PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

(iv) When light gets reflected in same medium, it

suffers no change in frequency, speed and
wavelength.
(v) Frequency of light remains unchanged when it gets
reflected or refracted.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT: Laws of Reflection

(a) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane. This
plane is called the plane of incidence (or plane of reflection).
 This condition can be expressed mathematically as
R . (  × N ) = N . (  × R )=  .( N × R ) = 0
where  , N and R are vectors of any magnitude along incident ray, the
normal and the reflected ray respectively.
 The angle of incidence (the angle between normal and the incident
ray) and the angle of reflection (the angle between the reflected ray
and the normal) are equal, i.e.,  i = r

For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror be rotated

through an angle  (about an axis which lies in the plane
of mirror and perpendicular to the plane of incidence),
show that the reflected ray turns through an angle 2in
same sense. 

Fromfigure it is clear that ABC = 2 = 2 + ) or  = 2.

Number of images formed by two inclined mirrors
360º 360º
(i) If = even number ; number of image = –1
 
360º 360º
(ii) If = odd number ; number of image = – 1, if the object is placed on the angle bisector.
 
360º 360º
(iii) If = odd number ; number of image = , if the object is not placed on the angle bisector.
 
360º
(iv) If  integer, then count the number of images as explained above.


Spherical mirrors:
1 1 2 1
Formula for Reflection from spherical mirrors: (a) Mirror formula :   
v u R f
Sign Convention:
We are using co–ordinate sign convention.
(i) Take origin at pole (in case of mirror )or at
optical centre (in case of lens)
Take X axis along the Principal Axis ,taking positive
direction along the incident light.
u, v, R and f indicate the x coordinate of object, image,
centre of curvature and focus respectively.
(ii) y-coordinates are taken positive above
Principle Axis and negative below Principle
Axis’
h1 and h2 denote the y coordinates of object and image
respectively.

Concave mirror : Image formed by concave mirror may be real or virtual, may be inverted or
erect, may be smaller, larger or equal in size of object.

(1) When object is placed at infinite (i.e. u = ) (2) When object is placed between infinite and
centre of curvature (i.e. u > 2f)
Image
At F F P
Image
Real Between F and C C F P
Inverted Real
Fig. 29.9 Inverted
Very small in size
Small in size Fig. 29.10
Magnification m << – 1
m<–1

(3) When object is placed at centre of curvature (4) When object is placed between centre of
(i.e. u = 2f) curvature and focus (i.e. f < u < 2f)
Image
Image
At C Between 2f and 
F P F P
Real Real
C C
Inverted Inverted
Equal in size Fig. 29.11 Large in size
m=–1 m>–1

(5) When object is placed at focus (i.e. u = f) (6) When object is placed between focus and pole
(i.e. u < f)
Image
P
At  C F
Image
Real Behind the mirror
P
Inverted Virtual
C F
Fig. 29.13 Erect
Very large in size
m >> – 1 Large in size
m>+1
 Convex mirror : Image formed by convex mirror is always virtual, erect and smaller in size .

(1) When object is placed at infinite (i.e. u = ) (2) When object is placed any where on the
principal axis
Image
At F Image
Virtual P F Between P and F
Erect Virtual P F C
Very small in size Erect
Fig. 29.15
Magnification m << + 1 Small in size Fig. 29.16
Magnification m < + 1

Useful sign
Concave mirror Convex mirror

Real image (u ≥ f) Virtual image (u< f)

Distance of object u  – u  – u  –
Distance of image v  – v  + v  +
Focal length f  – f  – f  +
Height of object O  + O+ O  +
Height of image I  – I + I  +
Radius of curvature R  – R – R  +
Magnification m  – m+ m  +
CONVEX MIRROR:
i) The image is ALWAYS VIRTUAL and ERRECT ( FOR real Objects)
ii) The image is always diminished, and is between P and F; the image being exactly at F, for large objects.
size of image
iii) MAGNIFICATION: Magnification m
size of object
iv)
height of image I v
LATERAL MAGNIFICATION: Magnification m = 
height of object O u
(Negative value of m indicates that the image is inverted relative to the object. Hence m may be positive or negative)
Length of image
LONGITUDINAL MAGNIFICATION: mL 
Length of object

For SHORT OBJECT: mL  

dv
and  v1  v2 
du For LONG OBJECT: mL    
1 1 1 du dv  u1  u2 
mirror formula is   0 2  2
f u v u v
dv v2 v 2
 2  mL   2 ; mL   m 2
du u u
 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Laws of Refraction
a) The incident ray, the normal to any refracting surface at the
point of incidence and the refracted ray all lie in the same
plane called the plane of incidence or plane of refraction.
If the light is incident normally then it goes to the second
medium without bending, but still it is called refraction.

Refractive index of a medium is defined as the factor by which speed of light reduces as compared to
c speed of light in vacuum
the speed of light in vacuum:  = .
v speed of light in medium
More (less) refractive index implies less (more) speed of light in that medium, which therefore is called
optical denser (rarer) medium.

When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a Incident ray

i Rarer medium
denser medium, it bends towards the normal.

Deviation  = (i – r) 

Denser medium Refracted ray

When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a

Denser medium
rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
Deviation  = (r – i ) i

Rarer medium
r


Snell’s law : The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction (r) is a constant called
sin i
refractive index : i.e.   (a constant).
sin r
2 sin i
For two media, Snell's law can be written as 1  2    1  sin i  2  sin r
1 sin r

Also in vector form : ˆi  n

ˆ   ( rˆ  n
ˆ)
 Refractive Index
Absolute refractive index : When light travels from vacuum to any transparent medium
then refractive index of medium w.r.t. vacuum is called it’s absolute refractive index
c
i.e. vacuum medium 
v
Absolute refractive indices for glass, water and diamond are respectively
3 4 12
 g   1.5, w   1.33 and D   2.4
2 3 5
Relative refractive index : When light travels from medium (1) to medium (2) then refractive
index of medium (2) w.r.t. medium (1) is called it’s relative refractive index
 v
i.e. 1 2  2  1 (where v1 and v2 are the speed of light in medium 1 and 2 respectively).
1 v2
2 1 v1
 If a light ray travels from medium (1) to medium (2), then 1 2   
1 2 v2
Dependence of Refractive index
(i) Nature of the media of incidence and refraction.
(ii) Colour of light or wavelength of light.
(iii) Temperature of the media : Refractive index decreases with the increase in temperature.
Reversibility of light and refraction through several media
Incident
1
ray
1
1 3 i
(A) 1  2  (B) 1 2  3  1  1 or 2 3  1 2

2 1 1 2
2 3
r 3
2
1
REFRACTION THROUGH A PARALLEL SLAB
i
(1) Lateral shift : P
 When a light ray passes through a glass slab it is rr 
refracted twice at the two parallel faces. t N

 Finally emerges out parallel to it's incident direction i.e. 

the ray undergoes no deviation  = 0. M
e

 The Lateral shift of the ray is the perpendicular distance(MN=d) between the incident and the
emergent ray,
 The required relations: sin(i  r) 
MN
PM
and cos r 
t
PM
t sin(i  r)
 Lateral shift d =
cosr
; t = thickness of slab

 Length of the light ray traversed inside the slb: PM 

t
cos r
( if angle of incidence ‘i’, thickness ‘t’ and RI of slab '  ' are given, then )
 
 cos r 
t
and  
sini
 cosr is calculated

 PM sin r 
 Real and Apparent Depth
If object and observer are situated in different medium then due to refraction, object appears to be
displaced from it’s real position.
(1) When object is in denser medium and observer is in rarer medium
Real depth h
(i)    
Apparent depth h
(ii) Real depth > Apparent depth 
 1
h

(iii) Shift d  h  h'   1   h . h O

 
d
O
4 h
For water   d  ; For glass 3
  d 
h
3 4 2 3

(v) If a beaker contains various immiscible liquids as shown then

d1 d2 d3
Apparent depth of bottom     .... 1 d1
1 2 3
d AC d  d 2  ..... 2 d2
 combination =  1
d App. d1  d 2  ....
3 d3
1 2
2 12
(In case of two liquids if d1  d2 than   )
1   2
(2) Object is in rarer medium and observer is in denser medium
h'
(i)   O d
h h
O h
(ii) Real depth < Apparent depth.
(iii) d  (   1)h
h h
(iv) Shift for water d w  ; Shift for glass d g 
3 2

Refraction Through a Glass Slab

i
(1) Lateral shift : The refracting surfaces of a glass
slab are parallel to each other. When a light ray passes rr 
through a glass slab it is refracted twice at the two parallel t N

faces and finally emerges out parallel to it's incident 

direction i.e. the ray undergoes no deviation  = 0. The M
e
angle of emergence (e) is equal to the angle of incidence (i)
The Lateral shift of the ray is the perpendicular distance
between the incident and the emergent ray, and it is given
by
MN = t sec r sin (i – r)
(2) Normal shift : If a glass slab is placed in the path
of a converging or diverging beam of light then point of
convergence or point of divergence appears to be shifted as
O' O
shown
x
 1
Normal shift : OO '  x   1   t


  t

(3) Optical path : It is defined as distance travelled by 

light in vacuum in the same time in which it travels a given Light

path length in a medium.

Time taken by light ray to pass through the medium x
 x
 ;
c
where x = geometrical path and x = optical path

Refraction through a composite slab (or refraction

through a number of parallel media, as seen from a
medium of R. I. n0)
Apparent depth (distance of final image from final
t1 t2 t3 tn
surface) = + + +......... +
n1 rel n2 rel n3 rel nn rel

 1   1   n 
Apparent shift = t1  1   + t2  1   +........+ 1   tn
 n1rel   n2 rel   nn rel 

Where ' t ' represents thickness and ' n ' represents the R.I. of the respective media, relative to the
medium of observer. (i.e. n1rel = n1/n0, n2 rel = n2/n0 etc.)
Find the apparent depth of object O below surface AB, seen by an
observer in medium of refractive index 
t1
dapp. =
1 /  2

In above question what is the depth of object corresponding to incident

rays striking on surface CD in medium 
Depth of the object corresponding to incident ray striking on the surface CD
in medium µ2 = t2 + P1

t1
= t 2+
1 /  2
In above question if observer is in medium 3, what is the apparent depth
of object seen below surface CD.
Solution : If the observer is in medium µ3. Apparent depth below
t2 t1
surface CD = Q2.= 
2 / 3 1 / 3

CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T. I. R.)

1
(1)    cosec C ; where   Rarer Denser
sin C

(2) Conditions for TIR

(i) The ray must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence i must be greater than critical angle C
(3) Dependence of critical angle (a) R  V CR  CV
(i) Colour of light (or wavelength of light) : Critical angle 1   v
(b) Sin C   R  D  D
R D  D R vR
1
depends upon wavelength as    sin C
 (for two media)
(iii) Temperature : With temperature rise refractive index of the material decreases therefore critical angle
increases.

r
Field of vision of fish (or swimmer) : A fish (diver)
inside the water can see the whole world through a cone with. C  >C
h
(a) Apex angle  2C  98o C C
h 3h
(b) Radius of base r  h tan C  ; for water r 
 2 1 7
 h2 9 2
(c) Area of base A  ; for water a  h
(   1)
2
7

Prism: Prism is a transparent medium bounded by refracting surfaces, such that the incident surface (on
which light ray is incidenting) and emergent surface (from which light rays emerges) are plane and non
parallel.
(1) Refraction through a prism A
i – Angle of incidence,
A  r1  r2 and i  e  A   A e – Angle of emergence,
 A – Angle of prism or
sin i e
For surface AC :   ; i
refracting
sin r1 r1 r2
angle of prism,
1 sin r2 r1 and r2 – Angle of
For surface AB :  refraction,
 sin e 
 – Angle of deviation
C B
 (1) Deviation through a prism : max
For thin prism   (   1)A . Also deviation is different e
r2
i = 90o
for different colour light r1 = C

e.g.  R  V so  R  V .
Flint  Crown so  F   C

(i) Maximum deviation : Condition of maximum  sin( A  C ) 

e  sin 1  

deviation is  i  90o  r1  C, r2  A  C and from  sin C 
Snell’s law on emergent surface   sin( A  C ) 
 max   sin 1   A
2  sin C 

(ii) Minimum deviation : It is observed if i  e


and r1  r2  r , deviation produced is minimum.
i e
r r
m

(a) Refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to the base of the prism for equilateral and isosceles prisms.
A  m
A A  m sin i sin
(b) r  and i  ; (c)   or   2 (Prism formula).
2 2 sin A / 2 sin A / 2
(3) Condition of no emergence : For no A
emergence of light, TIR must takes place at the second i
r1
surface r2

For TIR at second surface r2 > C

TIR
So A > r1 + C (From A = r1 + r2)
As maximum value of r1  C : So, A  2C. for any angle of incidence.

If light ray incident normally on first surface i.e.  i = 0° it means r1 = 0°. So in this case condition of
no emergence from second surface is A > C.
1
 sin A  sin C  sin A     cosec A


Dispersion Through a Prism

The splitting of white light into it’s
constituent colours is called dispersion of
light.
 (1) Angular dispersion ( ) : Angular separation V
R Y Screen
between extreme colours
Incident
i.e. θ  δ V  δ R  ( μ V  μ R )A .
white light R

Y
It depends upon  and A. V

 V   R     R 
(2) Dispersive power () :    where 
 y  V 
y  y 1 
 2  
 It depends only upon the material of the prism i.e.  and it doesn't depends upon angle of prism A

SPECIAL CASES:
(3) Combination of prisms : Two prisms (made of crown and flint material) are combined to get either
dispersion only or deviation only.
Flint
(i) Dispersion without deviation (chromatic combination)
V
A' (   1) A R
 y
A (  ' y  1) R
 '  A
 net    1    (   '  ')
V

  Crown

(ii) Deviation without dispersion (Achromatic combination) Flint

A' ( V   R )

A

A (  'V   'R )
R
  
 net    1  
A
V

  ' Crown

Refraction From Spherical Surface:

(1) Refraction formula : For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface separating two
n2 n1 n2  n1 2  1 2 1
 
media:
v  u = R OR
R v u
Where 1  Refractive index of the medium from which light rays are coming (from object).
2  Refractive index of the medium in which light rays are entering.
u = Distance of object, v = Distance of image, R = Radius of curvature
 2 1 2  1
 
v u R

 When the object is in rarer medium, and center of curvature is towards denser medium:
n1 n1 n2
then is replaced by: and is same as above, where R is + ve.
u u v
2 1 2  1
 
v u R

 When the object is in rarer medium, and center of curvature is towards denser medium:
n1 n1 n2
then is replaced by: and is same as above, where R is - ve.
u u v

1 2 1  2
 
v u R

 When the object is in denser medium, and center of curvature is towards denser medium:
n1 n2 n2 n1
then is replaced by: and is replaced by same as above, where R is - ve.
u u v v
 1 2 1  2
 
v u R

 When the object is in denser medium, and center of curvature is towards denser medium:
n1 n2 n2 n1
then is replaced by: and is replaced by same as above, where R is + ve.
u u v v
(2) Lateral magnification : The lateral magnification m is the ratio of the image height to the object
 h      v 1

height or m   i    1   
2
 h      u h0 C
 0  2 P hi
Focal Length, Power and Aperture of Lens
(1) Focal length (f) : Distance of second principle focus from optical centreuis called focal vlength
fconvex  positive, fconcave  negative, fplane  

(2) Power of lens (P) : Means the ability of a lens to deviate the path of the rays passing through it. If
the lens converges the rays parallel to the principal axis its power is positive and if it diverges the rays it is
1 100
negative. Power of lens P   ; Unit of power is Diopter (D)
f (m) f (cm)
Pconvex  positive, Pconcave  negative, Pplane  zero .

Convex lens : The image formed by convex lens depends on the position of object.
(1) When object is placed at infinite (i.e. u = ) (2) When object is placed between infinite and
2F (i.e. u > 2f)
Image
At F Image
Real 2F F F 2F Between F and 2F
Inverted Real F 2F
Very small in size Inverted 2F F
Magnification m << – 1 Very small in size
Magnification m < – 1
(3) When object is placed at 2F (i.e. u = 2f ) (4) When object is placed between F and 2F
Image (i.e. f < u < 2f )
At 2F Image
F 2F
Real Beyond 2F F 2F
2F F
Inverted Real 2F F
Equal in size Inverted
Magnification m = – 1 Large in size
Magnification m > – 1
 (5) When object is placed at F (i.e. u = f ) (6) When object is placed between F and
optical center (i.e. u < f )
Image
At  F 2F
Image
Real Same side as
2F F
Inverted that of object F 2F

Very large in size Virtual F

Magnification m >> – 1 Erect

large in size
Magnification m > 1
Concave lens : The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, erect and diminished (like a convex
mirror)
(1) When object is placed at  (2) When object is placed any where on the
Image principal axis
At F Image
Virtual 2F F 2F Between optical centre and focus
Erect Virtual
Point size Erect
Magnification m << + 1 Smaller in size F

Magnification m < + 1

Lens Maker's Formula and Lens Formula:

(1) Lens maker's formula : If R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of first and second refracting
surfaces of a thin lens of focal length f and refractive index  (w.r.t. surrounding medium) then the
 1 1
relation between f, , R1 and R2 is known as lens maker’s formula.  (   1)   
1
f R R 
 1 2

Focal length of different lenses

Lens Focal length For  = 1.5
Biconvex lens
R
R1  R f  f R
2(   1)
R2  R
Plano-convex lens
R1   R
f  f  2R
(   1)
R2  R
Biconcave
R
R1  R f  f  R
2(   1)
R2   R
Plano-concave
R1   R
f  f  2 R
(   1)
R2  R
(2) Lens formula : The expression which shows the relation between u, v and f is called lens formula.
1 1 1
 
f v u
Magnification: The ratio of the size of the image to the size of object is called magnification.
I v f f v
(1) Transverse magnification : m     (use sign convention while solving the
O u f u f
problem)
I v2  v1
(2) Longitudinal magnification : m   .
O u2  u1

dv  v 
2  f  2  f  v 2
For very small object m        
 


du  u   f u  f 
 f 2
(3) Areal magnification : ms   m    , (Ai = Area of image, Ao = Area of object)
Ai 2

Ao  f u
(4) Relation between object and image speed : If an object moves with constant speed (Vo ) towards
a convex lens from infinity to focus, the image will move slower in the beginning and then faster.
 f 2
Also Vi    . V

 f u
o

Newton's Formula: If the distance of object (x1) and image (x2) are not measured from optical
center, but from first and second principal foci then Newton's formula states f 2  x1 x 2

F
x1 x2

Lens Immersed in a Liquid

If a lens (made of glass) of refractive index g is immersed in a liquid of refractive index l, then its
 1 1
 ( l  g  1)   
1
focal length in liquid, fl is given by ......(i)
fl R
 1 R2

 1 1
1
 ( a  g  1)   
If f a is the focal length of lens in air, then   ......(ii)
fa  R1 R2 
fl ( a μg  1)
 
f a (l μg  1)

(1) If  g  l , then f l and f a are of same sign and fl  f a .

That is the nature of lens remains unchanged, but it’s focal length increases and hence power of lens
decreases.
(2) If  g  l , then fl  . It means lens behaves as a
plane glass plate and becomes invisible in the medium.
 (3) If  g  l , then f l and f a have opposite signs and
the nature of lens changes i.e. a convex lens diverges the
light rays and concave lens converges the light rays.

Combination of Lens
(1) For a system of lenses, the net power, net focal length and magnification are given as
1 1 1 1
follows : P  P1  P2  P3 .......... ,     ........... , m  m1  m2  m3  ............
F f1 f 2 f3

(2) In case when two thin lens are in contact : Combination will behave as a lens, which
1 1 1 f f
have more power or lesser focal length.    F 1 2 and P  P1  P2
F f1 f 2 f1  f 2

(3) If two lens of equal focal length but of opposite nature are in contact then combination
will behave as a plane glass plate and Fcombination  
f1 f2
(4) When two lenses are placed co-axially at a distance d from
each other then equivalent focal length (F).
1 1 1 d
   and P  P1  P2  dPP
1 2 d
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2

(5) Cutting of Lens:

(1) A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal parts. f, P
2f 2f
P/2 P/2
Intensity of image formed by each part will be same as that of complete
lens. Focal length is double the original for each part. 
(2) A symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal parts.
Intensity of image formed by each part will be less compared as that of
1
complete lens.(aperture of each part is times that of complete lens). f, P
2
Focal length remains same for each part. 
f, P

(6) Combination of parts of a lens :

and
 and F = f/2
F=
f
f F =f F=f
Silvering of Lens: On silvering the surface of the lens it behaves as a mirror.
1 2 1
 The focal length of the silvered lens is   : where
F fl f m
 f l  focal length of lens from which refraction takes place (twice)
f m  focal length of mirror from which reflection takes place.

(1) Plano convex is silvered :

(a) When plane surface is silvered: (b) When curved surface is silvered:

 +  +

F fl fm
F fl fm
R R R R R
f m  , fl  so F  fm  , fl  so F 
(   1) 2 (   1) 2 (   1) 2

(2) Double convex lens is silvered

(c)When one of the curved surfaces is silvered:
R R R
Since fl  , fm  so F   +
2 (   1) 2 2 (2   1)

F fl fm

Displacement Method to find Focal length of Converging Lens :

Consider an object and a screen placed at a distance D (> 4f) apart. Let a lens of focal length f be
placed between the object and the screen then move the lens from the object towards the screen.
Two images will be formed on the screen for the two position of the lens.

 If the distance of object from the lens is ‘u’, then the distance of image on the screen from the mirror
1 1 1
will be v= D – u, then from  
f v u
 1 1 1 1 
   u 2  Du  Df  0 : so that the roots of the equation u   D  D 2  4 Df 
f  D  u  u 2 
1) If D 2  4 Df : u will be imaginary, which shows that no position of lens is possible for getting real
image.
2) If D 2  4 Df : u has only one root, which shows that one position of lens is possible for getting
real image.
3) If D 2  4 Df : u has two roots, which shows that there will be two positions of lens is possible for
getting two real images.
Conclusion:
 The minimum distance between object and screen to get a real image is D  4 f
1  1 
 The two positions of lenses are:  u1   D  D 2  4 Df  and  u2   D  D 2  4 Df 
2  2 
 If ‘x’ be the distance b/w the two  The distances of two images are v1 & v2
positions of the lens,
corresponding to object distances u1 & u2 :
x  u2  u1 OR x  DD  4 f 
then
 The focal length of the lens 1 
D2  x2  v1  D  u1  D  D 2  4 Df   v1  u2 &
 f  2  
4D 1 
 v2  D  u2   D  D 2  4 Df   v2  u1
2 
 
Dx Dx
x  u2  u1 & D  u2  u1 :  u1  v2  &  u2  v1 
2 2
 The magnification for two positions of the lens are:
I1 v1  D  x  I 2 v2  D  x 
 m1     &  m    
0 u1  D  x  0 u2  D  x 
2

 The product of two magnifications:  The difference between:

I I   D  x 2
 D  x  D  x
m1  m2   1  2  OR m1  m2   
 m1  m2    
 
 OR m  m  4 D x

 O O  D  x  D2  x2
 D  x   D  x 
1 2

(1) For two different positions of lens two images ( I1 and I 2 ) of an object are formed at the screen.
D2  x2 x I I
(2) Focal length of the lens f   : where m1  1 ; m2  2 and m1m2  1.
4D m1  m2 O O
(3) Size of object O  I1. I 2

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Microscope:It is an optical instrument used to see very small objects. It’s magnifying power is given
Visual angle with instrument ( )
by m 
Visual angle when object is placed at least distance of distinct vision ( )
(1) Simple microscope
(i) It is a single convex lens of lesser focal length.
(ii) Also called magnifying glass or reading lens.
(iii) Magnification’s, when final image is formed at D and
 (i.e. mD and m )
 D  D
mD   1   and m   
 f  max  f  min
(iv) If lens is kept at a distance a from the eye then
Da Da
mD  1  and m 
f f

(2) Compound microscope

(i) Consist of two converging lenses called
objective and eye lens.
(ii) fey e lens  fobjective and (diameter) ey e lens  (diameter )objective

(iii) Intermediate image is real and enlarged.

(iv) Final image is magnified, virtual and inverted.

(v) uo  Distance of object from objective (o), vo  Distance of image ( A B ) formed by objective from
objective, ue  Distance of AB from eye lens, ve = Distance of final image from eye lens, fo = Focal length of
objective, fe = Focal length of eye lens.

vo  D 
(vi) Final image is formed at D : Magnification mD    1   and
uo  fe 

length of the microscope tube (distance between two lenses) is LD  vo  ue .

Generally object is placed very near to the principal focus of the objective hence uo ~ fo . The eye piece is
also of small focal length and the image formed by the objective is also very near to the eye piece.
L  
So vo  LD , the length of the tube. Hence, we can write mD   1 D 
 
fo  f e 

v0 D
(vii) Final image is formed at  : Magnification m   . and length of tube L  v0  f e
u0 f e
( L  f o  f e ) D
In terms of length m 
fo fe

Telescope: It is an optical instrument used to see very small objects. It’s magnifying power is given

Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type): By astronomical telescope heavenly bodies are

seen.
(1) fobjective  fey elens and d objective  d ey e lens .

(2) Intermediate image is real, inverted and small. (3) Final image is virtual, inverted and small.
f0  f  fo
(4) Magnification : mD    1  e  and m   ; (5) Length : LD  f0  ue and L  f0  fe
fe  D  fe

Terrestrial Telescope: ve = D to 
P
It is used to see far off object on the earth. A
A''
(1) It consists of three converging lens : objective, B Q B'
O B''
eye lens and erecting lens.
A' Erecting lens
(2) It’s final image is virtual, erect and smaller. fo 2f 2f Ue

f  f  f
(3) Magnification : mD  0  1  e  and m  0
fe  D fe
(4) Length : LD  f 0  4 f  ue and L  f 0  4 f  f e
ve=D to 
Galilean Telescope: A
P
It is also type of terrestrial telescope but of much
smaller field of view. B
 Q  E A
(1) Objective is a converging lens while eye lens is O  
diverging lens. B

f 0  f  f
(2) Magnification : mD   1  e  and m  0 ue
fe  D fe fo

(3) Length : LD  f 0  ue and L  f 0  f e

ss