Chapter 1 THE UNITED STATES ARISES

The United States of America began as a colony of many immigrants. Except for the American Indians, all of its original
inhabitants were immigrants of the Europeans settlers and African slaves. For many years the European settlers thought
America was the land of new beginnings and opportunities. They could pick up gold and silver or get rich from tobacco
and indigo plantations and then return to the Old World (Europe) to enjoy their new wealth. By the 18th century, however,
the Europeans began to think of themselves as Americans, and their country as unique, as a nation with a destiny of its
own. As time went on, the idea of national independence increased. The new nation grew powerful, and America
eventually surpassed most European countries in the achievement of a democratic society and of national greatness. The
US annexed the Philippines and other Spanish colonies in the 1890s, and went on to become the most powerful and
richest country in the 20th century. In this chapter, you will read how the United States started as a European colony and
developed as an industrial giant in the l 19th century. You will learn that Christianity was a source of American greatness.

Chapter 15 Section Outline

1 From Discovery to Independence
2 Growth of the United States
3 The American Civil War
4 America as a World Power

1 From Discovery to Independence

Read to Understand
O What the "New World' represented
O How the Europeans colonized America
O Why England was partly to blame for the American Revolution
O What caused the War for Independence
O The significance of the Declaration of Independence
O American history is linked to Christianity
O The significance of the American Constitution

The New World. America became known as "Mundus Novus" (the New World) due to Amerigo Vespucci, as you read in
Chapter 12. In 1507, a German geographer gave the name "America" to the New World in honor of the banker of
Columbus' voyage. (Note: In this chapter, the word "America" is used for the United States of America,)

Being named after a capitalist was prophetic because America would become the world's leading capitalist nation. From
its birth, America was a land of opportunity and new wealth for settlers and immigrants. America also is a Christian and
democratic nation because of the Pilgrim Fathers. in Chapter 13 you read that in 1620; Puritan Christians from England
sailed on the Mayflower to the New World in search of freedom. When they arrived after a difficult passage, they
dedicated their newfound land to God and to their freedom.

A Nation of Immigrants. From the 16th to the 17th centuries, Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Swedish peoples
colonized various parts of North America. Their land did not have a national name yet. To the British, it was known as
"The Thirteen Colonies" To the Spanish, it was California, or Florida. To the French, it was Louisiana. Everybody in the
colonies, except for the native Indian tribes, was an immigrant, or a relative of one America was a nation of immigrants.
By the middle of the 18th century, the thirteen British colonies in America had outgrown their baby clothes. They yearned
for independence. As John Adams, one of the Founding Fathers of the new nation, wrote, "The revolution happened long
before the war began."

A Nation of Christians. Historians note that great moves in American history were preceded by Christian revivals. In the
1730s to 1750s, a spiritual revival called "the Great Awakening" broke out in the colonies, due to the influence of
Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, two Christian evangelists. The Great Awakening encouraged an individual
religious experience more than church membership. It helped to reform the character of the new immigrants and unite
them as "brothers" in a new nation. The spiritual awakening unified the American colonies in a way that had not been
achieved before, thus preparing the way for the war of independence in 1775.
The American Revolution. During the American Revolution, or War for Independence, from April 19, 1775 to October
19, 1781, thirteen colonies separated from England. Three decades later, there was a second part to the War for
Independence (1812-14), which America also won. Britain was partly to blame for the revolt of its colonies in America.
Originally, the American colonies were neglected by the British government. When the colonies began to succeed, the
British government began to tax and to restrict trade and the civil rights of the colonies. In particular, the Seven Years War
(1756-63) had left Britain with a huge debt. Since the war had benefited the colonies, the British felt that the Americans
should pay a share of the debt.

Of course, the freewheeling Americans resented it. They thought it was illegal to be taxed for a war of European despots.
"No taxation without representation," was their cry of protest against the British taxes. To evade the taxes, they smuggled
various products rum, sugar, molasses, coffee, and textiles. The unrest caused the British to become more restrictive. Rich
and well-educated plantation owners, merchants and professionals increasingly hated the colonial government. They used
churches, town hall meetings, newspapers, and pamphlets to rally the people to their opinion. Patriots like Patrick Henry
in Virginia (see photo) urged separation from England, and he cried, "Give me liberty, or give me death!"

Violent anti-British riots broke out in cities. On March 5, 1770, British soldiers in Boston opened fire on a hostile but
unarmed demonstration, killing five men. News of the "Boston Massacre" was widely circulated in the colonies and
stirred more anti-British emotions. In Massachusetts and other colonies, the patriots organized themselves into armed
civilian militia. They were the "Minutemen", because they could be mobilized quickly.

More dramatic was the "Boston Tea Party". On the night of December 16, 1773, a group of American patriots, disguised
as Indians, crept into British ships at the harbor and dumped. The cargoes of tea into the sea. They hated tea because it
was not taxed, but coffee (the favorite American drink) was taxed. Angered by the prank, Britain closed the port of
Boston, and sent more troops.

At dawn of April 19, 1775, the first shot of the war was fired at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. Dozens of
Minutemen were alerted by Paul Revere, a patriot. They fought hundreds of British "Redcoats" (British soldiers) in the
bloody skirmishes. News of the fighting spread like wildfire, and a plantation owner named George Washington accepted
command of the rebel army. At first, the poorly armed Americans suffered defeats. But eventually, they beat back the
British army. In their struggle for freedom, the Americans showed they could stand up to the mighty British forces. The
French (mortal enemy of England) gave invaluable aid to the American patriots.

Causes of the American Revolution, the causes of the American Revolution, or War for Independence, were as follows:

1) Economic policies of Britain. The British authorities wanted to make as much money out of the New World to add to
their home treasury and finance their wars in Europe. They restricted trade and raised taxes against the desires of the
native Americans who were not represented in the British Parliament.

2) The Stamp Act of 1765. This act required documentary tax stamps on all publications, commercial bills, legal
documents and public papers. The hated act aroused the anger of the Americans. Agents who sold the stamps were
mobbed, and the stamps were burned. To evade paying this and other taxes, American traders smuggled goods instead.
They also boycotted British goods in the colonies, like the infamous tea.

3) Inspiration of Enlightenment philosophers. American leaders adopted the works of John Locke, Montesquieu, and
Rousseau who championed the natural rights and freedom, limited government, social contract, and revolution against an
unjust government.

4) Representation in Parliament. American colonists wanted the right to have an American representative to the
parliament in London. In short, their slogan Was "no taxation without representation."

Declaration of Independence. In less than a year after the Revolution broke out, public opinion changed and now
demanded total separation from Britain. The "Founding Fathers" of the soon-to-be American nation met in a special
Congress at Liberty Hall, Philadelphia. On July 4, 1776, the delegates signed the Declaration of Independence, which was
written by Thomas Jefferson, a young scholar. Jefferson was influenced by the ideas of John Locke and other
Enlightenment scholars. Since then, the Fourth of July has been celebrated as the date of the birth of the American nation.

The American Declaration of Independence became a model and inspiration for other nations seeking their independence,
beginning with France, and much later, the Philippines, the first republic in Asia. The Declaration was the symbol of a
people's defiance of a colonial power. The delegates agreed to sign the Declaration, even though they were not sure of
winning the war. By signing, they had put at stake their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor for the cause of liberty
and freedom. They had reached the point of no return.

The Declaration of Independence consisted of three parts:

1) a statement echoing John Locke on a people's natural rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness;
2) a list of the oppressive acts of the British; and
3) the pledge of the members of Congress to defend American independence with their lives, their fortunes, and their
sacred honor.

"Proclaim Liberty:" Tradition tells of the liberty bell that changed the world in July 1776. Its ringing summoned the
people of Philadelphia to hear the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence by the town crier. Later, the bell
was inscribed with a verse from the Bible, "Proclaim liberty throughout the land unto all the inhabitants thereof"
(Leviticus 25:10). The new nation- was filled. With a vision that Christianity and democracy bring freedom and hope,
beginning with the Mayflower Pilgrims to the Declaration of Independence.

Making of the Constitution. Although the fighting ended in 1783, the new nation was not really sure if it could truly
stand alone. The states faced many challenges. They had to form a government that would bind them together and
preserve the liberties they had just won. For the first eight years, the thirteen former colonies agreed on a confederation of
separate self-governments. But the confederation did not work well.

Later, they changed it into a federation. In a federation, the state-governments yielded limited powers to a federal
government. The federal government took care of the national army and foreign policy. Individual states took care of their
police, local commerce, and education. "The delegates from the states met again for four months from May to September
1787 to draft a new written constitution. Among the prominent delegates were James Madison ("Father of the
Constitution"), Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. They agreed on the new written.
constitution for the “United States of America.!" The American Constitution was the first written constitution in the world
(unlike the British who have an unwritten constitution). It has lasted to the present, except for certain amendments from
time to time.

The Constitution was finished and signed by the delegates on September 17, 1787. It was ratified (approved) by the 13
states on June 21, 1788 and took effect in 1789. This made the American Constitution the oldest written constitution of an
existing country.

The Founding Fathers of America were inspired by the ideas of Locke and Montesquieu. Both philosophers stated that the
separation of powers prevented tyranny in government. The American Constitution established a federal republic, with a
separation of powers between the executive, legislative and judiciary. In 1789, George Washington became the first
president, and John Adams, the first vice-president.

When the Constitution was sent to the states for approval, they asked for a bill of rights to guarantee the personal liberties
of citizens. This was influenced by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in England that you read about earlier: In 1791,
the Bill of Rights Was added to the Constitution as the first ten amendments. The Bill of Rights protected such basic rights
as freedom of speech, press and religion; the rights of the accused of Crimes; and protection against unreasonable searches
of people's homes. The Philippine Constitution and Bill of Rights were based on the American documents.

Second War for Independence (1812. 14). On June 18, 1812, the American Congress declared war on Britain again due
to attacks by British forces on American territories and ships. The Americans invaded Canada. which was still British
territory, but they were repulsed by the Redcoats. In retaliation. the British forces from Canada captured and burned the
White House and other buildings in the American capital of Washington, District of Columbia, on August 24, 1812.
Nevertheless, the Americans Won most of the land and sea battles, and the second war ended with a treaty on December
24, 1814. It was during this second war that the American national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner was composed by
Francis Scott Key

2 Growth of the United States

Read to Understand
0 The consequences of the American Revolution
0 How independence helped the US to grow
0 The foreign policy that helped other revolutions

Impact of the American Revolution. The American Revolution established. A new country, the United States of
America. Instead of a monarchy, the US was a democratic republic that protected the liberties of its citizens. The impact
of the American Revolution was far-reaching. To many people in Europe and other parts of the world, the American
Revolution symbolized a dramatic triumph of people against abusive rulers. The Americans had put the ideas of the
Enlightenment into practice. The Declaration of Independence and the American Constitution would be used as models by
other people’s aspiring for independence.

Growth of the United States and a Second Great Awakening. The first century of America was marked by phenomenal
growth and expansion. The 1790 population of 3.9 million had grown to 31 million in 1860. In T790, the Union
comprised 17 states with an area of 890,000 square miles. By 1833, there Were 33 states and three times the area. The
United States expanded from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. In the 1800 to 1830s, another Christian revival, the Second
Great Awakening reprised the first revival. It started in New England on the east coast, and followed the westward
movement of the nation. It engaged several Protestant churches, and introduced the tent revival meetings in frontier areas.
Charles G. Finney and other evangelists emphasized the values which had helped to make the nation grow-a strong
Protestant work ethic, frugality, self-reliance, and no drunkenness.

The Second Great Awakening in the 19th century. encouraged the distribution of the Bible and bible tracts by Christian
organizations and Bible societies. They encouraged social reforms, in particular the abolition of slavery, women suffrage,
prison reform, and the ban on liquor. After this revival, profound changes affected America- the Civil War ended slavery;
the North industrialized; settlers went to the West; the Indian wars were won; Hawaii was occupied; Americans spread the
Gospel abroad; the Philippines and other Spanish colonies were annexed; and the US became a world power.

The Monroe Doctrine 1823). After it secured its own independence, the US became a beacon of democracy and freedom
for other countries. It sided with the Latin American revolutions in the 1820s. ln December 1823, President Monroe
declared that the Western Hemisphere was no longer open to European colonization or influence. Any attempt to extend
European influence in the continent Would 'mean war with the US, he Monroe Doctrine saved the newly independent
republics of Latin America from being reconquered by Spain or another European power. The Monroe Doctrine was
important for the peace of South America and or the rise of America as a world power.

The Gettysburg Address

On November 19, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln went to Gettysburg Pennsylvania, where one of the bloodiest battles
of the Civil War had just ended in a victory for the North. He Was dedicating the battlefield cemetery. The Civil War had
turned "brother against brother" and Lincoln wanted to refresh the ideals for which they were fighting. His speech has
been compared to that of Pericles' oration in Chapter7. The speech was short, and it might have been forgotten except for
the notes taken by journalist. It was published, and became one of the classic speeches for democracy. During the
American colonial era, Filipinos memorized and recited this speech as part of their training for democracy:

"Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to
the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any
nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to
dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is
altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate - we cannot consecrate - we
cannot hallow - this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have Consecrated it, far above our poor
power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor, long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they
did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus
far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us - that from these
honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion - that we here
highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain – that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom-
and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. "

PREPARED BY: OLFINDO, DEDRIE BSED SS 2

3. The American Civil War

The American Civil War. If the first war of the US was a “war for independence,” historians regard the Civil
War (1861-65) as the real revolution. The Civil War brought a more radical transformation of American society,
involving a conflict of society, like the French and Russian Revolutions. The event which formed the modern
American civilization was the Civil War (1861-65). It was a war against slavery, and it affirmed the so-called
natural right that “all men are created equal,” regardless of color.
As you read in Chapter 12, enslaved Africans were forced to work in the New World colonies. At the time of the
Revolution, 20% of the population in the Southern states Was of African descent. Being slaves, they Were not
free. Even after independence, the agricultural economy of the South depended on slave labor. The South could
not afford to live without them. But the more industrialized Northern states hated slavery. The anti- slavery
campaigners regarded it as against the Christian religion and against the spirit of the new nation. Their concern
came up in popular literature, like Uncle Tom’s Cabin, the story of a runaway slave, by Harriet Beecher Stowe.
Other anti-slavery campaigners made illegal attempts to rescue slaves.
In March 1861, Abraham Lincoln (1809- 65) became the 16 th US president. He was known to favor the
emancipation (freedom) of African slaves who worked in Southern plantations. The abolition of slavery passed
as the 13th amendment to the US Constitution. Eleven (11) Southern states left the 33-state Union. The 11
Southern states established a separate Confederacy, with jefferson Davis as their president.
Thus, in April 1861, the American Civil War (1861-65) began. It was also known as the War of Secession of the
South. Led by General Robert E. Lee, the Confederate Army of the South won the early battles. But the tide of
war turned at the Battle of Gettysburg Pennsylvania, in November 1863. (See story of the Gettysburg Address
of President Lincoln.) The “Yankee” Northerners eventually won the civil war under the leadership of General
Ulysses S. Grant. The war finally ended on April 9, 1865, after the burning of Atlanta, Georgia.
The South Lost: Results of the Civil War. The American Civil War was the deadliest and costliest war in
American history. It exerted a profound change on American history and on American industry innovations and
inventors-movies, cartoons, amusement parks, television, computers
The profile of the nation. After the Civil War, the South, the former source of American wealth and power,
collapsed and did not rise again until the 1960s. Some historians consider that “the real American Revolution”
happened after the Civil War, when the North industrialized, the West was settled, and the Americans found new
prosperity, The results of the Civil War were as follows:
1) 3.5 million African slaves were freed due to the Emancipation Proclamation or 13 Amendment to the
Constitution.
2) President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865 by a famous Southern actor John Wilkes Booth
who hated their defeat.
3) The South lost, and the union of the United States was preserved.
4) The source of feudal wealth, the agricultural plantations, was destroyed, and the South did not rise again until the
mid-20th century.
5) The battlecasualties of 1,030,000 soldiers exceeded all American deaths in all other wars fought by the US,
including World War Two
6) About 5% of the American population Died in the war, due to battles and diseases.
7) The reconstruction period brought a more progressive and stronger society.
Before the Civil War, the most powerful class in America was the plantation aristocracy in the Southern states.
The Civil War and the events that followed reversed the whole picture. A new class of ambitious, self-made
entrepreneurs, composed of free farmers of the West, industrial capitalists of the Eastern cities, and bold
“carpet-baggers” of the North became the new economic leaders. They took advantage of new opportunities in
railroads, mines and towns. They strengthened the economic and political power of the United States. Out of the
ashes of the Civil War emerged a new industrial giant and world power.
The African-American slaves were given freedom, but most did not enjoy full civil rights. It took another civil
rights battle in the 1960s led by Martin Luther King Jr., an American pastor, and other activists to ensure full
desegregation of Southern schools, buses and public places, as well as voting rights for African-Americans.
4. America as a World Power
Rise of Industrial America. Within half a century following the Civil War, the United States emerged as an
industrial country. Its small industries grew into giant industries. Its domestic and foreign commerce prospered.
Its communication and transportation facilities developed and soon surpassed those of European countries. Its
inventive geniuses – Robert Fulton, Eli Whitney, Cyrus McCormick, Elias Howe, Alexander Graham Bell,
Samuel Morse, Thomas Edison, and others contributed to its industrial advance.
America’s industrial production was accelerated by mass production, big business, and good labor treatment.
American factories turned out products by the thousands daily, instead of by the dozens as in the 18 th century.
The invention of mass production systems, for example, enabled Henry Ford to increase his production of cars,
lower their costs and expand sales,
Americans invented “big business” capitalism “Big business” means the establishment of giant corporations
owned by a few capitalists who control entire industries, such as banking, oil, steel, Transport, etc. Big
businesses produced many new wealthy Americans, such as John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie and J.P.
Morgan. Philanthropy, or generous giving to charity or humanitarian causes, has been a characteristic of
wealthy Americans. They became sponsors of churches, charitable organizations, art, entertainment and politics.
Today, America has the greatest number of millionaires and billionaires in the world.
Finally, the labor movement in America became organized and achieved better work and pay conditions, such as
the eight-hour work day, minimum wage, higher wages, ban on child labor, maternity leave, sick and vacation
benefits, retirement pension, etc.
Many cities grew in population and wealth. They became centers of American life, progress and culture. Among
them were New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and San Francisco.
The United States as a World Power. The rich China trade awakened American interest in the East. William
H. Seward, the Secretary of State (1861-69) foresaw that someday Asia would be the chief arena of world
events. But it was during William McKinley’s presidency that America emerged as a global power – because of
the Philippines.
President McKinley (1897-1901) annexed Hawaii in 1898. In the same year, the Spanish- American War broke
out, and the United States acquired the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. By defeating Spain, a world power,
and acquiring the Philippines, the United States became a first-class world power itself for the first time.
According to President McKinley, he annexed the Philippines to spread Protestant Christianity and the Bible.
American missionaries came to the Philippines, and openly distributed Bibles for the first time in the islands.
The Philippines became a haven for American and other Western missionaries fleeing persecution in China and
other closed door Asian countries. Missionaries established the far east broadcasting corporation, which
broadcast, the gospel in many Asian languages. New Christian denominations introduced Filipinos to biblical
Christianity and established bible colleges to train Filipino pastors and workers. Because of US training the
Filipinos became the first in Asia to experience modern democracy and republican government.
From 1898 onwards, the United States set on a new course. No longer were its interests confined to the Western
Hemisphere. It became concerned with the maintenance of the balance of power in Europe and elsewhere. From
1898 the United States intervened secretly or openly in international relations -the Open Door Policy in China,
the Russo- Japanese War of 1905, the First and Second World Wars, the United Nations, the Cold War, the fall
of Communism, and the War on Terror (2001).
In over 200 years of history, the United States has been one of the most stable, richest, and most-developed
countries in the world. At the beginning of the 21" century, it became the last remaining superpower. It remains
the world champion of democracy and capitalism, even if its economy and confidence have declined.
Christianity: The Source of American Greatness. Historians have noted that the Christian influence was
crucial to great moves in American history. Indeed, in comparison to the policies and behavior of other imperial
and Alexis de Tocqueville great powers in history, the American use of power was exercised with restraint and
some benevolence. Due to their economic recession and moral decline, Christians in America today question
their failure to appreciate how Christianity made their nation great. In 1835, a French scholar Alexis de
Tocqueville, after his travels in the US, concluded as much. De Tocqueville wrote:
“I sought for the greatness and genius of America in her commodious harbors and her ample rivers-it was not
there… in her fertile fields and boundless forests and it was not there in her rich mines and her vast world
commerce and it was not there in her democratic Congress and her matchless Constitution-and it was not there.
Not until I went into the churches of American and heard her pulpits aflame with righteousness did, I
understand the secret of her park of America Genius and power. America is great because she is good, and if
America ever ceases to be good, America will cease to be great.”

PREPARED BY: DE ASONG, CHRISTY BSED SS 2

Chapter 2 Napoleon and the French Revolution

The French Revolution (1789-99) was a violent and bloody tableau with royal executions and various
massacres, an infamous Reign of Terror, and several changes of government. As Charles Dickens, the British
novelist, wrote in The Tale of Two Cities, "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of
wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the
season of Light, it was the season of the Darkness.”
The French Revolution was more influential than the American Revolution in changing the political order and
map of the world. France was a superpower then (the US was not). The bloody French Revolution ended the age
of absolute kings and began a century of revolutions. It became a model for the long march towards democracy
and popular government for other nations, like Latin America and the Philippines.

Napoleon came as the savior of France (1799-1815) after the Reign of Terror. However, for all of his
administrative success and military genius. Napoleon turned into just another tyrant and megalomaniac (power-
hungry). He drove France into wars that made him a menace to humanity.

1 A Moderate Start to the Revolution

Differences between the French and American Revolutions. There were several differences between the
French and American Revolution in terms of their causes and their impact. The French Revolution came a
decade after the American Revolution. Unlike the American Revolution, which was successful, the French
Revolution was a failure. The French Revolution degenerated into a period of terror and quarrels among its
leaders. The French Revolution should have been less important: but, on the contrary, it became more influential
than American Revolution.
The French Revolution: Its Causes. The French Revolution (1789-1815) was the bloody and violent
revolution that convulsed France for nearly two decades. It ended feudalism and absolute monarchy, established
different experiments in government, and ended with the rise of a military strongman named Napoleon. The
causes of the French Revolution were as follows:

• Political Cause. People were fed up with the "Old Regime," led by the absolute rule and extravagance of the
Bourbon French kings. King Louis XIV and his successors dragged the country to poverty and misery. His
grandson, King Louis XV (1715-74), lived with "wine, women and song." With his two mistresses, Madame de
Pompadour and Madame du Barry, Louis XV did not care about the people, and made the infamous remark,
"After me, the deluge. The last king was his son Louis XVI (1774-92). He and his Queen, Marie Antoinette,
ruined France with extravagant parties and overspending. His indecision worried his finance minister, who
warned him, "Remember, sire, it was weakness that brought the head of Charles I to the chopping block." When
told that the people of Paris were starving, the Queen stupidly replied, "Let them eat cake!" The French
aristocracy also included feudal nobles and the Catholic clergy who did not want to sacrifice their privileges and
wealth.

• Intellectual Cause. The writings of Voltaire, Diderot, and others spread the ideas of the Enlightenment.
French intellectuals used these works as the cure for the awful conditions of their nation. The success of the
American Revolution of 1776 provided a concrete inspiration that government must not tax the people too
much.

. Economic Cause. The French merchants and masses were the most miserable and heavily-taxed people in 18
century Europe. The king, the nobles, and the clergy lived in luxury and did not pay any taxes or tolls at all. The
commoners paid all the taxes and tolls. For example, a merchant shipping wine to Paris had to pay 11 customs
duties and 12 different tolls. Commoners paid salt tax, residence tax, and farm tax. On top of these, the
commoners paid tithes and other religious fees to the clergy. They rendered forced labor (similar to colonial
Filipinos), and were maltreated by the proud upper classes. To make matters worse, there were poor harvests
and mounting debts of the king to bankers for his court in Versailles and several generations of wars. The
French aid to the American rebels, alone, doubled the national debt.

The Tennis Court Oath. In 1789, the countryside was in famine, and the royal treasury was bankrupt. King
Louis XVI was forced to call for the help of the former consultative body dismissed by his great grandfather
in 1614.

CHART OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815)

Dates Government Main Events

1789 Absolute Monarch and Tennis Court Oath
 Estates- General Fall of the Bastille to an angry mob

1789-91 National Assembly and Declaration of the Rights of Man

Limited Monarchy Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Constitution of 1791
1791-92 Legislative Assembly Constitutional monarchy
War with Austria and Prussia
Their ultimatum
Royal Family Detained
1792-95 National Convention First French Republic
Louis XVI guillotined
Coalition of Eight Monarchies wage war against

1793-94 Committee of Public Safety Reign of Terror executes 20,000 to 40, 000 enemies
National recruits increase the army

1795-99 The Directory War continued

Inefficient, corrupt government
Riots among the poor people
1799-1804 Napoleon Napoleonic Code
The Consulate Concordat of 1801
1804-1815 The French Empire Built French Empire
Invasion of Russia
Final Defeat at Waterloo

The reactivated Estates-General met at the Palace of Versailles on May 5, 1789, with over 1,000 delegates, half
of them from the commoners. The commoners brought a list of grievances through two trusted representatives-
Count Mirabeau and Abbé (Bishop) Sieyès. Mirabeau, was the greatest orator of the meeting, and Abbé Sieyès
was a freedom-loving priest.
The meeting deadlocked for weeks without results. On June 20, 1789, the commoner delegates walked out.
They went to a nearby tennis court, and took a solemn vow not to leave until they had changed the government.
The "Oath of the Tennis Court" took a peaceful first step in a resolution that would transform France. The king
hesitated at first, but agreed to a new legislative assembly. The Estates- General turned itself into a National
Assembly and began to draft a new constitution. The revolution had begun moderately, but soon it took a
violent turn.

Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789). The new assembly had scarcely begun work, when the people of Paris and
peasants in the countryside took the French Revolution on a bloody path. They had expected total suspension of
the taxes, tithes, and other fees. But nothing happened. Instead, they still faced inflation, unemployment, and
food shortages. Rumors flew that the king would send troops in to begin arresting opponents.

They decided to do something violent. On July 14, 1789, an angry mob stormed the royal prison, called the
Bastille in Paris. (Bastille Day is French Independence Day today.) The Bastille was the most hated symbol of
the injustice and inequality of the old regime. Many of the prisoners were only debtors and food thieves. The
attackers massacred the guards, liberated the prisoners, and stole the arms. They burned the Bastille to the
ground.

When news of the fall of the Bastille reached Versailles, King Louis XVI shouted, "That's revolting!" (Meaning,
terrible.) But he was told, "No, your majesty, this is revolution!" Meaning, the revolution against him had
begun.)

The bloody riots soon spread to the provinces. The peasants turned on their feudal lords. They raided grain
storehouses, looted the manor houses, and swore never again to pay feudal dues. Like the people of Paris, the
peasants started their own revolution against the Old Regime.
On August 16, 1789, the Assembly passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man. It echoed the Enlightenment
ideas of Voltaire, Locke, and the documents of the American Revolution. Among others, the French Declaration
provided for sovereignty of the people, equality before the law, freedom of religion, freedom of speech and
press, and the right of the people to life and liberty. A year later, the National Assembly passed a law that
reduced the power and privileges of the Catholic Church in France. The law provided for the popular election of
bishops and priests, payment of salaries of the clergy by the state, and renunciation of the clergy's allegiance to
the pope. To relieve the countries financial distress, all church and feudal properties were sold, and taxes and
tolls drastically reduced.

Reforms of the National Assembly. When news of the bloody uprisings reached the National Assembly, the
delegates were shocked into action. Quickly, the nobles offered to be taxed. The clergy offered to end Its fees. In
one evening the Assembly agreed to reform everything.
The Constitution of 1791. The National Assembly drew up the Constitution of 1791 which made France a
limited monarchy and set up a separation of powers. The constitution guaranteed equal rights under the law to
all citizens. "The feudal system is forever abolished in France," it declared. From now on, all French people-
king, noble, clergy and commoner were equal before the law. But, it was too little, too late.

Part Two: A More Violent Revolution

The Radicals Take Over. Nobody was happy with the moderate reforms. The radical revolutionaries
wanted a republic, not a monarchy. The nobles thought the reformers had gone too far, and hastily fled the
country, fearing for their safety. These political exiles urged European rulers to help the king in France.
In June 1791, King Louis and his family decided to the flee the country. They were recognized as the
border, arrested, and detained at the Paris city hall. The king’s attempt to flee had doomed the monarchy and
destroyed the reforms.
The Jacobins, the most radical party, gained the upper hand. The Jacobins were led by Maximilien
Robespierre, a judge; Jean Paul Marat, a physician and journalist; and Georges Jacques Danton, a brilliant
lawyer. These radicals gained the support of the proletariat (masses) of Parris who were disappointed with the
results of reforms. The poor were just as poor as ever, and they became impatient. Inspired by radical
newspapers and propaganda, the people demanded, “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity!” This became the slogan
of the revolution.
Foreign Invasion. Soon, other European monarchies became involved in the trouble in France. Queen
Marie Antoinette appealed to her brother, the emperor of Austria, who asked Prussia to help. By August 1702,
Austrian and Prussian commander issued an ultimatum demanding that the king be restored to absolute rule. If
Paris did not surrender peacefully, he said the Austrian and Prussian troops would burn the city and torture all
the revolutionary leaders. Instead of being frightened by the ultimatum, the patriotic French people rallied to
defend their country. In that summer of 1792, young volunteers offered to fight young foreign invaders. From
Marseilles came hundreds of patriots, who sang a stirring hymn, the Marseilles. It became the national anthem
of France: “Let’s go, children of our country. Our day of glory has arrived. Against us stands the tyrants. The
bloody flag is raised. To arms, citizens! And fight. Let’s march, let’s march!”
End of the Monarchy. Beginning September 1792, the French revolutionary army pushed back the
foreign invaders. Despite these victories, the war worsened the economic mess. High prices and food shortage
led to new popular uprisings in Paris. On August 10,1792, a ragtag group of commoners and rogue soldiers took
over the Paris city hall and set up a new administration called the Commune. They attacked the hall where the
king and his family lived and arrested the king for “crimes of tyranny”. Then, the rebels demanded a National
Convention to make a new constitution.
First French Republic. The atmosphere was tense. While the peoples commune imprisoned the king,
Austrian and Prussian troops still threatened France at the border. Mobs of poor people roamed the streets of the
capital, killing anyone they suspected of being an enemy.
At this time, two main groups contended for the destiny of the nation the moderates (those opposed to
violence and extreme changes) and the radicals (in favor of violence and total change). In addition, there were a
few members of the Old Regime, who wanted the monarchy and aristocracy. Finally, there were the vast
numbers of “have-nots,” the riotous mobs, who were hungry, angry and hated all the upper-class “haves,” even
the moderates.
Radical and moderate leaders hastily formed a constitutional convention to make a new government. On
September 22, 1793, they met in National Convention and established a French Republic. The moderate
delegate sat to the right of the hall, and the radicals sat to the left of the hall. This started the tradition of the
political seating arrangement of “rightists” and “leftists” in most parliaments today. Nobody chaired the
sessions; it became the shouting match. The radicals got the upper hand, because the mobs cheered them, “off
with his head!” was the vote against the king. By a majority of only one vote, the radicals sentenced the king to
death. He was considered a tyrant, and now a traitor to France.
At this time, they built a wooden platform in the center of the city (Place de la Concorde), and mounted
a new killing machine the guillotine (a hanging blade). On January 21, 1793, Louis mounted the steps of the
guillotine, and cried, “My people, I die innocent!”
From 1792-95, the governing body of France was the National Convention. Originally intended to draft
a constitution, the Convention finished the new charter in 1793but did not put it into effect. Instead, it simply
voted to prolong its life from year to year. The Convention became the First Republic.
At first, leadership in the convention was shared between the Girondists (moderates) and the Jacobins
(radicals). But latter, the three radical leaders Marat, Danton and Robespierre took over. Then, in 1793, Marat
was assassinated by a fanatical female moderate. And then, there were only two left, Danton and Robespierre.

Attacks on the Revolution. Meanwhile, elated by their success in battle, the French Republic issued a
proclamation to all peoples in Europe to overthrow their kings with the help of France. In effect, the
proclamation was a declaration of war against all European monarchies. News of Louis XVI’s execution sent
shock waves through the capitals of Europe. Other monarchs now had reason to fear the spread of the
revolution.
By March 1793, France was at war with eight European monarchies (Austria, Prussia, England, Spain,
Portugal, Holland, Sardinia and Naples). They formed the First Coalition against the new republic. Once again,
the French people rallied to the front with patriotic fervor and repulsed the invasion of their country by the
foreign armies. The French army was victorious in all battles.
The war caused starvation and economic hardship. In many parts of France, people felt the revolution
had gone too far. Uprisings started in western France and the cities of Marseilles, Bordeaux and Lyon.

Reign of Terror. To destroy all opposition to the revolution in France, the National Convention created
a powerful smaller body, called the Committee of Public Safety on April 6, 1793. This committee, dominated by
Robespierre, used secret agents to hunt for royalists and other critics. It was responsible for a horrible “Reign of
Terror” (1793-94) which put to death some 20,000 to 40,000 people in France and shocked the civilized world
by its brutality.
During the Reign of Terror, kangaroo (unfair) trials were held daily throughout France. Men, women,
and even children, were condemned to the guillotine. A dignified Queen Marie Antoinette and many nobles and
clergy were executed. “O liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name!” a noblewoman and writer, Madame
Roland, exclaimed before she was executed. Most victims were commoners, including peasants, workers,
shopkeepers, and professionals. The ruthlessness of the Reign of Terror had one good effect- the mob revolts
ended because the radicals killed each other.
Then, Danton and Robespierre, the founders of the Reign of Terror, quarreled. When Danton wanted to
end the terror, Robespierre, accused him of treason and condemned him to die. And then, only one was left. In
April 1794, on his way to quillotine, Danton shouted, “Evil Robespierre fell from power and was quillotined,
too, on July 28,1794. Danton’s prophecy was fulfilled, and the Reign of Terror finally came to an end. It was
said that the French Revolution, like all bloody revolutions, had devoured its own children.

Mistakes of the French Revolution. The French Revolution was an historic turning point in the world
history. But it committed at least two serious blunders. Its biggest mistake was the Reign of Terror. The Reign of
Terror snuffed out the lives of many illustrious French men and women and disgusted many lovers of freedom.
Unlike the American Revolution, the French Revolution did not end in a stable and prosperous new
nation. It was a tragic series of unfortunate events. After Robespierre’s death, a tidal reaction swept France
against the violence. The radical part of the revolution has ended. To many of the revolution itself seemed to be
a failure. A period of stagnation, corruption and cynicism followed. The zeal for reform has burned out in
France, until the strong military genius came along.
Another serious mistake of the revolution was its effort to abolish Christianity during the Reign of
Terror. At the end of 1793, revolutionary leaders established atheism to replace Christianity. A beautiful girl,
impersonating the “Goddess of Reason,” was placed upon the altar of the Cathedral of the Notre Dame in Paris
as an object of worship. They held a festival for “Reason,” in the Cathedral, which was a corruption of the spirit
of the Enlightenment. In 1794, Robespierre discarded atheism and introduced the “Worship of the Supreme
Being,” a deism which recognized the existence of a god but not Christianity. The revolution had alienated the
devout French Catholics and other Christians. They through the anti-Christian policy of the revolution was too
extreme.

Results of the French Revolution. To summarize, these are the results of the French Revolution:

1) It was unsuccessful in establishing a lasting, stable and good government, due to violence and lack of
unity among its leaders.
2) It awakened the spirit of French nationalism and transformed France into a strong military power. The
army of the First French Republic repulsed the combined forces of European monarchies and extended
French frontiers to the Alps and the Rhine.
3) It briefly abolished the monarchy and feudalism in France. All feudal land and property where
confiscated, and entrepreneurship encourage.
4) It introduced democracy into Western Europe. More than the Americans or the British, the French
became the champions of “liberty, equality and fraternity.” All titles of nobility were abolished. A man
was addressed as “Citizen,” and a woman, “Citizeness,” For example, the blue blooded Duke of Orleans,
a a cousin of King Louis XVI, became “Citizen Philippe Egalite.” The system of adult male suffrage
was adopted, and all property qualifications for voting were abolished. Women were given equal rights
with men regarding suffrage and property. Imprisonment for debt was abolished. Family inheritance was
distributed among all the heirs, not only to the oldest son.
 5) It established a free elementary education system for French children, and founded the first normal
school in France for the training of teachers.
6) It adopted a uniform and simple standard of weights and measures, called the “metric system,” which is
still use today.
7) It abolished slavery in colonies, which was then still legal in civilized countries, including England, the
United States, Austria, and Holland.
8) The destruction of life and property by the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic Wars afterwards,
caused the decline of France, and Britain became the leading Big Power in Europe in the 19 th century.
9) Finally, its ideals of liberty spread to the colonies and became the model for many revolutions in Latin
America and elsewhere from the 18 th century onwards. Even Filipino revolutionaries like Rizal,
Aguinaldo, and other read and admired the ideals of the French Revolution. Unfortunately, Aguinaldo
and Bonifacio also Quarreled and destroyed their revolution.

PREAPARED BY: RONNLYN JOY P. ARTICULO

BSED 2 SOCIAL STUDIES

3 Napoleon Bonaparte
O The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
O What Napoleon's coronation as emperor
meant
O What were Napoleon's achievements
O The causes of Napaleon's downfall
O Why Napoleon was a great military leader but dangerous

The Directory. When Abbé Sieyès, the famous leader of the revolution, was asked what important thing did he
achieve, he replied dryly, "I lived”. Indeed, it was an achievement for anyone at all to live through the bloody
French Revolution.
One after another, the radical giants had fallen, victims of their own violent quest for power. The mob leaders
were all gone. The weak moderates were the last leaders left standing They formed a body called the
"Directory" to run the government.
The Directory was like a committee which could not agree or enforce its decisions. The Directory proved
inefficient and corrupt. Its members could not relieve the poverty and starvation of the people. Serious
economic problems worsened. Graft and corruption Became rampant in government. In addition of these
problems, the Directory was harassed by royalists who advocated a return to monarchy, and by workers who
demanded Sate ownership of all lands and industries.
Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. As the gradually lost power, a young and brilliant military genius gained
popularity. He was Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), who was short and known as the “Little Corporal.”
Napoleon was an outsider to Paris, born in the tiny Mediterranean island of Corsica. He was only 5 feet two
inches tall. The other boys in his school had bullied him. But he was a fighter, and later developed a brilliant
military reputation. He defeated the English fleet at a naval battle in the Mediterranean in 1793. Two years later
he protected the National Convention from a mob riot. Through the influence of his first wife, Josephine, widow
of a general, he was given command of the French army that conquered Italy in 1796.
He was then only 27 years old. In his lifetime, Napoleon’s women were as beautiful as he was dashing. Later, he
divorced Josephine and made a marriage of convenience with Maria Louisa, daughter of the Austrian Emperor.
He rewarded his mistress Desireé with a royal post for her husband in Sweden.
As his ill-fed, ragtag soldiers faced the foreign invaders, he electrified them with a brief but stirring oration.
Under his able command, the French army crushed the Italians in one swift battle, defeated five Austrian armies
in succession, overthrew the Republic of Venice, and captured the rich city-states of Italy. After conquering
Italy, Napoleon recrossed the Alps and marched toward Vienna. The Viennese emperor sued for peace and
ceded Austrian Netherlands to France.
Napoleon was on military campaigns in Egypt and Syria as conditions in France went from bad to worse.
England, Austria and Russia had formed the Second Coalition and resumed the war on France. The French
armies fighting them met with defeat on many battle fronts. Moreover, the Directors in Paris were in a mess.
Napoleon Seizes Power in France. Upon hearing of the crisis at home, Napoleon returned to France. “The
reign of lawyers is over,” he told his friends. On the night of November 9, 1799, Napoleon and his troops
overthrew the Directory by coup d’état (seizing political power by force)
Peace and Brief Prosperity under the Republican Consulate (1799-1804). After overthrowing the Directory,
Napoleon framed a new constitution which was overwhelmingly ratified by the French people on December 24.
1799 due to his popularity.
The new government was called “The Consulate,” with Napoleon as a dictator. This was modeled after the
Roman Triumvirate system of Julius Caesar. According to the new constitution, the executive power was
exercised by three elected consuls. Napoleon was the First Consul, with Abbé Sieyes as Second Consul, and
Ducos (a lawyer) as Third Consul. As the First Consul, Napoleon became a dictator because he alone had the
power to appoint officials, declare war, and promulgate laws. The other two consuls were merely his assistants.
The administration of Napoleon as First Consul was eminently successful. He was assisted by Charles Maurice
de Talleyrand, a nobleman diplomat, in running foreign policy. For the next five years, the French were happy,
and the rest of Europe relieved, but wary of the new “little corporal” in town. In 1802. Napoleon was elected for
life by a grateful nation.
Achievements of Napoleon. Napoleon proved to be a wise statesman, as well as military genius. His political
administration improved the life and safety of the people. And promoted progress, as follows:
(1) Restoration of peace and order in France Napoleon made peace with Russia and England and ceased
hostilities with these two countries. He defeated Austria, the first enemy of France. He suppressed
banditry and riots inside France. Life and property in France became secure again.
(2) Promotion of economic progress Everyone paid taxes fairly, and taxes were fairly collected. Commerce
and travel flowed peacefully. The government built new roads, bridges and public works to give new
jobs. The Bank of France(1800) was founded to stabilize French currency.
(3) Beautification of Paris. In Napoleon's time, Paris regained prestige as the most beautiful "City of
Lights" in the world. He repaired palaces and capitol buildings, built new boulevards and parks. The
Louvre (art museum) was completed and adorned with valuable art treasures seized by Napoleon from
conquered countries like Greece.
(4) Establishment of a national system of public education from elementary to university level. This was the
first step in the Enlightenment dream of free public education.
 (5) Restoration of Catholicism as the state supported religion, due to the wishes of most French people.
Napoleon signed a Concordat (agreement) with the Pope to end their conflict.
(6) Founding of the Legion of Honor, a French order of knighthood. Any citizen who performed meritorious
services for the state, regardless of birth, rank, or religion, was honored with membership in this
distinguished order.
(7) Promulgation of the Napoleonic Code. His greatest achievement was the Napoleonic Code, which has
influenced modern law to the present. The code brought many reforms of the revolution, and recognized
that all people were equal before the law, It contained many democratic principles, such as religious
freedom, social equality, prohibition of slavery, and equality in inheritance. It prevails today in France, -
Holland, Italy, Belgium, Germany, the Latin American republics, Louisiana (US), and French Canada.
The French Empire of Napoleon. However, Napoleon began to have new ambitions. Absolute power
inevitably corrupted him. Napoleon now wanted to become an Emperor Of France and Europe. On December 2,
1804. the new French emperor was inaugurated amidst colorful ceremonies at Notre Dame Cathedral. With the
Pope and other dignitaries in attendance, Napoleon surprised everyone as he snatched the crown from the Pope,
and crowned himself emperor. Then he placed another crown on the empress. The neoclassical scene was
captured on canvas by a contemporary painter, Jacques-Louis David (see page 234). The conquered territories
became puppet kingdoms, given to Napoleon’s brothers, sister and favorites. Napoleon’s coronation symbolized
the supremacy of enlightened secular kings over the religious power, represented by the Roman Pope. It was
quite a change from the time of Charlemagne. When the popes were supreme.
Return to War in Europe. As Emperor, Napoleon now dreamed of conquering all of Europe, England, Austria,
Russia and Sweden formed the Third Coalition to stop him.
Napoleon made war plans to invade England. He had a traditional hatred of the English people whom he called
“a nation of shopkeepers.” To raise funds for the war, he sold Louisiana to the US in 1803
In October 1805, Napoleon’s naval invasion of Britain was defeated by the British Navy led by Admiral Lord
Nelson in the Battle of Cape Trafalgar, off southwest Spain. The loss of his sea power seriously handicapped
Napoleon and was one of the causes of his downfall later. Meanwhile, he defeated everybody in important land
battles in continental Europe.
Napoleon Defeats the Allies. On December 2, 1805, the anniversary of his coronation, he defeated the allies in
the Battle of Austerlitz. After Austerlitz, Napoleon humiliated both Austria and Prussia, Austria was forced to
cede territory to France, and sank to the rank of a second-class power. Napoleon annexed Prussia and
triumphantly entered Berlin. Prussia was stripped of its dominions and made to pay a huge war indemnity to
France. It was reduced to the rank of third-class power.
Napoleon reached an agreement with Russia in 1807 after a bloody but stalemated battle. Napoleon also
defeated the German city-states and abolished the Holy Roman Empire, which had existed since 926 AD.
The Continental Blockade. After 1807. Napoleon became the supreme master of continental Europe. His sole
remaining enemy was England. Because he could not cross the English Channel, he resolved to strike England
at its most vulnerable spot to boycott its commerce. He closed all ports of Europe against English ships and
forbade any European country to trade with England. His decrees established the Continental Blockade, also
known as “Continental System” The naval blockade was a stupid move because the European nations resented
the closure of their own ports to good English products, which they needed.
Napoleon Conquers Europe. By 1811. Napoleon was enjoying his dream – he had conquered continental
Europe and disabled England. “The Little Corporal” from tiny Corsica had risen to a place not previously
attained by anyone. He had become not only the world’s greatest general, but also the ruler of a vast empire.
Nobody could doubt that he was no longer the little corporal, but “Napoleon the Great.” Not since the days of
the Roman Caesars had one man exerted such power and influence over the civilized world.
Disastrous Russian Campaign. In June 1812. Napoleon invaded Russia to enforce the Continental Blockade
on them. With the largest army ever gathered together (600,000 troops), Napoleon thought it would be an easy
campaign. He was wrong.
By September 1812, he entered Moscow. But the Russian Czar and people had fled. The Russian strategy was to
trap and tire him in the huge interior. Napoleon made the mistake of staying too long in Moscow. They had
almost nothing to plunder, and less to eat. The Russians had destroyed or evacuated everything. The terribly
cold Russian winter came. The return march to France became a disastrous retreat. Hundreds of thousands of his
men perished - victims of the snow, ice, mud and starvation. Russian snipers harassed them. More than half of
the French troops perished. The great Napoleon was beaten by “General Winter,” as the Russian winter was
called by historians.
Napoleon’s Empire Ends. The horrible loss of France’s Grand Army in Russia inspired the European powers –
Prussia, Russia, England, Sweden, and Austria – to rise in arms. At last, the myth of Napoleon’s invincibility
was broken. The allies liberated Napoleon’s puppet kingdoms and forced him off the throne.
Napoleon fought furiously, but in vain. The armies of the allies invaded France on all sides and forced him to
surrender. On April 18, 1814, he abdicated his throne and signed the surrender. He went into exile in Elba, a tiny
island within sight of his native Corsica.
"The Hundred Days." But there would be one last grasp for glory. Napoleon escaped from exile. He returned
to Paris and ruled a hundred days from March 20 to June 29, 1815. Hence, today, a newly elected leader is said
to enjoy "the first hundred days" honeymoon with the public. The Parisians welcomed him with open arms,
Meanwhile, the victorious allies were quarreling at the Congress of Vienna over the division of the spoils and
the remaking of the map of Europe. In the midst of their squabbles, the disturbing news came that Napoleon had
escaped and would strike again.
The Battle of Waterloo and Final Exile. Napoleon raised an army of old soldiers and young boys, and
marched north into Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon fought his last battle in Waterloo, a valley near
Brussels. All day, the French troops fought the English army, ably commanded by the Duke of Wellington.
Wellington's troops were reinforced and use better tactics.
The battle turned against the French. Napoleon's complete defeat at Waterloo marked his downfall and the end
of his empire. Napoleon was exiled again. He died a lonely exile at the rocky island of St. Helena in the South
Atlantic on May 6, 1821.
The glory of Napoleon resurrected after his death due to France's troubles. The French people forgot their
hardships and defeats under him, and regarded him as a martyr and hero. In 1840, his remains were reinterred at
Les Invalides (The Fallen) mausoleum in Paris, Tales of his brilliant victories were told and retold in the villages
and cities of France, and, in due time, the Napoleonic legend arose.
Results of the Napoleonic Wars. The Napoleonic wars ran fron1803 to 1815, and were a continuation of the
French Revolution of 1789. Just as the French Revolution failed to give France a stable republic, Napoleon's
ambition for empire led to complete defeat.
According to historians, the Napoleonic wars changed armies, societies and world civilization. Napoleon's wars
were an early tryout of the world wars, due to the mobilization of an entire country for total war and the forced
conscription (military draft) of manpower into the army. The early victories of Napoleon led to the expansion of
French revolutionary ideas and reforms, such as the metric system, the Napoleonic Code, and the Declaration of
the Rights of Man. His wars led to the decline of the power of the Roman Church and absolute monarchs. His
occupation of Spain weakened Spain's power over its colonies and opened the door to Latin American and
Philippine revolutions against Spain. Lastly, the real victor of the wars was the British Empire, which became
the next great superpower in the world
History's Judgment. Napoleon is hailed by military historians as "the ablest military commander in the annals
of history," perhaps even better than Genghis Khan, Alexander, and Julius Caesar. Military schools study his
military strategies and tactics even today. Nevertheless, history also records that-no kingdom or empire, no
matter how powerful, lasts forever. Napoleon's empire lasted only for 16 years. His downfall came due to a
combination of circumstances - the naval weakness of France, the unpopular Continental Blockade, the
disastrous Russian campaign, the uprisings in his European territories, and the exhaustion of France's manpower
and resources.
Most historians regard Napoleon's downfall as a blessing for everyone. He had become dangerous to the world -
a crazy megalomaniac (power-hungry). He had used his martial genius to dominate and make people miserable.
In the end, he was just another tyrant and a menace to everybody As the French author Victor Hugo eloquently
wrote, “It was time that this great man should fall. His excessive weight in human destiny disturbed the balance
and would have proved fatal to civilization had it endured.

.SKILL LESSON- Analyzing the sources

An historian uses documents to understand historical events, But sometimes, documents describe events in very
different ways, or come to very different conclusions. This is true especially, when events are highly
controversial. The execution of King Louis XVI on January 21, 1793 was one such controversial historical
event. Read the excerpts from the two primary documents about the execution.
The National Convention. Official Announcement published January 23, 1793
“Citizens, the tyrant is no more. For a long time, the cries of his victims have spread over France and Europe,
loudly protesting his tyranny. He has paid his penalty. Approval for the Republic and for liberty has been heard
all over.
“We have to combat prejudices and superstition of centuries about the monarchy. Great changes and revolutions
as profound as ours are always accompanied by uncertainties and disturbances. But respect the liberty of
opinion, even of those different from yours. Only good can be produced by the death of the tyrant, for tyranny
also died. The National Convention and the French people are now of only one mind and only one sentiment,
that of liberty and fraternity.
“Now, above all, we need peace in the Republic, and the most active watch of the enemies of liberty. Let us
unite to avoid civil war that could bring shame to our hard won freedom.”
A Nobleman's Report on the Death of the King.
“The frightful event of the 21” has spread dismay everywhere. It is worth noting that the most zealous
supporters of the revolution found this measure excessive and dangerous. It will not save us from the dangers
which threaten us. We must make up our minds to sacrifice peace, security and fortune. I very much fear that
civil war will come I doubt if this crime, added to so many already, has the universal approval of France. Even
if the king were guilty, we would not wish for his death, especially since he had endured such a long and
sorrowful captivity. Meanwhile, I must be prudent and silent because under the Republic there are inquisitions,
and even more tyranny, that it is dangerous to speak one’s thoughts.”
 1. Read the sources to find out what information is given. What do they say about (a) the attitude of the
French people about the king’s execution; (b) the conditions in France; and (c) the outcome of the
execution
2. Compare the two sources. Do they agree? In what points do they disagree?
3. Evaluate how reliable is the source. (a) Does the narrow vote in the National Convention affect their
proclamation? (b) Does the nobleman’s background affect his opinion? (c) Which source is more
reliable? Are they both unreliable in some ways?
4. Use the sources to draw conclusions. (a) Based on the sources and what you read in this chapter, what
conclusions do you make about the reaction to the king’s execution? (b) How do the differences in the
sources reflect the divisions in France during the revolution? (c) Would there be similar divisions in our
society over a highly controversial event or policy?

Chapter 3 : LATIN AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS

Latin America
Latin America is a vast region which includes Mexico, Central America, South America, and the West Indies. It
is the Latin language-speaking parts of the American continents (Spanish and French), as opposed to the
English and Dutch-speaking parts. As you read in Chapter 5, Central and South America had ancient
civilizations before Columbus came. However, the European colonization destroyed the ancient civilizations in
the Americas and brought them into the modern world.

There are two interesting errors about North and South America which showed how crude was the knowledge
of early explorers. Firstly, the two land masses were previously thought as one, Hence, the name "America" was
applied to both continents, Secondly, Columbus thought that he had discovered the sea route to the Indies.
However, later, they found out it was not the East after all, but an entirely new world altogether. Then they
named it the "West Indies," to make it different from the East Indies.

The Americas proved to be a valuable source of wealth for the European colonizers. It had rich mines,
plantations, and exotic new plants (corn, potato, indigo, tobacco, sugar, etc.). More importantly, the New World
had many new souls to be baptized into Christianity, as was the custom of Portuguese and Spanish missionaries.
Due to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, the Atlantic side of South America ended up mostly explored by
Portugal. The Pacific side ended up explored and colonized exclusively by Spain.

Three hundred years after their colonization by the European powers, the South American peoples revolted and
threw off their colonial bondage in the 19th century. The Latin American revolutions inspired the Philippine
nationalistic movement in the late 19th century.

South American history and culture have greatly influenced the world. It is the home of 10% of the world's
population and some of the richest lands in the world. The story of the struggle of the South Americans to be
free is a stirring saga of patriotism, courage and sacrifice.

Chapter 3
1. Discontentment with European Colonization
2. Successful Independence Wars
3. Post-Independence Problems
4. Latin American Contributions to Civilization
1 .Discontentment with European Colonization

During the 19th century, a continent and an ocean away from Europe, Latin America was undergoing a social
upheaval of major proportions as well. One by one, major European colonies in Latin America rose in
revolution and won their independence. The ideas of the Enlightenment, the goals of the American and French
Revolutions, and their own desire for freedom and justice propelled Latin Americans into the modern world.
The native Latin Americans wanted to get rid of their own monarchs and colonial masters, and to taste what
"liberty, equality, and fraternity" meant.

Western Colonies in South America.

The European colonizers who came to South American had destroyed the native civilizations and carved out
their colonial empires. The Spaniards, Portuguese, French and other Western European colonizers wiped out
memories of the native civilizations, and imposed their absolute rule on the natives.
Although the natives rose in many revolts, it was not until the 19th century that Latin America became
independent. Latin America is the term applied to those countries in Central and South America where the Latin
languages-Spanish, French and Portuguese -are spoken.

The Portuguese were the first to explore and get a foothold in South America. But it was the Spaniards who sent
Christopher Columbus and first established an outpost in the Caribbean Islands, through his voyages on the
1490s. From the Caribbean island Spanish base, Hernando Cortes led an expedition to the Central American
mainland, and arrived in Mexico in 1518. After three years of bloody fighting, Cortes destroyed the Aztec
empire, and Mexico fell into the Spanish empire. Under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro, Spanish forces
arrived at Peru in 1532 and defeated the Incas.

In 1535, the Mexican colony was organized as a Spanish viceroyalty of Spain. This enabled a viceroy to make
decisions for the growing Spanish empire in the Americas Spanish colonizers moved south to conquer and
occupy other parts of Central and South America. They also moved north to some parts of western United
States, like California and Florida. It was from Mexico that Miguel de Legazpi colonized the Philippines in
1565. It was also from Mexico that Spain ruled the Philippines for 300 years until 1821. The Manila to
Acapulco galleon trade brought the products of Asia by sea to the New World, and then to Europe. Thus, the
Manila Galleon trade was important to link three continents.

During the first century of European colonization, the Spaniards built strong bases in the Caribbean Islands,
Mexico and Panama. They were harassed by British, Dutch and French pirates who raided Spanish shipping and
attacked coastal settlements. But, in 1717, Spain established another viceroyalty covering Colombia, Ecuador,
Venezuela and Panama. In 1776, the Rio dela Plata area, comprising Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, was
established by Spain.

In addition to Spain, Portugal and other European countries claimed colonies in South America. In 1500, Pedro
Cabral discovered Brazil for Portugal. Brazil became a Portuguese colony for more than three centuries. Thus,
during the 16 to 19th centuries of European colonization, South America was divided mainly between Spain and
Portugal The French, Dutch and British held only small areas or colonies. France had Haitrand French Guiana.
Holland had Dutch Guiana Britain had Jamaica and British Guiana

During the colonial era, the South American native Indians were ruthlessly exploited by the Western
conquerors. The Spanish government in Madrid tried to protect the natives, but the New World was too far away
and the colonies continued to be exploited. On many occasions, the native Indians revoited against their colonial
masters, but these early revoits were always crushed. It was not until the early 19 century that Latin America
exploded in a series of revolutions which led to the independence of most countries in the continent.

Causes of Discontentment.
The Latin American Wars of Independence from 1791 to 1826 were mostly successful, so that almost all of
Latin America became free and independent states. The causes of these Latin American wars of independence
may be summarized as follows:

1) Race discrimination. The white-race Spaniards and Portuguese (called peninsulares) enjoyed the best
privileges as colonial masters, while the colored natives (indios) and hall-breeds (mestizos) were treated like
second class subjects in their own country. The peninsulares refer to those who came from the Iberian Peninsula
of Spain and Portugal. The indio and the mestizo were born in the Latin American continent. The South
American revolutions were led mostly by educated native indios like Fr. Hidalgo of Mexico, Generals Bolivar
and San Martin who were fed up with discrimination.
2) Economic oppression. The Spanish colonial system excluded the slaves and native South Americans from
the lucrative businesses. Furthermore, the natives were taxed heavily. The first successful revolution in Haiti
was led by African slaves who wanted equal opportunities with the white-race colonizers.
3) Influence of the Enlightenment and American and French Revolutions. Many South American indios
and mestizos who studied in Europe brought back the ideas of the 18th century Enlightenment to their
homeland. The American and French Revolutions also stirred the imagination of the Latin Americans.
Eventually, the works of Voltaire and Rousseau were banned in South America and news of the American and
French revolutions was censored. But the revolutionary ideas filtered in anyway.
4) Napoleon's invasion of Spain and Portugal. When Napoleon the Great of France invaded the Iberian
Peninsula in 1808 and overthrew the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies, the natives of South America were
delighted. They learned that their colonial masters could be defeated and overthrown. This also inspired them to
break their colonial bondage.

2. Successful Independence Wars

In the small Mexican village of Dolores, the parish priest, Father Miguel Hidalgo, rang the church bell to call
his people together. Father Hidalgo was an indio who had become an influential village leader. "My children."
he proclaimed, "do you not wish to be free? Will you make the effort to recover from the hated Spaniards the
land stolen from your forefathers 300 years ago?" On that day, September 16, 1810, Father Hidalgo raised the
first battle cry for independence from Spain. The famous "elgrito de Dolores" (the Cry of Dolores) was echoed
throughout the Mexican nation and the Latin continent. September 16" is celebrated today as Mexico's
Independence Day.

First Independent Countries.

The first country to break free from colonial rule in South America was Haiti. Haiti was a French colony in
Central America, and occupied half of the island with today's Dominican Republic. Haiti was developed by the
French as a plantation economy, with slaves from Africa. It became France's wealthiest overseas colony.
From 1791 to 1804, the African slaves staged a bloody revolt to break free from their miserable French
plantation masters. The Haiti Revolution became the largest and most successful slave rebellion in history. The
success of Haiti inspired other Latin American native revolutions. Revolts also broke out in Argentina, Ecuador,
Mexico and other countries, and the struggle for independence continued successfully until 1824.
In 1821, Mexico won its freedom from Spain under the leadership of General Agustin de Iturbide.
Revolutionary generals did not necessarily come from military backgrounds. but they became generals because
they were able to raise an army of volunteers and freedom fighters. (This was also the case with the
revolutionary generals in the Philippines, like Aguinaldo.) After winning Mexican independence, General
Iturbide proclaimed himself as emperor (1822-23). But in 1823, the people ousted him quickly and established a
republic The greatest and best-known revolutionary hero of South America was General Simon Bolivar of
Venezuela (1783-1830). Bolivar ("The Liberator"] successfully led the battle for independence of northern
countries in South America Venezuela, Panama. Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia. In fact, the last country was
named after him. Meanwhile, in the southern part of the continent, the independence movement was led by
another successful liberator, General Jose de San Martin of Argentina (1778-1850). Today, San Martin is the
national hero of Argentina. After freeing Argentina in 1816, he crossed the Andes to help in the liberation of
Chile and Peru.

Precious Pia Ponce BSED -2 SS

Reporter

Historic Unity Meeting.

Because neither of them could finish the task of defeating the last Spanish strongholds, Bolivar and San Martin
met in a secret summit at Guayaquil, Ecuador on July 26, 1822. Historians are still debating what happened,
because after this meeting, a most unusual thing happened. General San Martin graciously turned over his
military forces to Bolivar, for the sake, it was said, of the cause they both cherished. San Martin sailed for
Europe, and never came back home to challenge or rival Bolivar.
Their unity, and the sacrifice of San Martin, is acknowledged by historians as the key to the success of the final
liberation of South America. Otherwise, they might have fought each other to the death (like the tragic
Bonifacio-Aguinaldo rivalry in the Philippine Revolution).
General Bolivar led their united forces to victory and defeated the last Spanish army in Peru on December 9,
1824. This victory marked the end of the Wars of Independence in South America. Simon Bolivar continued to
dominate the newly independent countries until his death in 1830. The independence of Brazil was achieved
without bloodshed. After the occupation of Portugal of France in 1807-1808, the C Portuguese emperor Joao VI
left Lisbon and took refuge in Brazil, making the capital Rio de Janeiro as his new empire. When he returned to
Portugal in 1821, he left his son Dom Pedro in charge. But the Brazilians wanted to become independent.

Dom Pedro sympathized with them. On September 7, 1822, he proclaimed Brazilian independence and was
crowned as the first Emperor of Brazil. Dom Pedro agreed to be a constitutional monarch, with an elected
legislature and freedom for the people. In 1889, the Brazilians ousted the emperor anyway, and established a
republic, like the other Latin American countries. The last Spanish colony to win independence from Spain was
the island of Cuba. In 1895, Jose Marti, a patriotic poet and Cuba's national hero, led Cuba into a war of
independence from Spain.

The Cuban revolution involved the Philippines in two ways:

(1) the Filipino hero Dr. Jose Rizal was on his way to Cuba when he was arrested and executed by the Spanish
government; and
(2) because of Cuba, the United States waged war on Spain, and then annexed the Philippines.
The US had economic interests in Cuba. In 1898, as the War of Cuban Independence raged, the American
warship Maine was blown up at Havana harbor. The US declared war on Spain and sent its army to help the
Cuban freedom fighters. With American help. Spanish forces were defeated in Cuba and the Philippines.
However, the US decided to annex the Philippines (but Cuba achieved its independence). It shocked the
Filipinos that the Treaty of Paris in 1898, which settled the Spanish-American War, gave Cuba independence,
but annexed the Philippines to the United States. The story of the US decision to hold on to the Philippines was
mentioned in Chapter 15.

Influence of the Latin American Revolutions on the Philippines.

The Latin American revolutions in the 19th century greatly influenced the history of the Philippines. Far more
than the US and French revolutions, the liberation of Latin America intersected with the Philippine
independence movement. After the Latin American independence movements in the early 19th century, as
previously mentioned, the Filipinos pressed their claims for greater freedom and rights from Spain. When those
claims were frustrated, Filipino patriots of the 19 century considered revolution as the only option left for the
Philippines.
Secondly, the Philippine national flag and first republic were inspired by the Latin American revolutions. The
tricolor design of the Philippine flag which appeared in 1898 was similar to the revolutionary Cuban flag (see
photo). The first Philippine Constitution of 1899 at the Malolos Convention was influenced by the constitutions
of Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Guatemala.
Finally, because of the Cuban Revolution, the Philippines became a colony of the United States. Had American
interests not been involved in Cuba, there would never have been any reason for the US to come to the
Philippines.

3. Post-Independence Problems.
South American independence from colonial rule brought many problems. The most important of these post-
independence problems were:
(1) political fragmentation, (2) militarism, and (3) constitutional problems.

(1) Political Fragmentation.

According to a Latin America saying, "Independence was only the last day of oppression, and the first day of
the same thing." This tells how independence in Latin America did nor bring happiness to the people. To them.
independence only meant a change of leaders. but no real liberty from oppression.
The most noticeable change after their independence was political fragmentation.
Bolivar had dreamed of a Latin America that was both united and free. Instead, a large number of new states
appeared that challenged, rather than helped, each other. The political fragmentation in Latin America proved a
great hindrance to development and progress.
The causes of the political fragmentation of Latin America were as follows:
1) The mountain and jungle barriers separated one region from another.
2) There was lack of communication and transportation facilities among the regions, which kept closer contact
with Europe than with each other.
3) The centuries of isolation under Spain, France and Portugal developed separate traditions and interests.
4) Individual leaders had personal ambitions and wanted to become powerful in a small state than become only
one among many leaders in a large country.
The end result of these political splits was that the eight (8) Spanish colonies in the New World became eighteen
(18) new states.

(2) Militarism.
The military became the most powerful force in society after independence in Latin America. The military was
the only institution that could restore peace and order after the politicians disagreed, and the nations fragmented.
For over a century after independence, military officers and juntas ruled one Latin American country after
another. Most of the presidents of Latin American countries have been military officers who usually led coups
d'état to take over from civilian politicians. Many countries, especially in Central America, are governed by
coalitions of military leaders and large landowners. Thus, unlike the Philippines, the Latin American military
dominates politics and society.

(3) Constitutional Problems.

Latin American countries experience major changes of governments frequently. In the beginning the three
leading independent statesofHaiti, Mexicoand Brazil experimented with monarchies. But eventually, they turned
into republics, like the other Latin American states. Governments rise and fall in Latin America with alarming
frequency. Since 1900 about a hundred coups d'état or revoits have led to constitutional changes of governmens
in the continent. Thus, the history of the continent has been darkened by the rise and fall of military dictators,
bloody revoits political instability, and great poverty.

4. Latin American Contributions to Civilization.

• Agriculture. The cultivation and spread of over one hundred major plants were the most important
contributions of South America to world civilization. The ancient Mayas, Aztecs and Incas grew crops that were
unknown to the white Europeans (corn, potato, tomato, cacao, tobacco, etc.) Eventually, the Europeans
cultivated these American plants in vast plantations and included them in their regular diet. Spanish
missionaries from Mexico spread these crops to the Philippines.
At present, South America is a major agricultural area. About 50% of the world's coffee comes from Brazil and
Colombia. Rich farmlands in the continent produce cocoa, sugar, linseed, cotton, bananas, corn, and other
products. Beef, cattle and wool are major South American exports. The Amazon rainforests are a treasure trove
of plants yet to be fully developed.

• Bastion of Christianity. Latin America has become one of the world's greatest bastions of Roman
Catholicism. The entire continent is almost all Catholic, due to Spanish and Portuguese missions. A unique
blend of religion and politics continues to influence South American history. Catholic and evangelical Christian
clergy traditionally fight for the rights of peasants and the oppressed, and against drug cartels and cruel
industrialists. It was due to Dominican friar Bartolome de las Casas appeal that Spain became the first Western
power to outlaw slavery. The liberation theology in modern economic theory came from South American clergy.
In the 20th century, the Latin American clergy has championed the cause of the poor, the ecology and the
minorities. Thus, in many South American countries, the clergy actively resist political oppression and greedy
developers. Latin American Christians, both Catholics and evangelicals, have experienced waves of pentecostal
and charismatic revivals.
• Arts, Architecture, and Music. Latin America has preserved and improved upon the ancient arts of the
Mayas, Aztecs and Incas, and other native tribes. Modern Latin American artists, sculptors and architects have
developed their own distinctive styles which attract international fame. The mural paintings of Diego Rivera,
Miguel Covarrubias and Jose Clemente Orozco express an eloquent social message. These Mexican painters
depict Mexican folklore, Indian customs, and revolutionary events.
Mexican architects perfected the "floating foundation" construction to make buildings earthquake proof.
Brazilian architects have developed a modernistic architectural style called "Brazilian." The folk music of South
America has blended into Latin rhythm to produce colorful music and dances, like the mariachi, tango, chacha,
samba, and calypso.

• Science and Engineering. Latin American scientists rank among the world's best, especially in medicine. Dr.
Bernardo Houssay, Argentine physiologist, won the Nobel Prize in 1947 for his study of internal glands. The
Cuban physician Dr. Carlos Finlay discovered the cause of yellow fever, a deadly disease. His discovery was of
great help to the builders of the Panama Canal. The Panama Canal, completed in 1914, is an 82-kilometer ship
canal that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The canal shortened the passage between the European and
American continents and is a marvel of modern engineering. Ownership of the canal passed from the United
States (which first developed it) to the government of Panama.

• Literature. The literature of Latin America is patriotic, romantic and dramatic. Most of its great patriots and
liberators were not only great generals and statesmen but also good writers. Among those who wielded both pen
and sword were Bolivar, San Martin, Hidalgo, Benito Juarez, and Marti. Ruben Dario, a Nicaraguan poet and
diplomat, is widely known in the Hispanic world. Other famous writers are Che Guevarra, the revolutionary
activist; Pablo Neruda of Chile; and political commentator Mario Vargas Llosa of Peru, Nobel Prize laureate in
2010.

• Women in South America. South American women have made far-ranging contributions in politics, business,
science, literature, law, fashion, and sports. In 1992, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Rigoberta Menchu
Tum from Guatemala. Coming from a poor-indio peasant family of the Maya tribe, she campaigned for
indigenous rights in her country. The most celebrated Latin American female politician was Eva Duarte Peron,
first lady of Argentina in 1946-52. She was the wife of President Juan Peron of Argentina. Her popularity with
the masses, campaign for women suffrage, and political leadership earned her international fame, controversy,
and a musical about her life, "Evita." She blazed a trail for other women politicians, like Isabel Peron, widow of
Juan Peron, who briefly took over as president in 1974-76. Isabel Peron became the first female president of any
country in history. In 2007, the first elected female president of Argentina, Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner, paid
tribute to Evita Peron's "passion and courage." Since then, there have been other female politicians elected to
lead in other Latin American countries

Rica Joy Sumagaysay BSED-2 SS

Reporter

CHAPTER 4: REVOLUTION, NATIONALISM, AND DEMOCRACY

Indicative Content:
 Ideas Shaping a New World
 New Era of Revolutions
 Nationalism and Democracy Grow in Europe
 France: From Empire to Republic
 Unification and Rise of Germany
 Unification of Italy
 Growth of Democracy in Other European Countries
 Despotism in Russia and Austria
 Balkan Problem and the Ottoman Empire
 A New Balance of Power

Welcome to the Modern World!

"My hand is tired of taking my hat off to royals whom I meet at every corner" wrote one Viennese. He was
not exaggerating. In the fall of 1814, nine kings, dozens of princes, and hundreds of diplomats met at Vienna,
capital of the Austrian Empire. Austria was then the superpower of the world.
 Over 100,000 people had crowded into Vienna to see the event of the century- the Congress of Vienna, an
international peace conference to settle the Napoleonic Wars. Without radio, cable television, CNN, or the
internet, the only information they had was gossip and the newspapers. For nearly a year, many political
celebrities attended the summit meeting. After more than 20 years of war, Europe was enjoying peace at last.
Napoleon was gone, and a new king was back on the throne in France.
During the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian Emperor was the host. He organized grand banquets, hunting
parties, and fireworks displays. In the evenings, the dignitaries dressed for the fancy balls. "The Congress
dances, one observer noted, "but does nothing"
Diplomacy, like old photography, develops best in secret. The leaders of the great powers were doing
something. They did not know it yet, but they were actually inaugurating a brave new world. Those leaders tried
to rebuild the balance of power in Europe. Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia finally agreed on a traditional
treaty. But thẹ ideas of nationalism revolution, and democracy had burst into the open and would not be turned
back. Those ideas, not the old balance of power would rule the modern world.

1. Ideas Shaping a New World

O What ideas shaped world politics after 1815?
O What ideas guided the Congress of Vienna?
O How Metternich failed to keep world order?

Like most new centuries, the early 1800s was a time when new ideas were changing old traditions. To most
people at the time, "liberalism" was better because it would bring change and improvement. To be liberal
meant to change the old order of things and to support popular rule, and reforms in politics and society, much
like the ideas of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Support for liberalism and democracy was
growing among the masses and the educated middle class. They were the majority, but they were not the most
powerful.
On the other hand, "conservatism" supported the old traditions of politics social order. Conservatives
resisted changes as threats to their way of life. Edmund Burke, an English statesman, spoke out for
conservatism. He condemned the French Revolution because it destroyed monarchy and traditions. Support for
conservatism was strong among the ruling classes. They were powerful, but they were not the majority.
Another powerful force sweeping the world was "nationalism". Nationalism or love of nation was both a
positive and negative force. It could unite people behind a common cause, such as political independence. But it
could also tear them apart into extreme hatred of others. It could become a source of war, as in the problems of
the Balkans. Liberals supported nationalists who wanted independence from foreign control. Conservatives
feared nationalism, because it threatened to upset the traditional political order.
Finally, "democracy' or rule of the people, was completely unacceptable to most rulers in this era. To
them, political power belonged to kings, emperors, nobles, or even popes. Yet, the 18th century had expanded
knowledge of the natural rights of people, even political independence and the right to vote. As De Tocqueville
observed of the 18th century "Revolutions happen, not when things are bad, but when things are just beginning
to get better". Things were beginning to get better for the world, hence in the 1800s there were rising
expectations and, alas, many revolutions.
Congress of Vienna. Conservatives dominated the Congress of Vienna, the impromptu conference that
decided the fate of the world after the Napoleonic Wars. Congress was a summit meeting of heads of state of
the leading powers and other important statesmen. It met from September 1814 to June 1815. Its presiding
genius was Prince Clemens von Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor (Prime Minister) because Austria was
then the greatest power. The most influential leaders were: Czar Alexander of Russia; King Friedrich Wilhelm
III of Prussia; Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Minister; and, Prince Metternich of Austria. The French
delegate, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, also played a major role at the Congress.
The Congress was guided by two main principles – to enforce legitimacy and the balance of power.
Legitimacy. The Congress of Vienna restored to power the royal families that had lost their thrones during
the French Revolution and the Napoleonic conquests. Louis XVIII, brother of the unfortunate Louis XVI,
became the new king of France; the kings of Spain, Portugal and Sardinia were also restored. Thus, the
legitimacy of the Old Regimes were reinforced, or so they thought.
Balance of Power. To restore the balance of power in Europe and to prevent future French aggression, the
Congress reduced France to its 1790. borders. Then, it strengthened countries on the borders of France. More
countries were strengthened, such as Austria, Russia and Prussia, 'by obtaining new territories. Britain got a
handsome reward of more colonies for leading the long struggle against Napoleon.
However, the Congress did not consult the people living in the areas they handed over to the Big Powers. If
only they had asked them, they would have saved themselves a lot of headaches later on. The great powers had
disregarded the growing trend for nationalism and democracy in Europe. This explained much of the national
upheavals which flared up in Europe in the 1800s.
The Concert of Europe. To protect the peace settlement, Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia formed the
Quadruple Alliance in November 1815. France was admitted to the Alliance later. These great powers met from
time to time to deal with new threats to the peace and stability of Europe.
Czar Alexander proposed an additional "Holy Alliance of Christian Nations" to replace the unfortunate
Holy Roman Empire. Britain dismissed this idea as "nonsense" but many rulers agreed to join anyway. The two
alliances encouraged nations to act together to preserve the peace. The system of summit meetings to settle
international problems became known as the "Concert of Europe". The word "concert" in this case did not
mean a musical event. Rather, it meant a mutual agreement of state leaders. The Concert of Europe enforced the
settlement reached at Vienna. It preserved the balance of power and prevented local conflicts from turning into
another major continental war. However, after 1822, the Concert of Europe was dissolved. England withdrew
its membership due to Metternich's anti-democratic policies.
The Metternich System. For more than 30 years (1815-48), Prince Metternich of Austria dominated
European politics. His main goal was to defend the work of the Congress of Vienna and to oppose both
liberalism and nationalism. His policies became known as the "Metternich system" a policy of defending the
status quo (existing conditions).
However, many challenges to the status quo came and could not be suppressed forever. Unfortunately,
Metternich's response was always to suppress freedom and impose tyranny. Because he was the dominant figure
of the early 1800s (1815-48), the half-century was called the "the Metternich era". It is common in history to
name an era after its leading personality.
During the Metternich era, all revolutionary movements for democracy and nationalism were suppressed
by the armies of the Concert of Europe. As long as Metternich remained in power, democracy had no chance to
bloom in the Western world. Alas, he miscalculated the strength of nationalism in Europe.
Metternich's Downfall. Metternich fell from the height of power, like all great leaders in history. The
causes of Metternich's downfall were as follows:
 (1) England's opposition to his policies;
(2) the war of Greek independence in 1821-29;
(3) the revolutions of 1830; and
(4) the revolutions of 1848.

England started out as an ally of the group, but later opposed a foreign policy that antagonized other
nations and cut off its channels of trade. In 1822, it left the Concert of Europe because of differences over the
policy on Spain. The English adopted an independent foreign policy from then on.
Next, Prince Metternich refused to help the Greek patriots who were fighting their old enemy, the Turks.
The Greeks won their independence against the Ottoman Empire anyway (1821-29), with the help of Britain
and France. The success of the Greek war of independence was another blow to Metternich's prestige.
2. New Era of Revolutions
O Other European nations revolt
O What part nationalism played in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848?
O Impact of the 1830 and 1848 revolutions

Revolts in Many Nations. The ideals of the French Revolution continued to inspire demands for reforms.
In France, middle class liberals and workers joined forces in 1830 and 1848 to upset the status quo created at
the Congress of Vienna. From 1815-48 France had three more kings- Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis
Philippe. They tread lightly, so as not to antagonize the people. But they failed anyway. After the first died, the
last two French kings abdicated and led for safety to England.
Events in France continued to influence the rest of Europe. As Metternich dryly noted, "When France
sneezes, Europe catches a cold". Indeed, a wave of revolutions, inspired by France, swept across Europe in
1830 and 1848. Liberals and nationalists in many parts of Europe renewed their struggles against the old order.
Revolutions of 1830. The wave of revolutions swept Europe about 1830 and further weakened despots'
influence. These revolutions were directed against absolute rulers.
In France, Charles X enraged his subjects by dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and restricting their
constitutional rights. The French patriots rose in revolution in July 1830 and drove him to flee to England.
Charles X was the last Bourbon king of France. He abdicated in favor of his little grandson, the Count of
Chambord. The successful revolutionists ignored the little count, and established a constitutional monarchy,
with Louis Philippe (Duke of Orleans) as king. This monarchy was called the "Orleans Monarchy" (1830-48).
The July 1830 Revolution in France spread to other countries. The Belgians rose against their Dutch king
and proclaimed their independence in October 1830. Some German states followed the example of France and
Belgium. They won constitutional concessions from their rulers. Revolutionary outbreaks also flared up in
Italian city-states. However, these were unsuccessful because Metternich sent Austrian troops to crush the
insurrections. In 1831, the Poles also rose in arms against Russian rule. They fought valiantly, but were defeated
by the Russian forces.
Revolutions of 1848. Another wave of revolutions rocked Europe in 1848. It started in France in
February 22, 1848 when King Louis Philippe's soldiers fired upon demonstrating students in Paris. Enraged by
this atrocity, the people rose in arms. "Long Live the Republic!" they shouted. The frightened Louis Philippe
abdicated and fled to England like his predecessor, Charles X. The victorious rebels established a Second
French Republic.
 The February 1848 Revolution in France spread again to other European countries. Milan, Venetia, Naples,
Tuscany, the Papal States, and Piedmont revolted against their rulers and princes. The Austrian troops stationed
there by Metternich were defeated and expelled.
In 1848, Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian leader, led the libertarian struggle against the Russian czar and
established the Republic of Hungary, which lasted only for five months. The combined Austrian and Russian
armies invaded Hungary and forced Kossuth to flee to the United States. But the revolt forced Austria to make
Hungary autonomous in a new Dual Monarchy system.
End of Absolute Kings. On March 13, 1848, Viennese students and laborers clashed with government
troops. The rebels stormed the imperial palace, demanding the dismissal of Prince Metternich. Sensing that he
was finished, Metternich, now a white-haired old man, resigned. The following day, he and his wife quietly
departed for London. His beautiful house was sacked and burned by the angry populace. Metternich's downfall
ended the era of absolutism in Europe. From now on, the people ruled and the kings shared power with them in
parliamentary systems.
Impact of the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848. Although the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 had few
successes. they did not entirely fail. They suffered from lack of unity and lack of definite goals. However, in
their aftermath, European monarchies chose to share power with elected parliaments.
Conservatives still ruled Europe, but liberals and nationalists were making their voices heard. During the
1850s, conservative governments tried to suppress revolutionary ideas. Due to political persecution, many
liberals fled to Britain, Switzerland, and the United 'States, which were becoming renowned havens for
democracy.
3. Nationalism and Democracy Grow in Europe

O How nationalism led to democratic movements in European countries?

O Why Britain's democratic tradition was unique in Europe?
O The growth of democracy in Britain

After the Revolutions of 1830, many European nations experienced a burst of democracy. Britain, France,
Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands took the lead. Belgium, Italy, Spain, Turkey, the Balkan kingdoms,
and even Russia adopted some forms of democratic rule. At first, they became interested in political democracy
- popular representation, suffrage, and human rights. Later, they also introduced social and economic
democracy.
The progress of democracy was accompanied by a vigorous growth of nationalism, and its offshoots,
imperialism and the struggle for power among nations. As you read earlier, nationalism means love of nation.
Nationalism makes a people conscious of a common history or a common destiny.
At first, nationalism was a force for good because it led to more political liberties and social reform. Later,
nationalism became too powerful and led to illusions of racial superiority and imperialism in the 20th century.
Growth of Democracy in Britain. When Queen Victoria of England celebrated her Diamond Jubilee in
1887, she was the only beloved monarch in Europe. The British monarchs were wise and had shared power with
the aristocracy and, eventually, with the common people as well. Britain developed democracy early.
 But these privileges belonged to only a small number of rich people. Only 6 percent of British men could
vote for members (representatives) of the House of Commons. No British woman could vote at all. A voter had
to be a man who owned land or property in order to have a say in the government.
Democracy grew in Britain at this time in three ways: (1) the extension of suffrage (right to vote); (2) the
development of the cabinet system; and (3) the supremacy of the elected leaders to the inherited leaders.
Political reforms led to social reforms as well. Women suffrage would enter the stream of world history
through Britain, thanks to the courage of some women pioneers.

Let Me Vote, or Let Me Die! -The Suffragettes

Nowadays, we take it for granted that women have equal rights to vote and to hold office as men. Of
course, Filipinos were the first Asians to pioneer, not only in voting women, but also in voting women into
public office. The first women cabinet members, women legislators, and women presidents, came from the
Philippines. But there was a time in history when no woman could vote or run for public office. It took some
brave British and American women in the early 1900s to campaign for women suffrage. The police and some
men thought they were the "insufferables." Actually, they were called the "suffragettes." We owe them a lasting
debt of gratitude.
The suffragettes, or women who demanded the right to vote, often experienced violence and prison. In
1903, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel organized the first female suffragette organization in
London. When the government failed to act, they began leading rallies and marches, with other supporters.
Police broke up their noisy rallies. They sometimes came home with bruises, scratches, black eyes and bleeding
noses.
But they did not stop. They broke into cabinet meetings. Women chained themselves to the House of
Commons. They painted slogans "Votes for Women," on walls and sidewalks. Imprisoned for these
disturbances, the suffragettes went on hunger strikes. On one occasion, a prison doctor tried to persuade Mrs.
Pankhurst to break her hunger strike. "What are you going to eat?" he asked her. "My determination," she
shouted back.
Finally, in 1918, the British Parliament decided on the historic right for women to vote, the same as men,
but only for women over 30 years old. It took another ten years, in 1928, for them to lower the voting age for
women. Mrs. Pankhurst died a week before the historic news. She had become weak from too many prison
terms and hunger strikes.
Expanding the Right to Vote. Prior to 1832 the British Parliament, which had limited the power of the
monarch, was still controlled by aristocrats and rich landlords. The democratic legacy of the French Revolution
led to pressure for more democratic rights for the middle class and common people.
Under the leadership of Lord Grey, the British Parliament passed the Reform Act of 1832. The law gave
the vote to middle class adult males and created more seats in the House of Commons, thus enlarging the
electorate and the representatives of the people.
Following protests by workers, the right of suffrage was guaranteed by secret ballot and for all adult males.
Then, in 1918, the right of suffrage was obtained by British women. At about the same time, American women
also won the right to vote. Filipino women, due to the British and American tradition, became the first Asian
women to vote in 1935.
 Development of the Cabinet System. Apart from reform laws, Britain developed unwritten traditions
which strengthened the practice of democracy. One political tradition was the "cabinet system" of governing.
The cabinet system has been adopted by many governments throughout the world, including the Philippines.
The cabinet first appeared in the 1600s to help the king make important decisions. When the government
ministers met in secret and behind closed doors, it appeared they had gone into a "cabinet."
The growth of the cabinet system of government in Britain helped to make sure that leaders of the people
were united in making political decisions for the nation. In a cabinet system, the elected leaders divide the
management of the work of government into different ministries (military, finance, foreign affairs, etc.). The
government managers are usually called "ministers" and each becomes responsible for the work of his/her
ministry. The prime minister is the leader of the majority political party in parliament, and he appoints the
cabinet ministers who will work with him in running the government. The first prime minister was Sir Robert
Walpole (1721-42).
Supremacy of Elected Leaders. Elected members in the House of Commons gained supremacy over the
nobles in the House of Lords in 1911 after a government crisis. After that, the real power transferred to the
elected members of parliament, who could be replaced through elections. The inherited aristocrats or nobles
took a back seat in running the government. This ensured the power of the people, through elections.
Self-Rule for Some British Colonies. At this time, democracy and nationalism came early to some white
peoples in British colonies. Britain granted self-rule or independence to assertive white colonies like Ireland
(but not Northern Ireland), Canada, Australia and New Zealand. These measures enabled democracy to develop
in the separated countries.
Social Reforms. Social reforms accompanied political reforms in Britain. During the 1800, parliament
abolished slavery and the slave trade, reformed the criminal code, and protected workers, including women and
children. Later laws made education free and compulsory, granted health insurance, pensions for the
unemployed and elderly, and fixed the minimum wage.
Diamond Jubilee for Queen Victoria. On June 21, 1897, her diary entry said, "The morning was beautiful
and bright with a fresh air. Troops began passing early with bands playing, and I heard constant cheering". This
was the diary of Queen Victoria of Britain. The day she described was a joyful occasion for her people - the
queen's Diamond Jubilee, her 60th year on the throne.
The celebration of Queen Victoria's jubilee showed the respect and admiration her people felt for the
monarchy. It also symbolized British pride in their nation and its achievements. During the 1800s, Britain
became the greatest industrial, commercial and military power in the world. The Victorian Age was the growth
of Britain not only as a world power, but also as a stable democracy.
Prepared by: Irene B. Escovidal
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4. France: From Empire to Republic

O Why Napoleon III was a disappointment?

O How the French came to hate the Germans?
O What factors caused the French Republic to be weak?
 Napoleon III and the Second French Republic. Out of the chaos of the revolutions of 1848, a second
Napoleon rose to power in France. He was Louis Napoleon, whose illustrious name fired the imagination of the
French people. Thus, they elected him in December 1848 as president of the Second French Republic. But he
was a big disappointment. Victor Hugo, the famous writer, ridiculed him as "Napoleon the Little."
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon, using the same tactics employed by his great uncle,
seized the government by coup d'état. Hundreds who opposed him were arrested by his troops and thrown in
prison. Some courageous leaders of French democracy, including Victor Hugo (poet-novelist) and Adolph
Thiers (historian-statesman), were exiled. The Second French Empire (1852-72) was proclaimed Louis
Napoleon was crowned as Emperor Napoleon III.
The empire prospered during the early years (1852-59). Commerce and industries expanded. Agricultural
production increased. Railroads, roads, and canals were built. Prosperity kept both capitalists and laborers
happy.
Then, the emperor ruined the empire by becoming ambitious for international colonies and power. At this
time, France began to build its Asian colony in Indochina. The foreign adventures of the emperor cost the
French dearly. Napoleon Ill got in trouble with the Sardinians, the Mexican freedom fighters, and the Prussians.
In 1870, he lost the Franco-Prussian War and became a hostage of Bismarck's army. The French public had to
pay a huge price to release him and to please the German victors.
Third French Republic (1870-1914). On September 4, 1870, when news reached Paris that the French
army had surrendered and Napoleon was captured, the republicans abolished the empire and proclaimed the
Third French Republic, with Adolph Thiers, as provisional president. They negotiated a treaty (May 10, 1871)
which ended the Franco-Prussian War. This unfortunate royal adventure had cost France dearly.
The French paid $1 billion in damages and lost the border territories of Alsace-Lorraine. Due to this loss,
the French came to hate the Germans deeply. The seeds sown during the Franco-Prussian War would mature
decades later into the First World War (1914-18).
Radicals in Paris were furious at the treaty. In March 1871, they rose in revolt and set up a brief anarchy
called the Paris Commune. The government sent in troops to crush the rebels. In a very harsh and violent week
of battle, 20,000 supporters of the Commune were killed. It was said that casualties were buried so quickly that
many were buried alive.
The uprising left very bitter divisions in French society for a long time. In 1875, by a margin of only one
vote, the National Assembly adopted a constitution for the Third French Republic. It lurched from crisis to
crisis, including the Panama Canal scandal; the arrest of one president for treason; and the unfair conviction of
Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew, (who was later pardoned). The Dreyfus scandal was exposed in the French
media by Emile Zola, a popular French writer.
Democracy did not work smoothly in France as it did in England and the United States. The existence of
numerous political parties, the extreme French individualism, and the sharp differences between the rural and
the urban people made the parliamentary governments come and go. .There were frequent changes in the
government. There were no fixed terms for the governments; they fell when people lost confidence in them.
From 1871 to 1914, a period of 43 years, about 50 cabinets governed France. But they never had kings again.

5. Unification and Rise of Germany

• How nationalism united Germany
• Why Bismarck made Germany a nation How Bismarck strengthened the Second Reich
• German relations with Filipinos What developments in Germany created problems for Europe later

Nationalism Inspires Basic Changes. Nationalism played a key role in events in Central and Eastern
Europe between 1848 and 1914. In some areas, it helped create unified nations. In other areas, nationalism
threatened to break up large empires. In both cases, it upset the status quo.
Prussia into Germany. The modern state of Germany came from the Prussian confederation of smaller
states. With their common German language and ethnic background, the Prussians sought to unite with
guarantees for their rights.
In 1848, all Prussian states, not just a few, revolted and demanded "free press, limited monarchy, and the
unification of Germany." Eventually, they became successful because of one man, Bismarck.
Bismarck, Unifier of Germany. Otto von Bismarck (1815-98) became Chancellor (Prime Minister) of
Prussia in 1861. The Prussian king Wilhelm I wanted a reform- minded chancellor to help stabilize the restless
people.
Bismarck knew that a united German nation would face outside opposition. But he was determined to
upset the continent's balance of power, if necessary, in order to build a strong new nation. In his inauguration, he
said, "The great issues of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions but by blood and iron." Thus
he known as the "Iron Chancellor."
Wars to Unite Germany. To ensure the survival of the new German nation, Chancellor Bismarck fought
three wars the Danish War (1864), the Seven Weeks' War (1866), and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). With
these wars, Prussia annexed territory from Denmark, Prussia got supremacy over the other German states; and
the French paid war indemnity and lost territory to the Germans. In the midst of the successful siege of Paris,
the remaining German states joined the Prussian German Confederation, which was later renamed the new
German Empire. The Prussian king became the new Kaiser (emperor). He wanted to inaugurate his new empire,
not in Prussia, but in the defeated foe's Versailles Palace.
In the shimmering Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, the new German nation held the solemn proclamation of
the German Empire on January 18, 1871. The French considered this as insult added to the injury of losing the
war. But the Germans loved their debut into the world stage. Surrounded by kings, generals and notables,
Chancellor Bismarck read the imperial decree proclaiming the German Empire and Wilhelm I as the first Kaiser
of Germany. Germany took its place as Big Power in the family of nations.
The Second Reich. The new German Empire was called the Second Reich. "Reich" is the German word
for empire. This was the Second Reich because Germany considered the Holy Roman Empire as the First Reich.
Later on, you will read about the Third Reich. which caused World War II. For now, the new German nation
proudly showed the world the fruits of the discipline and industriousness of the German people.
There were still forces of disunity at work The German nobles (Junkers) did not want to lose their
traditional privileges. The Catholics distrusted the Protestants. Liberals hated Bismarck's conservatism. Indeed,
some critics predicted a quick break-up of the new empire. But they underestimated the skills of the "Iron
Chancellor."
The new Germany was a federal union of 25 states. But the main political power rested firmly with
Chancellor Bismarck, acting on behalf of the Kaiser. The army was strengthened, and Bismarck ensured a
prosperous economy. He proved to be a wise statesman. He modified his strong policies from time to time to
win over the nobles, the Catholics, the workers, and the liberals.
After Bismarck, a new emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II (1892-1913), became the new powerhouse for Germany.
He wanted to make Germany a major commercial, colonial and military power, like the other European nations.
He joined other European powers in competing for colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Germany tried to
grab the Philippines. When Spain lost the Battle of Manila Bay to Commodore Dewey and the US squadron in
December 1898, the German Kaiser sent live warships (greater than Dewey's) to try to pick up the Philippines
for itself. They only retreated when the British naval observers sided with the US Navy. Spain cleverly took
advantage of German interest, and sold the Marianas islands to Germany, instead of surrendering them to the
US in the Treaty of Paris.
Germans took pride in their cultural and economic achievements. Their composers Beethoven and Wagner
were cultural icons in any language. Their educational system (developed by Bismarck) became the best science
education in Europe. Students. from all over the world flocked to German universities.
One such foreign student was a young man. named Dr. Jose Rizal, from the Philippines. Rizal came to
Heidelberg in 1886, to work at the eye hospital and attend lectures at the university. Hestayed three months as a
lodger with a Lutheran pastor in Wilhelmsfeid near Heidelberg, Rizal published his first novel Noli Me Tangere
in Berlin, and wrote a letter to the young women of Malolos, Bulacan, in which he expressed admiration for
German women's simplicity and frugality.

6. Unification of Italy

•What Filipino product sparked a revolt in Italy

•Why the early revolts failed to secure
• How three Italian patriots succeeded in unifying Italy as a new nation.
Manila Cigars Spark a Revolt. Austrian soldiers patrolling Milan, the capital of the Italian state of
Lombardy, were given Manila cigars and ordered to smoke them in public. As the cigar smoke rose in the
January winter air, the people of the city grew furious. They attacked the cigar-smoking soldiers with insults,
blows and rocks. "Go back where you came from!" they shouted. The Austrian soldiers drew their swords and
fought back. It was another bloody revolt.
Manila cigars were a big source of income for the Austrians who ruled Lombardy. They imported it from
Spain, which got it from the Philippines. But the cigar was a hated symbol of foreign rule to the Italians. Almost
overnight, the cigar became a symbol of Italian nationalism. It was 1848, and things would change.
Italian Disunity. By the 1800s, Italy was no longer the Roman Empire; it was just a place of many
disunited cities and states. But to millions living in the Italian Peninsula, Italy was more than just a place. They
remembered the glorious days of their nation as the Roman Empire and the time when Italian city-states in the
Mediterranean had given birth to the Renaissance. As one patriot said, they wanted "a new Italy, a united Italy,
and an Italy of Italians." Hence, the foreigners had to go.
But the difficulty, was that Italy was broken up under different foreign rulers. After the Congress of Vienna,
most of Italy came under foreign control. Austria ruled two states directly: Austrian nobles ruled other states;
and the Spanish Bourbon family got the Two Sicilies.
 Italian nationalists struggled for freedom. and unity throughout the 1830s and 1840s. In 1831, a nationalist
leader, Giuseppe Mazzini, organized a secret society called "Young Italy." Over 50,000 members joined quickly.
Mazzini wanted a republic but cooperated with the two other patriots for the sake of unity. Other nationalists
favored a kingdom. Count Camilo Cavour of Sardinia led this group. He founded the Il Risorgimento
(reawakening), a newspaper to awaken national consciousness of Italians. The first steps of unity came when
the king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, made Cavour his prime minister in 1852. Through many wars to oust
foreign control, Italy became united between 1858 and 1870.
Prepared by: Johana Sorno
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Growth of Democracy in Other European Countries

Switzerland is a small confederation in the Alps. It developed democracy as early as the 16 century. The
Swiss love of freedom is seen in the story of Wilhelm Tell, who saved his son from a tyrant by his expert skill in
bow and arrow. Isolated from the Big Powers by its geography, with many languages and ethnic groups, and
differing major religions (Catholics and Protestants), the practical Swiss established a stable republic in 1848.
Because they were surrounded by strong nations, the Swiss chose a unique path to keep out foreign invasion
they maintained a strong citizen army and a foreign policy of neutrality in international conflicts Every Swiss
citizen was obliged to train for military duty or civic duty. History and civic obligations became an essential
part of Swiss education. To keep its people happy the Swiss adopted a democratic life for its citizens. To keep
the government simple, the officials were few and not corrupt
The Swiss became known not only for their neutrality and small industries, but also for their helpfulness to
others. In 1863, Henri Dunant established the International Red Cross, a humanitarian organization to reduce
suffering during wars and natural calamities. Dunant was concerned with the lack of medical and humanitarian
aid for war casualties and civilians. The following year, the first of many humanitarian agreements was signed
in Geneva to provide for protection. for those helping casualties or civilians in war or emergencies. Since then,
Red Cross chapters were created in almost all countries of the world, including the Philippines.
Being among the first European nations to adopt universal male suffrage, the Swiss organized a Swiss
federal parliament. In addition, they also adopted two democratic principles in legislation (1) referendum, in
which any measure passed upon or proposed by the legislature had to be submitted to the people for approval;
and (2) initiative, in which citizens themselves make legislation. without the need for a legislature.

Despotism in Russia and Austria

Despotism survived in two European. monarchies Austria and Russia. Significantly, it would be in these
two countries that great conflicts would begin. Austria would ignite the First World War, and Russia would
become entangled in a bloody 1917 workers revolution.

Poverty and Despotism in Russia

The pillars of Russian wealth were farmers and the peasant serfs. But both were neglected. Feudalism lived
longest in Russia which had the most number of feudal serfs. When other European nations had ended slavery
and feudalism, 40 million serfs still lived in Russia, as if it was the Dark Ages.
The Russian serfs were permanently attached to the land and could be sold along with the land, or used as
servants. Owners could force them to work in factories and not pay them at all. Runaway serfs risked brutal
punishment. In 1861, the czar emancipated the serfs. But that was only on paper, the serfs were deep in debt and
little changed for them. Naturally, the serfs were indolent and made bad workers. At the same time, many
landowners were bad managers. As long as they had the serfs, they did not introduce better farming methods.
Russia remained a poor, agricultural country.
The Enlightenment made little impression on the Russian rulers, as you read earlier. They dabbled in it but
did not want to change. By the mid-1800s, the Russian Empire was the biggest empire in Europe. It sprawled
from Europe to the Pacific Ocean. But the economic and political system was as repressive as ever since the
days of the first czars. As you read in Chapter 6, the Mongol rulers of Russia destroyed whatever local
democracy existed in it. Those who spoke out for freedom and natural rights faced severe punishment, exile to
Siberia, or death.
Because of its vast size, the Russian Empire had many ethnic minorities including Ukrainians. Finns, Poles
and Jews. Many of these people opposed Russian rule. A policy to use the Russian language and convert to the
Russian Orthodox religion did not go down well with these minorities. The Jews became a special target.
Government troops organized pogroms, or violent raids on Jewish communities. The persecution in the 19
century drove hundreds of thousands of Jews out of Russia. Many migrated to the United States.
By 1900, industrialization reached Russia because it was the fourth largest iron producer in the world. The
number of industrial workers had reached 2 million. But bad treatment caused many violent workers strikes.
After 1905, the czar made symbolic reforms due to a bloody workers revolt, which killed 1,000 people. The
czar created a parliament called the duma, to which representatives were elected. However, the duma really had
no powers, and seldom met. Russia's problems remained unsolved and became the seeds for a future revolution
that would shake the world.

Nationalist Unrest in the Austrian Empire

"My people are strangers to one another the Austrian emperor once said, "And it is for the best." By that, he
meant that his rule could not be challenged because the people under him could not unite, like the people in
other European countries. Despotie rulers often want to divide their subjects, in the classic "divide-and-conquer
political strategy.
The Austrian Empire included more than 12 different national groups. The Germans of Austria and the
Magyars of Hungary were the two largest groups. The other major nationals included the Poles, Czechs,
Rumanians, and the Greeks, Bosnians, Serbians, Croatians and Slovaks in the Balkans.
Each national group had a strong sense of pride in its language and customs. The Austrian rulers had
crushed the nationalist revolts of 1830 and 1848. But the unrest. continued. This unrest would trigger World War
One later on (see Chapter 22)
Franz Josel was the Austrian emperor for a long time (1848-1916), and held on to his despotic ways. But to
reward the Magyars after they helped Austria in the war with Prussia. he gave them autonomy. In 1867.
Hungary got its own king, who remained under the Austrian Empire in a dual monarchy.
The dual monarchy pleased the Magyars because at least they had some say in their own nation. But the
other nationalities became resentful. After all, the Austrians were only a minority in the empire, and the
Magyars were a minority, too. They questioned why they ruled over the other nationalities. The other
nationalities caused major problems, especially in the Balkans.
Democracy made little headway in the Austrian Empire because the government and economy remained in
the hands of wealthy nobles, who were highly conservative. Over a million poor people subsisted on less than a
lew square meters of farm lands, which were owned by only a few hundred nobles.
Universal male suffrage was introduced in 1907 but few males were educated enough. When the
parliaments met, the various national groups could not agree on anything. Sometimes, the members ended up
throwing inkwells at one another, instead of debating proposed laws. Their quarrels pleased the royal class who
ruled over them easily.
The Balkan Problem and the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire Instability. As you read in Chapter 5, the Ottoman Empire had conquered the other half of
the civilized world by the 19 century. The Ottoman Empire was a transcontinental empire, located in both Asia
and Europe. It ruled over many different tribes and nations that were restless. Since its rise in the 1500s, the
Ottomans were a threat to European peace and security.
By the 19th century, the Muslim Ottoman rulers and the Christian European powers had reached an uneasy
peace. But something would trigger another war between them. This time, the restless Greeks wanted to get out
of the Ottoman Turk rule.
The Greeks were the traditional enemy of the Turks. They won their independence from the Ottoman Turks
in 1829. When Greece became independent, the other Ottoman nations wanted their freedom as well. Many
thought the empire would collapse. In 1844, Czar Nicholas of Russia called the Ottoman Empire, "the sick man
of Europe," meaning that it was weak and disintegrating.
Russia and Austria declared war on the Ottomans. This led to the Crimean War in 1854. Britain and France
joined the war on the side of the Ottomans to keep the balance of power from being upset in Europe. When
Russia and Austria lost the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire stayed intact for a while.
In 1878, the Big Powers met in Berlin to decide the issue of the restless ethnic nations in the Balkans and to
prevent more wars from erupting. The Berlin Congress recognized more new European states, like Rumania,
Serbia and Montenegro. The division of territories did not please anyone. For example, many Serbs became
independent. but others did not.
The Balkan nations continued to pose trouble because the "balkanized" fragmented ethnic groups continued
to be hostile to one another. Bismarck was so frustrated with the ethnic Balkan groups that he predicted, "If
there is ever another war in Europe, it will come out of some damned silly thing in the Balkans

A New Balance of Power

A New Balance of Power. By the late 1800s, a new international order had developed in the world. The
balance of power had shifted due to three reasons: (1) new nations like Germany and the US came on the scene;
(2) the Industrial Revolution changed world economy in favor of Britain and Germany; and (3) the decline of
old empires like the Ottoman and France had destroyed the old order.
Firstly, during the early 1800s, the superpower in Europe had been Austria under Metternich. During the
1850s. the dominant force was Germany under Bismarck. As the century turned, the great powers would be
Britain and the United States. Japan was also coming on the scene.
Secondly, the international order was further changed by the Industrial Revolution, which empowered
Britain and other industrialized countries. Scientists developed new technologies and invented new, more
powerful weapons, which increased the capacity for war. Finally, the decline of old empires led to resentments
over territory and rights which lurked in the shadows of the new international order.
The old order was gone. Next came a century of peace and progress. Welcome to the modern world!

Prepared by: Sandralyn Paeste

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 Chapter 5: Industrial Revolution

1. Industrial Revolution
Meaning of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a peaceful change from manual
work to mechanical and industrial production. It was not sudden or quick. It was a long, slow process, over
several centuries. The Industrial Revolution had two stages. During the first stage, from about 1750 to 1850,
Britain took the lead in inventing new methods of production. During the second stage, from 1850 to about
1914, the United States and Western European nations also became 'modern industrial powers, and many social
abuses were corrected. Eventually, the Industrial Revolution completely changed the patterns of life in the entire
world.
The meaning of the Industrial Revolution can be summarized in the following changes:(1) the
mechanization of agriculture and industry;(2) the use of power (electricity, steam, oil) in industry; (3) the
development of the factory system; (4) a sensational development of transportation and communication; and (5)
an increase in big business control of the economy.

2. Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution

By noon, fashionable ladies, sailors, workers, and bankers filled London's Crystal Palace, a beautiful
newly built all-glass domed building in Hyde Park, London. The trumpets blared, crowds cheered, and Queen
Victoria of England stepped down from her royal carriage. She was opening the Great Exhibition of 1851. The
fair would display “the works of industry of all nations”. Its theme was progress. Inside the Crystal Palace,
visitors marveled at the more than 6,000 exhibits from around the world. What pleased them most was to see
that Britain had become the “factory of the world." Britain was now the world's greatest power.
Spiritual Revolution in Britain. As visitors looked in awe at the trains, power looms, steam engines, and
other machines, they could see how far their world had come in the 1800s. In the 1700s, Britain had suffered the
loss of the Thirteen Colonies in America. France and Europe were embroiled in bloody and violent revolutions
and wars. The economic and political uncertainties then were made worse by a loss of morale in British society.
Street people roamed in London streets - men, women, and even children drank because they thought they had
no hope.
A Christian revival swept Britain and brought a message of salvation and hope by faith. In the late
1700s, powerful evangelists led by George Whitefield and John and Charles Wesley inspired crowds. People
began returning to the Bible and to church. The Christian revival introduced Christian education. Because there
were no free schools, Christian churches opened Sunday schools. The revival gave importance to the value of
work, teaching that it should be done for the glory of God, not only for material or personal gain. The spiritual
revival created a spirit of hope and opened new opportunities for the nation.
Historians recognize that this Christian revival saved Britain from a bloody revolution and was one of
the causes of the Industrial Revolution. It inspired farmers, miners, and workers to use resources and work more
efficiently. Better tools and methods were invented, at first in agriculture, then in manufacturing. With a
stronger agriculture and more food, the population grew healthier and bigger. Britain expanded into inventing
the new machines and manufacturing industries.
Britain, Cradle of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the middle
of the 18th century. From there it spread to other countries of Europe and the world. The favorable conditions
which made Britain the cradle of the Industrial Revolution was as follows:
1.) The Wesleyan Christian revival emphasized the work ethic and promoted, through Christian
education, the hope that poor people could better themselves.
2.) Improvements in agriculture expanded food supply, made people healthier and happier, and increased
the population.
3.) The abundance of natural resources like coal, iron, and water in Britain.
4.) Britain had many skilled artisans, including those who had fled France, Germany, and other
European countries during the religious persecution and wars.
 5.) Britain had a stable government dominated by a merchant and capitalist class. Furthermore, the
British government encouraged industrial growth by not making too many laws or taxes to discourage business.
6.) Being a colonial power, Britain had plenty of raw materials and markets for manufactured products.
7.) Britain had the best banking system in Europe at the time, and it was able to raise the necessary
capital to finance new business ventures.
8.) Britain had a large merchant fleet to ship goods all over the world, and the best navy to protect its
ships.
9.) Finally, Britain's damp climate favored the manufacture of cotton cloths since the thread would not
become brittle and break off easily when woven by machines. The mechanization of the textile industry helped
the Industrial Revolution take off in Britain.
Agricultural Revolution. Another reason why the Industrial Revolution got underway first in Britain
was a revolution in agriculture. Changes in British farming greatly increased the amount and variety of food
produced. People with enough food in their stomach always start the day well.
Since the Middle Ages, farmers had planted the same crop in a given field year in and year out. In the
1730s, Lord Charles Townshend, a British official and landowner, took an interest in his farms. He introduced
the mass production of turnips, which became a staple of the poor man's diet. He discovered that fields would
produce more crops if the farmers rotated the crops they planted in a field. He suggested that farmers grow
wheat or barley in a field for one or two years and then plant clover or turnips in the next years. His idea for a
four-field crop rotation helped increase not only food production, but also food for cattle and sheep. As food and
meat became available at lower cost, people could eat more protein and a healthier diet. His interest in
agriculture earned him the nickname 'Turnip Townshend.”
The invention of farm machines also increased food production. One day, Jethro Tull, a British inventor,
got an idea in church while watching the organ pipes playing music. In 1701, he perfected a horse-drawn seed
drill to efficiently plant seeds in neat rows into the soil. The Jethro Tull mechanical seed drill was adopted by
many landowners, and it helped form the basis of modern agriculture. Farmers also began to use mechanical
reapers and threshers, which made harvesting easier. Food production increased some more.
In the 1700s, farmers began to enclose bigger plots of land to make agriculture more efficient and
experiment with new crops, like the corn and potato from the New World. The enclosure movement of
farmlands forced many small farmers off their land. Some became tenant farmers. Others drifted to towns in
search of new work and became the factory workers.
The Agricultural Revolution helped set the stage for the Industrial Revolution. With more food available,
people's diet and health improved. These changes contributed to a rapid growth of population. With more
people, the demand for manufactured goods, like clothing, grew. Moreover, the new methods of farming needed
fewer people to work the land. Unemployed farm workers formed the labor pool for the factories.

3. Changes in the Textile Industry

When changes in agriculture laid off many farmers and farm workers, they looked for new work in the
towns and cities. It was a blessing that new mechanical inventions and new factories were being created in these
places to absorb the workers. As you have read in Chapter 12, the commercial revolution had developed a
cottage production for wool cloth in rural areas. But the cottage system could not keep up with a rising demand
for cloth, especially cotton cloth. In the 1700s, practical-minded persons developed new ways to improve the
manufacture of clothing. Each invention triggered others, like a domino effect. Soon, the entire textile industry
boomed and a new era in world history began.
The Textile Factories Lead the Industrial Revolution. The first industry to be mechanized was the
manufacture of cotton cloth. As compared to other enterprises, the cotton industry was young, so there was
much room for growth and invention. Secondly, the profits depended on production in bulk. Bulk production
meant more profits.
First, the cotton threads had to be woven. In 1733, John Kay, a watchmaker, invented the flying shuttle,
a device that doubled the speed of producing cotton thread. The flying shuttle replaced the hand-held shuttle
used in weaving thread. In 1764, James Hargreaves, a carpenter, invented the spinning jenny, named after his
wife Jenny. Using this spinning jenny, a person could spin up to 80 threads at one time.
 In 1769, a poor barber named Richard Arkwright built a machine that could hold up to 100 spindles. His
invention was too heavy to be hand-operated, so he used waterpower to turn it. Thus, the machine was called
the water frame. Ten years later, a mechanic named Samuel Crompton developed the spinning mule, which used
features of Hargreaves' spinning jenny and Arkwright's water frame. Again, the production of cotton thread was
increased.
Now, the loom had to be improved. With more threads now available, the weaver's loom found its
creator. In 1785 Edmund Cartwright, an Anglican pastor, invented the power loom which quickened the process
of weaving.
They needed more raw cotton to feed these machines. In 1793, an American, Eli Whitney, invented the
cotton gin (the term “gin" is a shortened word for “engine"). Whitney's cotton gin made it possible for a single
slave in an American cotton plantation to turn out raw cotton as 50 slaves had done by hand before. By the
1830s, Britain was importing 280 million pounds of raw cotton every year, mostly from the US, its former
colony, with which it had made peace.
The new machines were expensive and needed to be near rivers; so that the water could turn the wheel
to power the machines. Inventors like Arkwright built spinning mills and started hiring hundreds of workers.
These early textile mills operated under the factory system, which replaced the cottage production of
cloth. Under the factory system workers and machines were in one place to manufacture goods. Everyone
worked a set number of hours each day, and workers were paid daily or weekly salaries.
Development of New Sources of Energy. Although the textile mills run by waterpower started factory
manufacturing, steam power became the major source of energy. The idea of a steam-powered engine had been
around for a long time.
It was James Watt, a Scottish engineer, who perfected the reliable steam engine in the 1760s. Watt's
steam engine supplied most of the power to run industries in Britain and in other countries in Europe.
In 1831, Michael Faraday (English) invented the electricity dynamo used to run machinery. Soon,
electricity supplemented water and steam as a source of power for industrial purposes.
Development of the Iron, Coal, and Steel Industries. Producing and operating the steam engine and
other new machines needed huge quantities of iron and coal. Britain was blessed in having large deposits of
both. During the Industrial Revolution, better methods of production boosted the mining of iron and coal and
improved the quality of iron.
Britain quadrupled its iron production between 1788 and 1806. Coal production also bloomed because
coal fueled the early Industrial Revolution. Despite the mechanization of other industries, the work in coal mine
largely depended on the backbreaking labor of men, women, and even children. As you will read later, the
conditions of these workers caused great concern.
In the 1856, Henry Bessemer developed the production of steel, a harder metal from iron and other
materials. As steel became available, it triggered the growth of other industries.

Prepared by: Lino T. Buizon

4 Spread of Industrialization

Read to Understand
 Why one key sector like transportation rapidly improved other industries ?
 What advances led to the knowledge explosion ?
 Why some countries did not industrialize and progress?
 How advances in science and technology improved life.

By the 1850s, the pace of industrialization quickened, and the Industrial Revolution entered its second
stage. Between 1850 to 1914, industries grew rapidly in other Western nations, like the US, Belgium, France,
and Germany. In Asia, Japan also joined the ranks of industrialized nations.
Advances in Transportation. A good transportation system was needed to run the factories and to
distribute the finished goods. The 18th and 19th centuries were a time for building new roads and water canals,
beginning in Britain and then all over the world. Canals were built to facilitate the flow of trade and travel both
inland and transcontinental. Many inland canals were dug in Europe, America, and even China. Two great sea
canals served as important sea highways the Suez Canal (1869), which links the Mediterranean Sea and the Red
Sea; and the Panama Canal (1914), which connects two oceans - the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean.
A Scottish engineer invented a road surface made of crushed. stone. This made the road usable in all
weather. Road travel in Britain became almost as fast as it was in Roman times. Britain pioneered in
shipbuilding and railroad building. But an American invented steam power for ships. In 1807, Robert Fulton
successfully tested his steamship invention. By the mid-1800s, steamships regularly crossed the oceans.
The real revolution in transportation came with the application of Watt's steam engine in railroads and
steamboats. Again, Britain pioneered in the development of railway transport. The railways were a key
component in the Industrial Revolution because railways reduced the cost of shipping. The railways also
developed a national market for goods, with a uniform price system. In 1825, Britain inaugurated the world's
first railway line in northeast England. George Stephenson, the son of a British miner, invented a fast steam
locomotive, named the Rocket. Stephenson's steam railway became the most popular for railroads in the United
States, Europe, and Western colonies. A feverish activity began in railroad building by the mid-19th century.
Revolution in Communications. The railways and steamship, the canals and new roads improved
communication within nations and across the world. Britain introduced an inexpensive postal system, and the
first printed postal stamps, the penny black. Samuel F.B. Morse (US) invented the first telegraph. On May 24,
1844, he sent the first telegraphic message which acknowledged his inspiration: "What hath God wrought!"
Messages that would have taken days or even weeks to arrive now took only minutes or seconds. In 1851, the
first underwater telegraph cable was installed under the English Channel. It made rapid communication possible
between Britain and the continent. The Americans also laid a submarine telegraph cable under the Atlantic
Ocean, which linked the US to Britain and Europe.
Spread of Industrialization. Between 1850 and 1914, industrialization spread to Western Europe and
the United States. Scientific research led to the development of technologies such as the electricity and the
internal combustion engine. Powerful corporations and banks provided the money to finance new industries. By
the 1850s, other nations began to challenge British leadership in the Industrial Revolution. Belgium was one of
the first nations on the European continent to industrialize. Like Britain, Belgium had large deposits of iron and
coal. Belgium also had a long tradition of manufacturing textiles. It had workers and entrepreneurs needed to
operate factories.

France, too, built a railroad system and a strong textile industry. In the 1800s, Joseph Marie Jacquard
invented the first power loom to weave complex patterns. It was operated by a punched card system that
controlled the patterned design. The Jacquard punched cards were also used in the early computers, before the
development of digital memory cards. The textiles produced on Jacquard looms sold for high prices among the
fashionable upper classes in Europe.
After Germany achieved unification, the discipline and resources of the new nation made it a leading
industrial power also. Across the seas, in the United States, the railways became a key sector in the opening of
the West and in the growth of the nation after the Civil War. Railroad construction brought rapid economic
growth in the US, beginning in 1869. A decade later, American coal and steel production had exceeded that of
Britain. At the turn of the century, the US moved ahead of Britain as the leading industrial nation.
However, the Industrial Revolution did not spread to the nations of southern and eastern Europe, which
remained largely agricultural during the 1800s. In Spain, Italy, Austria and Russia, the churches and government
did little to encourage revival or progress. Hence,they remained backward.
Advances in Science and Technology. During the early Industrial Revolution, hogy ventors were
looking for ways to repair tools or improve machines. After 1850, however, people turned to science not only to
anker with gadgets but also to discover new products to manufacture. Scientific research jed to many inventions
and remarkable advances in technology. Knowledge about these new products or technology quickly spread
from one nation to another through communication or travel.
Research brought wonderful changes to industry and commerce. Chemists invented new dyes made
from coal. The textile industry quickly adopted these new dyes to replace the more costly natural dyes like
indigo. Chemical fertilizers were discovered, and food production increased some more.
 An Italian physicist, Alessandro Volta, invented the first electric batteries. The steam engines were
replaced by electric rains (by Michael Faraday). Electricity made possible to have railways in city streets trams)
and even underground (subways). Discoveries in electricity improved communications. In 1876, Alexander
Graham Bell, a Scottish American, invented the telephone. By the turn of the century, Guglielmo Marconi
developed a way to send electric signals without wire or cable. His invention was called the wireless in Britain
and the radio in America. The mass media was born with the invention of new printing presses to mass-produce
newspapers, books and magazines.
The use of photography and copies of photographs also spread rapidly during the 1850s, thanks to the
invention of photography by Louis Daguerre, a Frenchman. Newspapers and magazines realized the appeal of
photographs. Photographs boosted their sales and made a record of the past for future generations. Pretty soon,
everyone could afford a photograph of themselves or their family. These advances in communication led to an
explosion in knowledge throughout the world.
During this period, Thomas Alva Edison, became the greatest American inventor. Among Edison's
1,000 patents (registered inventions) were the phonograph, the electric light bulb, and the motion picture
camera. His generating plant provided the first electric light to New York City streets. When asked about the
secret of his success, Edison replied, "10% inspiration and 90% perspiration."
The automobile and aviation industry revolutionized the transportation system. Two German inventors
patented the first automobile engines to replace the horse buggy. An American businessman, Henry Ford, started
the mass production of automobiles in 1902. By the 1920s, automobiles were a familiar sight in the US and
Europe. This new industry triggered a boom in other industries such as petroleum, steel, and rubber materials.
Man's dream to fly like a bird was realized when the Wright brothers (Wilbur and Orville) invented the
first airplane and flew it successfully on December 17, 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Eventually, huge
flying balloons and small airplanes made commercial flights in the skies of major world cities.
Mass Production. New machines and technology greatly improved worker productivity. Productivity
increased when a worker could turn out more goods in a specific time. This became possible due to the
assembly line and interchangeable parts. Increased productivity with the use of interchangeable or identical
parts was called "mass production." Mass production of goods started with Henry Ford and the car industry.
Henry Ford introduced the assembly line to speed up the making of cars. On an assembly line, a worker
only does one or two tasks and then the car moves to another worker until all the parts are assembled. Because
the assembly line was efficient, goods were produced more cheaply and were sold at lower prices. Thus, mass
production turned out large quantities of identical products at cheaper prices. The early Industrial Revolution
factories now turned out all kinds of goods and products that more people, not just the rich, could afford.

GUNS OR BUTTER
In the 1840s, the Krupp steel factory in Germany had been prospering. Alfred found a way to
manufacture huge steel rolls from which spoons and forms could be cut cheaply. As railroads expanded
throughout Europe, the Krupp Works also turned-out high-quality steel rails and wheels. The iron mines in
Germany turned out a steady and cheap supply of iron ore to keep the factory going. The German workers were
used to harsh working conditions and had discipline and frugality. Then, the Krupp Works decided to produce
rifles and cannons. They invented a new cannon that could be loaded and fired more quickly and safely than
traditional cannons. The Prussian Army was supposed to be their best customer. But the Prussian generals
believed that the old-fashioned brass cannons were better than Krupp's gleaming steel models. Furthermore,
Prussia needed to improve roads, bridges and schools. The money for the building program could not be
diverted to war materials.
Alfred wrote a letter to the new King of Prussia, William I. Alfred told the king that for patriotic reasons,
he had not sold his cannons to other countries, but he could no longer turn down their orders. The king got the
point. Soon, Prussia's armed forces became the best customers of Alfred Krupp. The Krupp cannons proved
their value during the Franco-Prussian War. By 1887, the Krupp Works had 40 government customers around
the world. They had become one of the richest businessmen in Europe. The Krupp steel works employed over
20,000 workers.
The choice for "guns or butter" faces all governments. Do they develop the society, or they do invest in
weapons to keep strong armed forces. They cannot do both. Which one will be the priority? In the case of
Germany, their governments chose to have a strong military arsenal in the 19th to mid-20th centuries.
Entrepreneurs like Alfred Krupp encouraged them to build their arsenal because it meant business for them.
Likewise, in Japan, a close relationship between the military and industrialists developed the supremacy of
military cliques. Alas, these industrial-military tie-ups bred the conditions that made war more likely. Questions:
Why should citizens be wary if government officials choose "guns instead of butter"? Why should the military
be under civilian control?
Prepared by: Rachelle Alfuente

5. Results of the Industrial Revolution

Read to Understand
 How the Industrial Revolution brought great economic progress and world peace?
 That it increased population but not the quality of workers' life
 Why the economic and social effects of the Industrial Revolution were mixed?
 What military result led to later sorrows?

The Industrial Revolution Transformed the World. Some historians claim that "the Industrial
Revolution was the greatest transformation in human history since the remote times when men invented
agriculture, the city, and the state." As a result of the Industrial Revolution, world commerce enjoyed a
tremendous increase. In the 19th century alone, world trade doubled twelve times. In one century alone, from
the 1700s to the 1800s, world wealth increased six times. The industrial revolution brought great economic
progress and material benefits to world civilization. It made Britain, Germany, France, the United States and
Japan great industrial powers. It increased the wealth of nations. It expanded the numbers of the middle class
and gave them a comfortable way of life. It gave such conveniences as cars, trains, electric lighting radio, etc.,
which made life more interesting, comfortable, enjoyable, and exciting. The Industrial Revolution contributed to
world peace and progress from 1815 to 1914, European nations fought few big wars. They were more interested
in manufacturing goods for a growing population.
Both the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution led to a population explosion in Western
Europe. Between 1750 and 1914, the population of Europe grew from 140 million to 463 million people.
Improvements in labor conditions and medicine reduced the deaths caused by diseases.
But to millions of workers, the Industrial Revolution brought misery and sorrow. The old cottage
industries that flourished under the domestic system died out. The small farmers lost their land. The poor
workers had no capital to start their own business. Without jobs in their native villages, they migrated to the
cities and worked as daily wage-earners in the factories that were owned by rich capitalists. They lived in
crowded, ugly slums barely earning enough. Workers became dehumanized by the conditions in factories and
cities. Their wives and children had to work, too, in factories or mines. About two-thirds of the working women
were in factories or mines, and one-third worked as domestics in the homes of the newly rich middle-class
households. In the 1840s, workers in British factories earned an average weekly salary of 62 cents per week (or
5 per day). With this salary, they could hardly feed a family of two adults and three children. Their diet usually
consisted of bread, potatoes, turnips, and cabbage. A tiny piece of meat or fish was a luxury. Millions of workers
were underfed, and many children died at birth, or due to disease and malnutrition. Life at factories or mines
was grim and full of dangers. The early cities that grew up in the Industrial Revolution were overcrowded and
dirty. Workers lived in terrible conditions, working for low pay and long hours.
Economic Results of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was both a blessing and a
curse to mankind. Historians continue to weigh the good as well as the bad effects of the era on people. It really
depends on how the researcher analyzes the facts, because the data and statistics from the Industrial Revolution
reveal mixed results.
In general, we can say that among the good results of the Industrial Revolution were the following:
1) expansion of industries and companies;
2) increase of commerce and trade;
3) growth of the population;
4) rise of cities;
5) greater comforts and higher standard of living for all classes;
6) rise of the middle class as the largest segment of society; and
7) increase of world wealth.
On the other hand, the early stage of the Industrial Revolution brought terrible misery and suffering to
the working classes. Their conditions were only improved during the second stage of the Industrial Revolution
due to the campaign of churches, writers, media and social reformers.
The bad effects of the Industrial Revolution were as follows:
1) ruin of the family and small business system, causing the disappearance of small independent working
families;
2) the factory system, exploited workers;
3) the neglect of rural communities;
4) child and women labor;
5) no security of workers;
6) concentration of wealth in a few capitalists;
7) bitter class wars between capitalists and workers; and
8) rise of a military-industrial complex that led to world wars.

Social Results of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution re- shaped the social and
political structure. of Europe. Before industrialization, the highest position in society belonged to the royals and
aristocracy, and wealth was based on land. During the 1800s, however, the middle class expanded and
challenged the traditional control of the upper classes. Wealth could now be made by bankers, factory and mine
owners, managers, small businessmen, and merchants. Due to the protection of patents and copyrights,
inventors, newspaper owners, artists and writers could also become wealthy from their inventions, publications
or works. The new middle class were joined by professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, chemists, and
accountants. Some newly rich people moved to the ranks of the very rich upper classes, like Fords.
Rockefellers, Carnegies, Astors, and so on.
The newly rich middle class were very conscious of their social position. They were very sensitive to
protect their new reputations as captains of industry and pillars of the nation. They were constantly striving to
be accepted by high society, and were regarded as "social climbers."
The Industrial Revolution also produced a new social class of factory and city workers Largely
unskilled, they occupied the lowest rank in society. Industrial workers at first had little political and economic
power. By the second stage of the Industrial Revolution, they banded together to change their working and
living conditions.
The cities became a magnet for workers and dislocated farmers. New industrial cities around factories and
mines sprang up. The living conditions in cities, factories and mines were intolerable and needed reforms.
The changing patterns of Western industrialized society created new political parties that channeled the
political positions of different social groups. For example, there were political parties for the liberals,
conservatives, labor, communists, socialists. In the next chapter, you shall read and about the important political
philosophies that guided these political parties.
Military Results of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution also had one mixed blessing,
one with long term unfortunate effects. It led to the rise of a strong policy and financial relationship between
government, national armed forces and industrialists. This special relationship was called "the military-
industrial complex." Private entrepreneurs could connive with government or the military to build more
weapons and go to war. It encouraged what later became international rivalries leading to world wars. In the
past, metal industries could adjust to peace or war easily they would make swords during wartime, or
plowshares during peacetime. But as newer more sophisticated war material were invented, it became more
lucrative to concentrate on manufacturing firearms, artillery, tanks, warships and later warplanes.
The first military-industrial complex (MIC) developed in Britain, France and Germany in the late 1800s,
especially after the Franco Prussian War. Japan and-the United States followed later. These military expansions
helped industrialized nations engage in a new wave of imperialism abroad, as you will read in Chapter 21.
Industrialists like Alfred Krupp (see story] Samuel Colt, Alfred Nobel (of the prestigious Nobel prizes), and
others profited greatly from these MICs. In Japan, the military cliques from its samurai-bushido tradition also
developed close relationships with industrial barons. In the new German nation, the new Kaiser Wilhelm I
doubled the size of the army and developed a large navy to rival the British navy. The German armaments
production exceeded that of other European nations. Germany became the leading industrial military complex
in the world. The spirit of militarism, which was responsible for Germany's rise, would later become its undoing
and the sorrow of the entire world.

6. Responses to the Industrial Revolution

Read to Understand
 How the conditions of women and children workers brought concern
 What steps were taken to reform working conditions
 How a modified capitalist system brought improvements to workers

Demands for Change. Because the Industrial Revolution started in Britain, workers there were the first
to feel its terrible effects. As their suffering grew, they protested, demanding higher wages, better working
conditions, and protection against unemployment.
Sometimes, their protests became violent, especially in France. As we read in Chapter 17, workers in Paris
helped overthrow the French monarchy in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. They also helped to build the
barricades during the Paris Commune revolt in 1871.
Between 1811 and 1816, workers in many parts of Britain smashed machines in factories. In 1819, a
demonstration in Manchester drew a peaceful protest of about 80,000 workers demanding reforms. But nervous
army soldiers fired on the crowd, killing 11 men and women, and wounding about 400. At the time, the British
leaders had no sympathy for the workers, and they applauded the shooting. Very little was known about the
actual conditions in the factories, and the educated public had no idea of the truth.
Little by little, the ugly truth came out in newspapers, magazines and books by concerned writers. The
power of the pen was great and social commentators exposed the ugly face of capitalism, without fear or favor.
Newspaper journalists awakened thousands of wealthy readers to the appalling poverty of workers in factories
and mines. A returning plantation owner from America was quoted as saying, "I have always thought myself
disgraced by being the owner of slaves, but never in the West Indies did we think it possible for any human
being to be so cruel as to require a child of nine years to work twelve and a half hours a day." Thus, the
campaign to improve worker conditions was connected to the previous century's successful abolition of slavery.
Charles Dickens, a novelist, was especially active in attacking the evils of child labor in his novels
Oliver Twist and David Copperfield. He also attacked the callous attitude of the wealthy in a character called
"Mister Scrooge," in his novel, A Christmas Carol. In France, Victor Hugo's Les Miserables revealed the misery
of French workers.
In 1831, the British Parliament agreed to begin investigating factory and mine conditions. Capitalists
and the new middle class opposed reforms-because they claimed government should not interfere in business.
Yet, the findings of the investigators shocked even those who were opposed to reform. A cotton-mill worker told
the parliamentary inquiry how the workday of his family lasted from six in the morning until half past eight at
night. His wife and children also worked in the factory. He and his wife "cried often when we have given them.
children) the little food we had to give them; we had to shake them, or they would have fallen asleep with the
food in their mouths."
A 17-year old girl described her work in a coal mine. She crawled on her hands and knees to pull a cart
loaded with coal through the narrow mine shafts. She could not stand up. She worked for twelve hours every
day.
Gains for Workers. The British Parliament decided to act after these investigations. It passed a number
of laws in the late 1800s which greatly improved the workers conditions, and banned the use of women and
children in mines.
Between 1870 and 1914, the conditions of industrial workers improved greatly due to these labor laws.
Good working conditions improved the productivity of workers and made goods cheaper. Gradually, employers
came to realize that workers were more productive in a safer, healthier environment. Factories were made safer
and more sanitary. When employers refused to make improvements, governments passed laws to ensure better
conditions. Britain, Germany, and France led in making factory codes to set minimum standards for wages,
safety and sanitary conditions.
Governments also took other steps to ensure workers futures. They passed laws to protect workers' in
case of unemployment, accidents, sickness and old age. By 1914, workers enjoyed a much better standard of
living than workers had 100 years ago. They could look forward to a better future for their children. By then,
free public schools had been set up in all the industrial countries. Moreover, living conditions in cities had
improved.
The first capitalist nations like Britain and the United States voluntarily modified the ugly face of their
industrialization through the passage of workers' laws. Rise of Labor Unions. Labor unions arose first in Britain.
At first, they drew strong opposition from the government and employers. But gradually, the workers won their
battle to be allowed to organize into unions.
In Britain, skilled workers were able to bargain with employers and lawmakers. By 1868, over 100,000
workers belonged to trade (skilled labor) unions. Two years later, unskilled workers won the same rights as the
skilled workers. By the end of the century, union membership had grown rapidly in Britain and in the rest of
Europe, and the United States. By the early 1900s, even the poor had the money to spend on the products of the
industries they worked for. Living conditions had improved for industrial Workers.
Prepared by: Jessa H. Martinete