels, specially constructed
burners and spraying apparatus
are required.
They are clean in use and
economic to handle.
Loss of heat in chimney is very
low due to greater cleanliness.
They require less excess air for
complete combustion. They
require less furnace space for
combustion.
They require less excess air for
complete combustion.
They require less furnace space
for combustion.

Liquid Fuels are classified as follows:

 Natural or crude oil- Crude oil is a naturally occurring

petroleum product composed of hydrocarbon deposits and other
organic materials. It is a nonrenewable resource, which means
that it can't be replaced naturally at the rate we consume it and
is, therefore, a limited resource.
- Petroleum is a basic natural fuel (crude oil). It is a dark
greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found deep in earth's
crust. It is mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like
straight chain paraffins, cycloparaffins or napthenes, olefins,
and aromatics) together with small amount of organic
compounds containing oxygen nitrogen and sulphur. The
average composition of crude petroleum is: C = 79.5 to
87.1%; H = 11.5 to 14.8%; S = 0.1 to 3.5%, N and O = 0.1
to 0.5%.

Types of Petroleum

 Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum- This type of

petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated
hydrocarbons from CH to C, H, and a little of the
napthenes and aromatics. The hydrocarbons from C, Hg to
C H12 are sometimes called waxes.
 Asphaltic Base Type Crude Petroleum- It contains
mainly cycloparaffins or napthenes with smaller amount of
paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
 Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum- It contains both
paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are generally
rich in semi-solid waxes.

 Artificial or Manufactured Oils- These are obtained mostly by

fractional distillation of crude petroleum or of Liquefaction coal.
  Gasoline or Petrol- It is a mixture of volatile, derived
flammable liquid hydrocarbons from petroleum and used
as fuel for internal- combustion engines. It is also used as
a solvent for oils and fats. It is obtained either from
distillation of crude petroleum or by synthesis. It contains
some undesirable unsaturated straight chain hydrocarbons
and sulphur compounds. It has boiling range of 40-120°C.
 Diesel Fuel or Gas Oil- It is a combustible liquid used as
fuel for diesel engines, ordinarily obtained from fractions of
crude oil that are less volatile than the fractions used in
gasoline. It releases more energy on combustion than
equal volumes of gasoline, so diesel engines generally
produce better fuel economy than gasoline engines. It is
obtained between 250-320°C during the fractional
distillation of crude petroleum. This oil generally contains
85% C. 12% H. Its calorific value is about 11,000 kcal/kg.
 Kerosene Oil- It is also called paraffin or paraffin oil,
flammable hydrocarbon liquid commonly used as a fuel. It
is typically pale yellow or colorless and has a not-
unpleasant characteristic odor. It is obtained from
petroleum and is used for burning in kerosene lamps and
domestic heaters or furnaces, as a fuel or fuel component
for jet engines, and as a solvent for greases and
insecticides. It is obtained between 180-250°C during
fractional distillation of crude petroleum.
 Heavy Oil- it is a high density, highly viscous petroleum
product from petrochemical refining. Its high content of
sulfur, heavy metals, wax, and carbon residues makes it
unsuitable for combustion. It is a fraction obtained
between 320-400°C during fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. This oil on refractionation gives:
- Lubricating oils which are used as lubricants.
- Petroleum-jelly (Vaseline) which is used as
lubricants in medicines and in cosmetics.
- Greases which are used as lubricants.
- Paraffin wax which is used in candles, boot
polishes, wax paper, tarpaulin cloth and for electrical
insulation purposes.
 3. Gaseous fuel

Gaseous fuel means a material that is in the gaseous state at

standard atmospheric temperature and pressure conditions and that is
combusted to produce heat and/or energy. The various advantages
and disadvantages of gaseous fuels are given below:

Advantages Disadvantages
They can be conveyed easily Very large storage tanks are
through pipelines to the actual needed.
place of need, thereby
eliminating manual labor in
transportation.
They can be lighted at ease. They are highly inflammable, so
chances of fire hazards in their
use is high.
They have high heat contents
and hence help us in having
higher temperatures.
They can be pre-heated by the
heat of hot waste gases, thereby
affecting economy in heat.
Their combustion can readily by
controlled for change in demand
like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame,
temperature, etc.
They are clean in use.
They do not require any special
burner.
They burn without any shoot, or
smoke and ashes.
They are free from impurities
found in solid and liquid fuels.

The Two Types of Gaseous Fuels are:

 Natural Gas- It is the cleanest fuel compared to crude oil and other
gases because it produces less carbon dioxide. It is also called
methane gas or natural methane gas, colorless highly flammable
gaseous hydrocarbon consisting primarily of methane and ethane.

Natural gas moved into large cracks and spaces between layers of
overlying rock. The natural gas found in these types of formations is
sometimes called conventional natural gas. In other places, natural
gas occurs in the tiny pores (spaces) within some formations of shale,
sandstone, and other types gas or tight gas, and it is sometimes called
unconventional of sedimentary rock. This natural gas is referred to as
shale gas or tight gas, and it is sometimes called unconventional
natural gas. Natural gas also occurs with deposits of crude oil, and
this natural gas is called associated natural gas. Natural gas deposits
are found on land, and some are offshore and deep under the ocean
floor. A type of natural gas found in coal deposits is called coalbed
methane.

 Manufactured Gas- These are obtained from solid and liquid fuels.
 Coal Gas- It is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in
absence of air at about 1300°C in either coke ovens or gas-
making retorts. In gas making retort process coal is fed in closed
silica retorts, which are then heated to about 1300°C by burning
producer gas and air mixture. It is a colorless gas having a
characteristic odor. It is lighter than air and burns with a long
smoky flame.
 Blast Furnace Gas- It is a by product flue gas obtained during
the reduction of ion ore by coke in the blast furnace. It is
produced during the iron oxide reduction in blast furnace iron
making in which iron ore, coke and limestone are heated and
melted in a blast furnace and is an indigenous process gas of the
steelworks industry. Blast furnace gas has a high carbon
monoxide (CO) content and a low heating value.
 Water Gas- It is a combustion fuel containing carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrogen gas (H2). Water gas is made by passing
steam over heated hydrocarbons. The reaction between steam
and hydrocarbons produces synthesis gas. The water- gas shift
reaction can be used to reduce carbon dioxide levels and enrich
hydrogen content, making water gas.
  Producer Gas- It a gas mixture containing carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrogen (H), carbon dioxide (CO) and nitrogen (N). In
the USA, producer gas is a generic term referring to wood gas,
town gas or syngas. In the UK, producer gas, also known as
suction gas, means a fuel gas made from coke or other
carbonaceous material.

Biofuel

Biofuel is any fuel that is derived from biomass-that is, plant or

algae material or animal waste. Since such feedstock material can be
replenished readily, biofuel is considered to be a source of renewable
energy, unlike fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas.
Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living
organisms, such as plants and animals. The most common biomass
materials used for energy are plants, wood, and waste. These are called
biomass feedstocks. Biomass energy can also be a non- renewable energy
source.