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FOREWORD JG:FOREWORD JG 28/10/08 11:49 Page 1

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Foreword Welcome to the 2008 revision of the Eighth Edition of the Piling
Handbook. ArcelorMittal is the world’s number one steel company
with 310,000 employees in more than 60 countries, and a crude
steel production of 116 million tonnes in 2007, representing
around 10% of world steel output. ArcelorMittal is also the world’s
largest producer of hot rolled steel sheet piles (HRSSP), and
market leader in foundation solutions. From its plants in
Luxembourg, ArcelorMittal Belval and Differdange produces
around 680,000 tonnes of steel sheet piles that are sold
worldwide through ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS (Rails, Piles &
Special Sections). Since 2006 ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS has
integrated the sales of Dabrowa sheet piles produced in Poland,
and starting 2008, after a major investment, the new sheet pile
sections from Rodange in Luxembourg. This gives ArcelorMittal a
production capacity of around 1 million tonnes of foundation
solutions, which includes cold rolled steel sheet piles and
combined wall systems.

In addition to offering the most comprehensive ranges of steel

sheet piling, ArcelorMittal recognises the high importance of
technical support for its foundation products. The Piling
Handbook is intended to assist design engineers in their daily
work and act as a reference book for the more experienced
engineers. The eighth edition of the Handbook includes
substantial updates, particularly in areas such as Sealants, Noise
& Vibration and Installation. The 2008 revision contains all the new
sections available beginning of the second semester of 2008. This
handbook reflects the dynamism of the foundations industry, and
is evidence of ArcelorMittal's commitment to customer support.
ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS’ mission is to develop excellent
working partnerships with its customers in order to consolidate its
leadership in sheet piling technology, and remain the preferred
supplier in the marketplace.

We sincerely trust that you will find this Handbook a valuable and
most useful document, and we look forward to working together
with you on many successful projects around the world.

Emile Reuter Boris Even

Vice President Commercial Director
Long Carbon Europe ArcelorMittal Commercial Rails,
Head of Sales and Marketing of Piles and Special Sections
Rails, Piles and Special Sections

© ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS 2008

Foreword
 1

information
Product
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Contents Page
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Typical uses 1
1.3 Steel qualities 3
1.4 Product tolerances 4
1.5 Section profiles 4
1.6 Maximum and minimum lengths 5
1.7 Interlocking options 5
1.8 Handling holes 5
1.9 Plating to increase section modulus 6
1.10 Plating to enhance durability 6
1.11 Corners and junctions 6
1.12 Stacking of sheet piles 8
1.13 Z profile piles 9
1.13.1 Z profile piles – Dimensions & properties 9
1.13.2 Interlocking in pairs 15
1.13.3 Crimping and welding of interlocks 15
1.13.4 Pile form 16
1.13.5 Circular construction 16
1.14 U profile piles 17
1.14.1 U profile piles – Dimensions & properties 17
1.14.2 Interlocking in pairs 24
1.14.3 Crimping and welding of interlocks 25
1.14.4 Pile form 25
1.14.5 Circular construction 26
1.15 Straight web piles 27
1.15.1 AS-500 straight web piles – Dimensions
& properties 27
1.16 Combined wall systems 29
1.16.1 HZ/AZ pile system 29
1.16.2 Box piles 31
1.16.3 Special arrangements – CAZ + AZ combinations 37
1.16.4 Combined walls with U-type sections 38
1.16.5 Load bearing foundations 40
1.16.6 Jagged walls 42
1.17 Cold formed sheet piles 43
1.17.1 PAL and PAU sections – Dimensions & properties 44
1.17.2 PAZ sections – Dimensions & properties 45
1.17.3 Trench sheet sections 47
1.17.4 Threading options 47
1.17.5 Sheet pile assembly 48
1.17.6 Thickness 49
1.17.7 Handling holes 49
1.17.8 Tolerances in accordance with EN 10249 Part 2 50
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.1 Introduction Steel sheet piling is used in many types of temporary works and
permanent structures. The sections are designed to provide the
maximum strength and durability at the lowest possible weight
consistent with good driving qualities. The design of the section
interlocks facilitates pitching and driving and results in a
continuous wall with a series of closely fitting joints.
A comprehensive range of sections in both Z and U forms with a
wide range of sizes and weights is obtainable in various different
grades of steel which enables the most economic choice to be
made to suit the nature and requirements of any given contract.
For applications where corrosion is an issue, sections with
minimum thickness can be delivered to maximise the effective life
of the structure. The usual requirements for minimum overall
thickness of 10 mm, 12 mm or 1/2 inch can be met.
Corner and junction piles are available to suit all requirements.

1.2 Typical uses River control structures and flood defence

Steel sheet piling has traditionally been used for the support and
protection of river banks, lock and sluice construction, and flood
protection. Ease of use, length of life and the ability to be driven
through water make piles the obvious choice.
Ports and harbours
Steel sheet piling is a tried and tested material to construct quay
walls speedily and economically. Steel sheet piles can be
designed to cater for heavy vertical loads and large bending
moments.
Pumping stations
Historically used as temporary support for the construction of
pumping stations, sheet piling can be easily designed as the
permanent structure with substantial savings in time and cost.
Although pumping stations tend to be rectangular, circular
construction should be considered as advantages can be gained
from the resulting open structure.
Bridge abutments
Abutments formed from sheet piles are most cost effective in
situations when a piled foundation is required to support the
bridge or where speed of construction is critical. Sheet piling can
act as both foundation and abutment and can be driven in a
single operation, requiring a minimum of space and time for
construction.
Road widening retaining walls
Key requirements in road widening include minimised land take
and speed of construction – particularly in lane rental situations.
Steel sheet piling provides these and eliminates the need for soil
excavation and disposal.
Chapter 1/1
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Basements
Sheet piling is an ideal material for constructing basement walls
as it requires minimal construction width. Its properties are fully
utilised in both the temporary and permanent cases and it offers
significant cost and programme savings. Sheet piles can also
support vertical loads from the structure above.
Underground car parks
One specific form of basement where steel sheet piling has been
found to be particularly effective is for the creation of underground
car parks. The fact that steel sheet piles can be driven tight
against the boundaries of the site and the wall itself has minimum
thickness means that the area available for cars is maximised and
the cost per bay is minimised.
Containment barriers
Sealed sheet piling is an effective means for the containment of
contaminated land. A range of proprietary sealants is available to
suit particular conditions where extremely low permeability is
required.
Load bearing foundations
Steel sheet piling can be combined with special corner profiles to
form small diameter closed boxes which are ideally suited for the
construction of load bearing foundations. Developed for use as a
support system for motorway sign gantries, the concept has also
been used to create foundation piles for bridges.
Temporary works
For construction projects where a supported excavation is
required, steel sheet piling should be the first choice. The
fundamental properties of strength and ease of use - which steel
offers - are fully utilised in temporary works. The ability to extract
and re-use sheet piles makes them an effective design solution.
However, significant cost reductions and programme savings can
be achieved by designing the temporary sheet pile structure as
the permanent works.

Chapter 1/2
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.3 Steel qualities Hot rolled steel piling is supplied to EN 10248 Part 1 to the grade
designations detailed below.
Table 1.3.1 Steel qualities - Hot rolled steel piles
Grade Min Yield Point* Min. Tensile strength* Minimum elongation
on a gauge length of L0
= 5.65 √S0
N/mm2 N/mm2 %
S 240 GP 240 340 26
S 270 GP 270 410 24
S 320 GP 320 440 23
S 355 GP 355 480 22
S 390 GP 390 490 20
S 430 GP 430 510 19
Mill specification
S 460 AP 460 550 17

* The values in the table apply to longitudinal test pieces for the tensile test.
S 460 AP (Mill specification) is also available but please contact
ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS before specifying.

Steel grades with increased copper content offering higher

durability in the splash zone as discussed in the Durability chapter
can be supplied upon request.
Steel grades compliant with other standards (i.e. ASTM, JIS ) and
special steels are also available by prior arrangement.
Cold formed sheet piling is supplied to EN10249 Part 1 to the
grade definitions detailed below.
Table 1.3.2 Steel qualities - Cold formed steel piles
Grade Min. yield Tensile Min. Former references
strength strength elongation
France Germany U.K. Belgium
N /mm2 N /mm2 %
S 235 JRC 235 340 - 470 26 E 24-2 St 37-2 40 B AE 235-B
S 275 JRC 275 410 - 560 22 E 28-2 St 44-2 43 B AE 275-B
S 355 JOC 355 490 - 630 22 E 36-3 St 52-3 U 50 C AE 335-C

Chapter 1/3
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.4 Product tolerances
Hot rolled sheet piling products are supplied to EN 10248 Part 2
unless an alternative standard (i.e. ASTM, JIS ) is specified.
Fig 1.4

t
Z piles U piles Straight web piles H piles

t
t

s s t

h h h
s
b
b
b b

Table 1.4
Height Width
Single piles Interlocked piles
Z piles h < 200mm 200mm < h < 300mm h > 300mm ± 2% b ± 3% nominal width
± 5mm ± 6mm ± 7mm
U piles h < 200mm h > 200mm ± 2% b ± 3% nominal width
± 4mm ± 5mm
H piles h < 500mm h > 500mm ± 2% b ± 3% nominal width
± 5mm ± 7mm

Wall thickness
Z piles t ≤ 8.5 mm t > 8.5 mm s ≤ 8.5 mm s > 8.5 mm
± 0.5 mm ±6% ± 0.5 mm ±6%
U piles t ≤ 8.5 mm t > 8.5mm s ≤ 8.5 mm s > 8.5mm
± 0.5 mm ±6% ± 0.5 mm ±6%
H piles t ≤ 12.5 mm t > 12.5 mm s ≤ 12.5 mm s > 12.5 mm
+2 / -1 mm +2.5 / -1.5 mm +2 / -1 mm +2.5 / -1.5 mm
Straight t ≤ 8.5 mm t > 8.5mm
web piles ± 0.5 mm ±6%

All sections

Straightness Length Squareness of cut Mass

≤ 0.2 % of pile length ± 200 mm ±2%b ±5%

Cold formed tolerances can be found on page 1/50

1.5 Section profiles Drawings of all the pile sections available from ArcelorMittal are
located at the following website
www.arcelormittal.com/sheetpiling
Sheet pile sections are subject to periodic review and minor
changes to the profile may result. It is, therefore, recommended
that users visit the ArcelorMittal Sheet Piling website to ensure
that they are using the latest pile profiles.
Chapter 1/4
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.6 Maximum and Minimum lengths
Steel sheet piling can be supplied in lengths up to 31 m (HZ piles
are available up to 33m long) but particular care will be required
when handling long lengths of the lighter sections.
Should piles be needed which are longer than 31m, splicing to
create the required length may be carried out on site.
When short piles are to be supplied direct from the mill it may be
advantageous to order them in multiples of the required length and
in excess of 6m long with cutting to length being carried out on site.
When considering piles at either end of the length range, we
recommend that contact is made with one of our representatives
to discuss availability.
Following table summarizes the maximum rolling lengths of the
different sections:
Section AZ AU, PU PU-R GU sp1) GU dp1) AS 500 HZ RH / RZ OMEGA 18 C9 / C14 DELTA 13
31 31 24 24 22 31 33 24 16 18 17
1) sp = single pile, dp = double pile

1.7 Interlocking options

AZ, AU, PU, PU-R and GU sheet piles feature Larssen interlocks
in accordance with EN 10248. AZ, AU, PU and PU-R can be
interlocked together.
The theoretical interlock swing of ArcelorMittal’s Larssen
interlock is 5°.

1.8 Handling holes Sheet pile sections are normally supplied without handling holes.
If requested, they can be provided as illustrated below on the
centreline of the section.
Table 1.8
Dia Y
50mm 200mm
50mm 250mm
40mm 75mm
40mm 150mm
40mm 300mm
2 / in
12 9 in (Dia = 63.5mm; Y = 230mm)

Fig 1.8
Z Sections U Sections Straight Web Sections HZ Sections

Y Y Y Y

Chapter 1/5
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.9 Plating to increase section modulus
When increased section modulus or inertia is required to cater for
high bending moments over part of the pile length, it may be
economic to attach appropriately sized plates to the pans of the
piles to locally enhance the engineering properties of the section.
It is generally economic to consider this option rather than just
selecting a larger pile section when the pile is very long or when
the pile is at the top of the range anyway.

1.10 Plating to enhance durability

Plates can be attached to Z and U piles to provide increased
durability to parts of the pile where corrosion activity may be high.
This may be the case where the piles are to be installed in a
facility where increased corrosion is expected. The economics of
providing additional sacrificial steel instead of a heavier pile
section will depend upon individual conditions but when the high
corrosion effect is only expected over a short length of the pile,
the plating option will very often prove to be the more cost
effective solution.

1.11 Corners and junctions

The diagram below illustrates the comprehensive range of hot
rolled special sections that is available for use with ArcelorMittal
hot rolled sheet piles to create corners and junctions (except for
GU sections). The special section is attached to the main sheet
pile by welding in accordance with EN12063 and is set back from
the top of the pile by 200mm to facilitate driving.
Corner profiles can also be formed by
• bending single rolled sections for changes in direction up to 25°;
• combining two single bent piles for angles up to 50°;
• cutting the piles and welding them together in the required
orientation.
A comprehensive range of junction piles can be formed by
welding a C9 hot rolled section onto the main sheet pile at the
appropriate location and angle.
One advantage that the special connector has over the more
traditional fabricated corner or junction section is that once a
fabricated pile is formed it cannot easily be changed. In the case
of temporary works, the rolled corners or junctions can be
tacked in place before driving and burned off after extraction to
leave a serviceable pile section and a junction or corner for use
elsewhere. In the case of the Omega 18 and Delta 13 profiles,
the angle is variable and enables corners to be formed at angles
other than 90°.

Chapter 1/6
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Fig 1.11a

-
OMEGA 18 C 14
Mass ~ 18.0 kg/m Mass ~ 14.4 kg/m

C9 DELTA 13

-
Mass ~ 9.3 kg/m Mass ~ 13.1 kg/m

Fig 1.11b

2051 2071

2158

2061 2151

Technical assistance is available on request to ascertain what is

required for a particular project.
Drawings of the various rolled profiles may be downloaded from
the following website www.arcelormittal.com/sheetpiling.
Please note that:
- generally bent corners will be supplied as single piles.
- corner sections (C9, C14, Delta13, Omerga18) are not
compatible with GU sections. Contact our technical department
for alternative solutions.
Chapter 1/7
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Product information
1.12 Stacking of sheet piles
Fig 1.12

When stacking piles on site it is recommended that they are

placed on timber or steel spacers – to allow straps or chains to be
placed around the bundles – and on a level surface to prevent the
piles being distorted. The spacers should be placed at regular
intervals up to 4m apart along the length of the piles and it is
recommended that the overhang is limited to 1.5m. It is
recommended that pile bundles are stacked not more than 4 high
to prevent excessive loads on the bottom tier.
Bundles should ideally be staggered in plan - as illustrated above
– to provide stability.

Chapter 1/8
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.13 Z profile piles
1.13.1 Dimensions and properties
t
s

b b

Table 1.13.1a
Section Width Height Thickness Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Static Plastic Class*
area of inertia section moment section

S 240 GP
S 270 GP
S 320 GP
S 355 GP
S 390 GP
S 430 GP
S 460 AP
modulus modulus
b h t s kg/m of kg/m2
mm mm mm mm cm2/m single pile of wall cm4/m cm3/m cm3/m cm3/m
AZ 12 670 302 8.5 8.5 126 66.1 99 18140 1200 705 1409 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
AZ 13 670 303 9.5 9.5 137 72.0 107 19700 1300 765 1528 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
AZ 13 10/10 670 304 10.0 10.0 143 75.2 112 20480 1350 795 1589 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
AZ 14 670 304 10.5 10.5 149 78.3 117 21300 1400 825 1651 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
AZ 17 630 379 8.5 8.5 138 68.4 109 31580 1665 970 1944 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
AZ 18 630 380 9.5 9.5 150 74.4 118 34200 1800 1050 2104 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
AZ 18 10/10 630 381 10.0 10.0 157 77.8 123 35540 1870 1095 2189 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
AZ 19 630 381 10.5 10.5 164 81.0 129 36980 1940 1140 2275 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
AZ 25 630 426 12.0 11.2 185 91.5 145 52250 2455 1435 2873 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 26 630 427 13.0 12.2 198 97.8 155 55510 2600 1530 3059 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 28 630 428 14.0 13.2 211 104.4 166 58940 2755 1625 3252 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 46 580 481 18.0 14.0 291 132.6 229 110450 4595 2650 5295 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 48 580 482 19.0 15.0 307 139.6 241 115670 4800 2775 5553 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 50 580 483 20.0 16.0 322 146.7 253 121060 5015 2910 5816 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

AZ-700 and AZ-770

AZ 12-770 770 344 8.5 8.5 120 72.6 94 21430 1245 740 1480 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
AZ 13-770 770 344 9.0 9.0 126 76.1 99 22360 1300 775 1546 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
AZ 14-770 770 345 9.5 9.5 132 79.5 103 23300 1355 805 1611 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
AZ 14-770 10/10 770 345 10.0 10.0 137 82.9 108 24240 1405 840 1677 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
AZ 17-700 700 420 8.5 8.5 133 73.1 104 36230 1730 1015 2027 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
AZ 18-700 700 420 9.0 9.0 139 76.5 109 37800 1800 1060 2116 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
AZ 19-700 700 421 9.5 9.5 146 80.0 114 39380 1870 1105 2206 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
AZ 20-700 700 421 10.0 10.0 152 83.5 119 40960 1945 1150 2296 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
AZ 24-700 700 459 11.2 11.2 174 95.7 137 55820 2430 1435 2867 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
AZ 26-700 700 460 12.2 12.2 187 102.9 147 59720 2600 1535 3070 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 28-700 700 461 13.2 13.2 200 110.0 157 63620 2760 1635 3273 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 37-700 700 499 17.0 12.2 226 124.2 177 92400 3705 2130 4260 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 39-700 700 500 18.0 13.2 240 131.9 188 97500 3900 2250 4500 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
AZ 41-700 700 501 19.0 14.2 254 139.5 199 102610 4095 2370 4745 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
*: Classification according to EN 1993-5.
Class 1 is obtained by verification of the rotation capacity for a class-2 cross-section.
A set of tables with all the data required for design in accordance with EN 1993-5 is available from our Technical Department.
Chapter 1/9
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Z profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.13.1b
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m
AZ 12
8.5
8.5
302

y y
45.4° Per S 84.2 66.1 12160 805 12.02 0.83
~360
Per D 168.4 132.2 24320 1610 12.02 1.65
1340
Per m of wall 125.7 98.7 18140 1200 12.02 1.23
AZ 13
9.5
9.5
303

y y
45.4° Per S 91.7 72.0 13200 870 11.99 0.83
~360
Per D 183.4 144.0 26400 1740 11.99 1.65
1340
Per m of wall 136.9 107.5 19700 1300 11.99 1.23
AZ 14
10.5
10.5
304

y y
45.4° Per S 99.7 78.3 14270 940 11.96 0.83
~360
Per D 199.4 156.6 28540 1880 11.96 1.65
1340
Per m of wall 148.9 116.9 21300 1400 11.96 1.23

AZ 17
8.5
8.5
379

y y
55.4° ~348 Per S 87.1 68.4 19900 1050 15.12 0.86
Per D 174.2 136.8 39800 2100 15.12 1.71
1260
Per m of wall 138.3 108.6 31580 1665 15.12 1.35
AZ 18
9.5
9.5
380

y y
55.4° ~348 Per S 94.8 74.4 21540 1135 15.07 0.86
Per D 189.6 148.8 43080 2270 15.07 1.71
1260
Per m of wall 150.4 118.1 34200 1800 15.07 1.35
AZ 19
10.5
10.5
381

y y
55.4° ~348 Per S 103.2 81.0 23300 1225 15.03 0.86
Per D 206.4 162.0 46600 2445 15.03 1.71
1260
Per m of wall 163.8 128.6 36980 1940 15.03 1.35
* One side, excluding inside of interlocks.

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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Z profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.13.1c
Section b S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m

AZ 25 12.0
11.2
426

y y
b
58.5° ~347 Per S 116.6 91.5 32910 1545 16.80 0.90
Per D 233.2 183.0 65820 3090 16.80 1.78
1260
Per m of wall 185.0 145.2 52250 2455 16.80 1.41
AZ 26 13.0
12.2
427

y y
58.5° ~347 Per S 124.6 97.8 34970 1640 16.75 0.90
b
Per D 249.2 195.6 69940 3280 16.75 1.78
1260
Per m of wall 197.80 155.2 55510 2600 16.75 1.41
AZ 28 14.0
13.2
428

y y
58.5° ~347 Per S 133.0 104.4 37130 1735 16.71 0.90
Per D 266.0 208.8 74260 3470 16.71 1.78
1260
Per m of wall 211.1 165.7 58940 2755 16.71 1.41

AZ 46 18.0
14.0
481

y y
71.5° ~387 Per S 168.9 132.6 64060 2665 19.48 0.95
Per D 337.8 265.2 128120 5330 19.48 1.89
1160
Per m of wall 291.2 228.6 110450 4595 19.48 1.63
AZ 48 19.0
15.0
482

y y
71.5° ~387 Per S 177.8 139.6 67090 2785 19.43 0.95
Per D 355.6 279.2 134180 5570 19.43 1.89
1160
Per m of wall 306.5 240.6 115670 4800 19.43 1.63
AZ 50 20.0
16.0
483

y y
71.5° ~387 Per S 186.9 146.7 70215 2910 19.38 0.95
Per D 373.8 293.4 140430 5815 19.38 1.89
1160
Per m of wall 322.2 252.9 121060 5015 19.38 1.63
* One side, excluding inside of interlocks.

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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Z profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.13.1d
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm 3
cm m2/m

AZ 13 10/10
10.0
10.0
303.5

y y
45.4°
~360 Per S 95.8 75.2 13720 905 11.97 0.83
Per D 191.6 150.4 27440 1810 11.97 1.65
1340
Per m of wall 143.0 112.2 20480 1350 11.97 1.23
AZ 18 10/10 10.0
10.0
380.5

y y
55.4° ~348 Per S 99.1 77.8 22390 1175 15.04 0.86
Per D 198.1 155.5 44790 2355 15.04 1.71
1260
Per m of wall 157.2 123.4 35540 1870 15.04 1.35

AZ 12-770
8.5
8.5
343.5

y y
39.5° ~346 Per S 92.5 72.6 16500 960 13.36 0.93
Per D 185.0 145.2 33000 1920 13.36 1.85
1540
Per m of wall 120.1 94.3 21430 1245 13.36 1.20
AZ 13-770
9.0
9.0
344.0

y y
39.5° ~346 Per S 96.9 76.1 17220 1000 13.33 0.93
Per D 193.8 152.1 34440 2000 13.33 1.85
1540
Per m of wall 125.8 98.8 22360 1300 13.33 1.20
AZ 14-770
9.5
9.5
344.5

y y
39.5° ~346 Per S 101.3 79.5 17940 1040 13.31 0.93
Per D 202.6 159.0 35890 2085 13.31 1.85
1540
Per m of wall 131.5 103.2 23300 1355 13.31 1.20
AZ 14-770-10/10
10.0
10.0
345

y y
39.5° ~346 Per S 105.6 82.9 18670 1085 13.30 0.93
Per D 211.2 165.8 37330 2165 13.30 1.85
1540
Per m of wall 137.2 107.7 24240 1405 13.30 1.20
* One side, excluding inside of interlocks.

Chapter 1/12
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 10/11/08 16:32 Page 15

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Z profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.13.1e
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m

AZ 17 - 700 8.5
8.5
419.5

y y
51.2° ~346
Per S 93.1 73.1 25360 1210 16.50 0.93
1400
Per D 186.2 146.2 50720 2420 16.50 1.86
Per m of wall 133.0 104.4 36230 1730 16.50 1.33
AZ 18 - 700 9.0
9.0
420

y y
51.2° ~346 Per S 97.5 76.5 26460 1260 16.50 0.93
Per D 194.9 153.0 52920 2520 16.50 1.86
1400
Per m of wall 139.2 109.3 37800 1800 16.50 1.33
AZ 19 - 700 9.5
9.5
420.5

y y
51.2° ~346 Per S 101.9 80.0 27560 1310 16.50 0.93
Per D 203.8 160.0 55130 2620 16.50 1.86
1400
Per m of wall 145.6 114.3 39380 1870 16.50 1.33
AZ 20 - 700 10.0
10.0
421

y y
51.2° ~346 Per S 106.4 83.5 28670 1360 16.40 0.93
Per D 212.8 167.0 57340 2725 16.40 1.86
1400
Per m of wall 152.0 119.3 40960 1945 16.40 1.33
* One side, excluding inside of interlocks.

Chapter 1/13
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:34 Page 16

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Z profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.13.1f
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm 3
cm m2/m

AZ 24-700 11.2
11.2

y y
459

55.2° ~361
Per S 121.9 95.7 39080 1700 17.90 0.97
Per D 243.8 191.4 78150 3405 17.90 1.93
1400
Per m of wall 174.1 136.7 55820 2430 17.90 1.38
AZ 26-700 12.2
12.2

y y
460

55.2° ~361
Per S 131.0 102.9 41800 1815 17.86 0.97
Per D 262.1 205.7 83610 3635 17.86 1.93
1400
Per m of wall 187.2 146.9 59720 2600 17.86 1.38
AZ 28-700 13.2
13.2

y y
461

55.2° ~361 Per S 140.2 110.0 44530 1930 17.83 0.97

Per D 280.3 220.1 89070 3865 17.83 1.93
1400
Per m of wall 200.2 157.2 63620 2760 17.83 1.38

AZ 37-700 13.3 17.0

12.2
499

y y
63.2° ~426 Per S 158.2 124.2 64680 2590 20.22 1.03
13.3 Per D 316.4 248.4 129350 5185 20.22 2.04
1400
Per m of wall 226.0 177.4 92400 3705 20.22 1.46
AZ 39-700 18.0
14.3

13.2
500

y y
63.2° ~426 Per S 168.0 131.9 68250 2730 20.16 1.03
14.3 Per D 336.0 263.7 136500 5460 20.16 2.04
1400
Per m of wall 240.0 188.4 97500 3900 20.16 1.46
AZ 41-700 15.3 19.0

14.2
501

y y
63.2° ~426 Per S 177.8 139.5 71830 2865 20.10 1.03
15.3 Per D 355.5 279.1 143650 5735 20.10 2.04
1400
Per m of wall 254.0 199.4 102610 4095 20.10 1.46
* One side, excluding inside of interlocks.

Chapter 1/14
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:34 Page 17

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.13.2 Interlocking in pairs
AZ piles are normally supplied in pairs which saves time in
handling and pitching. They can however, be supplied singly by
prior arrangement but the purchaser must be warned that the
bending strength of single AZ piles, especially the lighter ones, is
very low and damage by plastic deformation under self-weight
can easily occur during handling and driving.

1.13.3 Crimping and welding of the interlocks

Crimping or welding of AZ piles is not necessary to guarantee the
strength of the piled wall, but can be of benefit during handling

A
and driving.
S Fig 1.13.3 S

AZ-Section AZ-Section Standard

Standard Crimping
Crimping
Pile length < 6.0m Pile length ≥ 6.0m
3 crimping points every 1,80 m = 1,7 points/m 6 crimping points every 3,6 m = 1,7 points/m
< 500

< 500
100 100

100 100
Crimping
points
Crimping

700
points
1800

100 100
100 100

3600
2900
1800
100 100

100 100
1800

700

3600

Chapter 1/15
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:34 Page 18

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.13.4 Pile form Piles can be supplied as illustrated.

Fig 1.13.4

Single pile Pos. A Pos. B

Double pile
Form I standard

Double
pile Form II on request

If no particular preference is specified at the time of order, double

piles will be supplied as Form 1.

1.13.5 Circular construction

Steel sheet piling can be driven to form a complete circle without
the need for corner piles. AZ piles have a maximum angle of
deviation of 5°.
The following table gives the approximate minimum diameters of
circular cofferdam which can be constructed using various sheet
pile sections. The diameters are only intended to be for guidance
as the actual interlock deviation achieved will be a function of the
pile length, the pile section, the penetration required. Smaller
diameters can be achieved by introducing bent corner piles, but
larger diameters will result if pairs of piles that have been crimped
or welded are used.
Table 1.13.5
Section Minimum Approx. min diameter to
number of internal face of wall
single piles
used
Angle = 5° m
AZ 12, AZ 13, AZ 13/10/10, AZ 14 72 15.1
AZ 17, AZ 18, AZ 18/10/10, AZ 19 72 14.1
AZ 25, AZ 26, AZ 28 72 14.0
AZ 46, AZ 48, AZ 50 72 12.8
AZ 12-770, AZ 13-770,
AZ 14-770, AZ 14-770-10/10 72 17.3
AZ 17-700, AZ 18-700, AZ 19-700,
AZ 20-700 72 15.6
AZ 24-700, AZ 26-700, AZ 28-700 72 15.6
AZ 37-700, AZ 39-700, AZ 41-700 72 15.5

Contact our technical representatives to obtain data for situations

where plated box piles, double box piles or HZ systems are to be used.
Chapter 1/16
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:34 Page 19

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.14 U profile piles
1.14.1 Dimensions and properties

Table 1.14.1a
Section Width Height Thickness Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Static Plastic Class*
area of inertia section moment section

S 240 GP
S 270 GP
S 320 GP
S 355 GP
S 390 GP
S 430 GP
modulus modulus

S 460 AP
b h t s kg/m of kg/m2
mm mm mm mm cm2/m single pile of wall cm4/m cm3/m cm3/m cm3/m

AU sections
AU 14 750 408 10.0 8.3 132 77.9 104 28680 1405 820 1663 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
AU 16 750 411 11.5 9.3 147 86.3 115 32850 1600 935 1891 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
AU 17 750 412 12.0 9.7 151 89.0 119 34270 1665 975 1968 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
AU 18 750 441 10.5 9.1 150 88.5 118 39300 1780 1030 2082 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
AU 20 750 444 12.0 10.0 165 96.9 129 44440 2000 1155 2339 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
AU 21 750 445 12.5 10.3 169 99.7 133 46180 2075 1200 2423 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
AU 23 750 447 13.0 9.5 173 102.1 136 50700 2270 1285 2600 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
AU 25 750 450 14.5 10.2 188 110.4 147 56240 2500 1420 2866 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
AU 26 750 451 15.0 10.5 192 113.2 151 58140 2580 1465 2955 2 2 2 2 2 2 3

PU sections
PU 12 600 360 9.8 9.0 140 66.1 110 21600 1200 715 1457 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
PU 12 10/10 600 360 10.0 10.0 148 69.6 116 22580 1255 755 1535 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PU 18 - 1.0 600 430 10.2 8.4 154 72.6 121 35950 1670 980 1988 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
PU 18 600 430 11.2 9.0 163 76.9 128 38650 1800 1055 2134 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PU 22 - 1.0 600 450 11.1 9.0 174 81.9 137 46380 2060 1195 2422 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PU 22 600 450 12.1 9.5 183 86.1 144 49460 2200 1275 2580 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PU 28 - 1.0 600 452 14.2 9.7 207 97.4 162 60580 2680 1525 3087 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PU 28 600 454 15.2 10.1 216 101.8 170 64460 2840 1620 3269 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PU 32 600 452 19.5 11.0 242 114.1 190 72320 3200 1825 3687 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

The moment of inertia and section moduli values given assume correct shear transfer across the interlock.
*: Classification according to EN 1993-5.
Class 1 is obtained by verification of the rotation capacity for a class 2 cross-section.
A set of tables with all the data required for design in accordance with EN 1993-5 is available from our Technical
Department.

Chapter 1/17
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:34 Page 20

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
U profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.14.1a continued
Section Width Height Thickness Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Static Plastic Class*
area of inertia section moment section

S 240 GP
S 270 GP
S 320 GP
S 355 GP
S 390 GP
S 430 GP
modulus modulus

S 460 AP
b h t s kg/m of kg/m2
mm mm mm mm cm2/m single pile of wall cm4/m cm3/m cm3/m cm3/m

PU-R sections
PU 8R 600 280 7.5 6.9 103 48.7 81 10830 775 445 905 3 3 4 4 4 4 -
PU 9R 600 360 7.0 6.4 105 49.5 82 16930 940 545 1115 3 3 4 4 4 4 -
PU 10R 600 360 8.0 7.0 114 53.8 90 18960 1055 610 1245 3 3 3 3 3 4 -
PU 11R 600 360 9.0 7.6 123 58.1 97 20960 1165 675 1370 2 2 3 3 3 3 -
PU 13R 675 400 10.0 7.4 124 65.6 97 25690 1285 750 1515 2 2 2 2 3 3 -
PU 14R 675 400 11.0 8.0 133 70.5 104 28000 1400 815 1655 2 2 2 2 2 2 -
PU 15R 675 400 12.0 8.6 142 75.4 112 30290 1515 885 1790 2 2 2 2 2 2 -

GU sections
GU 7-600 600 309 7.5 6.4 100 47.0 78 11350 735 435 890 2 2 3 3 - - -
GU 8-600 600 309 8.5 7.1 110 51.8 86 12690 820 485 995 2 2 2 2 - - -
GU 9-600 600 309 9.5 7.9 121 57.0 95 14060 910 540 1105 2 2 2 2 - - -
GU 12-500 500 340 9.0 8.5 144 56.6 113 19640 1155 680 1390 2 2 2 2 - - -
GU 13-500 500 340 10.0 9.0 155 60.8 122 21390 1260 740 1515 2 2 2 2 - - -
GU 15-500 500 340 12.0 10.0 177 69.3 139 24810 1460 855 1755 2 2 2 2 - - -
GU 16-400 400 290 12.7 9.4 197 62.0 155 22580 1560 885 1815 2 2 2 2 - - -
GU 18-400 400 292 15.0 9.7 221 69.3 173 26090 1785 1015 2080 2 2 2 2 - - -

The moment of inertia and section moduli values given assume correct shear transfer across the interlock.
*: Classification according to EN 1993-5.
Class 1 is obtained by verification of the rotation capacity for a class 2 cross-section.
A set of tables with all the data required for design in accordance with EN 1993-5 is available from our Technical
Department.

Chapter 1/18
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:34 Page 21

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
U profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.14.1b
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
T = Triple pile modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m
AU 14 47.8° 10.0
8.3
y' y' Per S 99.2 77.9 6590 457 8.15 0.96
155.8 2110
122.6
408

y
y'' ~303
y
y'' Per D 198.5 43020 14.73 1.91
40.9
Per T 297.7 233.7 59550 2435 14.15 2.86
103.8 1405
1500
Per m of wall 132.3 28680 14.73 1.27
AU 16 47.8° 11.5
9.3
y' y'
Per S 109.9 86.3 7110 481 8.04 0.96
y 126.3
Per D 219.7 172.5 49280 2400 14.98 1.91
411

y
y'' y''
~303 42.1
Per T 329.6 258.7 68080 2750 14.37 2.86
115.0 1600
1500
Per m of wall 146.5 32850 14.98 1.27
AU 17 47.8° 12.0
9.7
y' y' Per S 113.4 89.0 7270 488 8.01 0.96
127.4
412

178.1 2495
y y
y'' ~303
y'' Per D 226.9 51400 15.05 1.91
42.5
Per T 340.3 267.2 70960 2855 14.44 2.86
1500
Per m of wall 151.2 118.7 34270 1665 15.05 1.27
AU 18
54.7° 10.5
9.1
y' y' Per S 112.7 88.5 8760 554 8.82 1.01
135.3
441

y
177.0 2670
y
y'' ~336 45.1
y'' Per D 225.5 58950 16.17 2.00
Per T 338.2 265.5 81520 3065 15.53 2.99
1500
Per m of wall 150.3 118.0 39300 1780 16.17 1.33
AU 20 54.7° 12.0
10.0
y' y' Per S 123.4 96.9 9380 579 8.72 1.01
139.3
444

193.8 3000
y y
y'' ~336 y'' Per D 246.9 66660 16.43 2.00
46.4
Per T 370.3 290.7 92010 3425 15.76 2.99
1500
Per m of wall 164.6 129.2 44440 2000 16.43 1.33
AU 21 54.7° 12.5
10.3
y' y' Per S 127.0 99.7 9580 588 8.69 1.01
140.5
199.3 3110
445

y y
y'' y'' Per D 253.9 69270 16.52 2.00
~336 46.8
Per T 380.9 299.0 95560 3545 15.84 2.99
1500
Per m of wall 169.3 132.9 46180 2075 16.52 1.33
AU 23 59.6° 13.0
9.5
y' y' Per S 130.1 102.1 9830 579 8.69 1.03
147.1
447

y''
y y
y'' Per D 260.1 204.2 76050 3405 17.10 2.04
~374 49.0
Per T 390.2 306.3 104680 3840 16.38 3.05
1500
Per m of wall 173.4 136.1 50700 2270 17.10 1.36
AU 25 59.6° 14.5
10.2
y' y' Per S 140.6 110.4 10390 601 8.60 1.03
150.3
450

y''
y y
y'' Per D 281.3 220.8 84370 3750 17.32 2.04
~374 50.1
Per T 422.0 331.3 115950 4215 16.58 3.05
1500
Per m of wall 187.5 147.2 56240 2500 17.32 1.36
AU 26 59.6° 15.0
10.5
y' y' Per S 144.2 113.2 10580 608 8.57 1.03
151.3
226.4 3870
451

y''
y y
y'' Per D 288.4 87220 17.39 2.04
~374 50.4
Per T 432.6 339.6 119810 4340 16.64 3.05
150.9 2580
1500
Per m of wall 192.2 58140 17.39 1.36
– S: considered neutral axis y'-y' * One side, excluding inside of interlocks.
– D, wall: considered neutral axis y-y
– T: considered neutral axis y"-y"
Chapter 1/19
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 22

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
U profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.14.1c
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
T = Triple pile modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m
50.4° 9.8
PU 12 9.0
y' y' Per S 84.2 66.1 4500 370 7.31 0.80
360

y 100.2 y
y'' ~258 y'' Per D 168.4 132.2 25920 1440 12.41 1.59
33.4
Per T 252.6 198.3 36060 1690 11.95 2.38
1200 Per m of wall 140.0 110.1 21600 1200 12.41 1.32
PU 12 10/10 50.4° 10.0
10.0
y' y' Per S 88.7 69.6 4600 377 7.20 0.80
100.4
360

y
y''
y
y'' Per D 177.3 139.2 27100 1505 12.36 1.59
~256 33.5
Per T 266.0 208.8 37670 1765 11.90 2.38
1200 Per m of wall 147.8 116.0 22580 1255 12.36 1.32
57.5° 10.2
PU 18-1 8.4
y' y'
y 125.6 y y''
Per S 92.5 72.6 6960 473 8.67 0.87
y''
430

~269 41.9 Per D 185.0 145.2 43140 2005 15.3 1.72

217.8 2330
1200
Per T 277.5 59840 14.69 2.58
Per m of wall 154.2 121.0 35950 1670 15.3 1.43
57.5° 11.2
PU 18 9.0
y' y'
y 127.6 y y''
Per S 98.0 76.9 7220 484 8.58 0.87
y''
430

~269 42.5 Per D 196.0 153.8 46380 2160 15.38 1.72

230.7 2495
1200
Per T 294.0 64240 14.78 2.58
Per m of wall 163.3 128.2 38650 1800 15.38 1.43
62.4° 11.1
PU 22-1 9.0
y' y'
136.2
y y''
81.9 535
y
Per S 104.3 8460 9.01 0.90
y''
450

~297 45.4 Per D 208.7 163.8 55650 2475 16.33 1.79

245.7 2850
1200
Per T 313.0 77020 15.69 2.68
Per m of wall 173.9 136.5 46380 2060 16.33 1.49
PU 22 62.4° 12.1
9.5
y' y'
138.1 Per S 109.7 86.1 8740 546 8.93 0.90
450

y y y''
y''
~297 46.0 Per D 219.5 172.3 59360 2640 16.45 1.79
Per T 329.2 258.4 82060 3025 15.79 2.68
1200
Per m of wall 182.9 143.6 49460 2200 16.45 1.49
68.0° 14.2
PU 28-1.0 9.7
y' y' Per S 124.1 97.4 9740 576 8.86 0.93
y 146.4 y
452

y''
~339 48.8
y'' Per D 248.2 194.8 72700 3215 17.12 1.85
Per T 372.3 292.2 100170 3645 16.40 2.77
1200
Per m of wall 206.8 162.3 60580 2680 17.12 1.54
– S: considered neutral axis y'-y' * One side, excluding inside of interlocks.
– D, wall: considered neutral axis y-y
– T: considered neutral axis y"-y"

Chapter 1/20
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 23

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
U profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.14.1c continued
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
T = Triple pile modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m
68.0° 15.2
PU 28 10.1
y' y'
Per S 129.7 101.8 10070 589 8.81 0.93
y 148.5 y
454

y'' y'' Per D 259.4 203.6 77350 3405 17.27 1.85

~339 49.5
Per T 389.0 305.4 106490 3850 16.55 2.77
1200
Per m of wall 216.1 169.6 64460 2840 17.27 1.54
PU 32 68.1° 19.5
11.0
y' y' Per S 145.4 114.1 10950 633 8.68 0.92
149.4
452

y''
y y
y'' Per D 290.8 228.3 86790 3840 17.28 1.83
~342 49.8
Per T 436.2 342.4 119370 4330 16.54 2.74
1200
Per m of wall 242.0 190.2 72320 3200 17.28 1.52

Table 1.14.1d
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
T = Triple pile modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m

PU 8R 49.5° 7.5
6.9
y' y' Per S 62.0 48.7 2070 200 5.78 0.76
280

y 84.5 y
y'' ~323 28.2
y'' Per D 124.0 97.3 13000 930 10.24 1.51
Per T 186.0 146.0 18030 1070 9.85 2.27
1200
Per m of wall 103.3 81.1 10830 775 10.24 1.26
PU 9R 54.5° 7.0
6.4
y' y'
49.5 285
360

y 102.8 y Per S 63.0 3500 7.45 0.81

y'' y''
~296 34.3 Per D 126.0 98.9 20320 1130 12.70 1.62
1200 Per T 189.1 148.4 28260 1320 12.23 2.42
Per m of wall 105.0 82.5 16930 940 12.70 1.35
PU 10R 54.5° 8.0
7.0
y' y'
53.8 295
360

y 105.8 y Per S 68.5 3700 7.35 0.81

y'' y''
~296 35.3 Per D 137.1 107.6 22750 1265 12.88 1.62
1200 Per T 205.6 161.4 31570 1465 12.39 2.42
Per m of wall 114.2 89.7 18960 1055 12.88 1.35
PU 11R 54.5° 9.0
7.6
y' y'
Per S 74.1 58.1 3890 305 7.25 0.81
360

y 108.3 y
y'' y''
~296 36.1 Per D 148.1 116.3 25150 1395 13.03 1.62
1200
Per T 222.2 174.4 34830 1610 12.52 2.42
Per m of wall 123.4 96.9 20960 1165 13.03 1.35
– S: considered neutral axis y'-y' * One side, excluding inside of interlocks.
– D, wall: considered neutral axis y-y
– T: considered neutral axis y"-y"

Chapter 1/21
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 24

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
U profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.14.1d continued
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
T = Triple pile modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m

PU 13R 49.5° 10.0

7.4
y' y'
400

y 119.6 y Per S 83.6 65.6 5390 385 8.03 0.89

y'' y''
~300 39.9 Per D 167.2 131.2 34680 1735 14.40 1.78
1350 Per T 250.8 196.9 48040 2005 13.84 2.66
Per m of wall 123.8 97.2 25690 1285 14.40 1.32
PU 14R 49.5° 11.0
8.0
y' y'
70.5 395
400

y 121.5 y Per S 89.8 5630 7.92 0.89

y'' y''
~300 40.5 Per D 179.7 141.0 37800 1890 14.51 1.78
1350 Per T 269.5 211.5 52280 2175 13.93 2.66
Per m of wall 133.1 104.5 28000 1400 14.51 1.32
PU 15R 49.5° 12.0
8.6
y' y'
75.4 410
400

y 123.2 y Per S 96.1 5860 7.81 0.89

y'' y''
~300 41.1 Per D 192.1 150.8 40890 2045 14.59 1.78
1350 Per T 288.2 226.2 56470 2340 14.00 2.66
Per m of wall 142.3 111.7 30290 1515 14.59 1.32
– S: considered neutral axis y'-y' * One side, excluding inside of interlocks.
– D, wall: considered neutral axis y-y
– T: considered neutral axis y"-y"

Chapter 1/22
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 25

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
U profile piles - Dimensions and properties
Table 1.14.1e
Section S = Single pile Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Radius of Coating
D = Double pile area of inertia section gyration area*
T = Triple pile modulus
cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 cm m2/m

GU 7-600 42.5° 7.5 6.4

y' y'
Per S 59.8 47.0 2440 230 6.39 0.76
85.5
309

y''
y y
y'' Per D 119.7 94.0 13620 880 10.67 1.51
~249 28.5
Per T 179.5 140.9 18980 1035 10.28 2.27
1200
Per m of wall 99.7 78.3 11350 735 10.67 1.26
GU 8-600 42.5° 8.5 7.1

y' y'
Per S 66.0 51.8 2670 245 6.36 0.76
86.6
309

y y
y''
28.9
y'' Per D 132.0 103.6 15230 985 10.74 1.51
~249
Per T 198.0 155.4 21190 1155 10.35 2.27
1200
Per m of wall 110.0 86.4 12690 820 10.74 1.26
GU 9-600 42.5° 9.5 7.9

y' y'
Per S 72.6 57.0 2900 265 6.32 0.76
87.4
309

y''
y y
y'' Per D 145.2 114.0 16880 1090 10.78 1.51
~249 29.1
Per T 217.8 170.9 23470 1280 10.38 2.27
1200
Per m of wall 121.0 95.0 14060 910 10.78 1.26
GU 12-500 60.0° 9.0
8.5
y' y'
Per S 72.1 56.6 3600 315 7.06 0.73
340

92.9
y''
y y
y'' Per D 144.3 113.2 19640 1155 11.67 1.44
~262 31.0
Per T 216.4 169.9 27390 1365 11.25 2.16
1000
Per m of wall 144.3 113.2 19640 1155 11.67 1.44
GU 13-500 60.0° 10.0
9.0
y' y'
Per S 77.5 60.8 3870 335 7.07 0.73
340

93.8
y''
y y
y'' Per D 155.0 121.7 21390 1260 11.75 1.44
~262 31.3
Per T 232.5 182.5 29810 1480 11.32 2.16
1000
Per m of wall 155.0 121.7 21390 1260 11.75 1.44
GU 15-500 60.0° 12.0
10.0
y' y'
Per S 88.3 69.3 4420 370 7.07 0.73
340

95.1
y''
y y
y'' Per D 176.5 138.6 24810 1460 11.86 1.44
~262 31.7
Per T 264.8 207.9 34550 1715 11.42 2.16
1000
Per m of wall 176.5 138.6 24810 1460 11.86 1.44
GU 16-400 82.1° 12.7
9.4
y' y' Per S 78.9 62.0 2950 265 6.11 0.65
87.8
290

y y
y''
~252 29.3
y'' Per D 157.9 123.9 18060 1245 10.70 1.28
Per T 236.8 185.9 25060 1440 10.29 1.92
800
Per m of wall 197.3 154.9 22580 1560 10.70 1.60
GU 18-400 82.1° 15.0
9.7
y' y' Per S 88.3 69.3 3290 290 6.10 0.65
90.0
292

y y
y''
~252 30.0
y'' Per D 176.7 138.7 20870 1430 10.87 1.28
Per T 265.0 208.0 28920 1645 10.45 1.92
800
Per m of wall 220.8 173.3 26090 1785 10.87 1.60
– S: considered neutral axis y'-y' * One side, excluding inside of interlocks.
– D, wall: considered neutral axis y-y
– T: considered neutral axis y"-y"

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Product information
1.14.2 Interlocking in pairs
U piles are normally supplied as single piles and are easily
handled, stacked and pitched in that form. Subject to prior
arrangement, U piles can be supplied interlocked in pairs to
minimise the number of handling and pitching operations on site.
It should be noted however that when interlocked in pairs, the
resulting shape is asymmetric requiring care when stacking.
When U piles are interlocked prior to delivery in pairs there are
two possible orientations when viewed from the end of the pile
with the lifting hole as illustrated in Fig 1.14.4. The orientation can
be reversed by burning lifting holes at the bottom of the pile and
picking it up using the revised holes.
Development of section modulus
When sheet piles are driven into reasonably competent soils the
longitudinal shear force that develops between the inner and outer
leaves of a pair of U piles as a result of bending is resisted by:
• Friction resulting from the variation of interlock geometry along
the length of a pile
• Friction due to soil particles being forced into the interlocks
during driving
• Embedment of the piles below excavation level to a depth
necessary to create sufficient passive resistance
• Friction at the soil/pile interfaces
• Interaction with walings and capping beams
• The type of the installed sheet pile (single, double, triple)
• The driving method
If the resistance generated by these factors is sufficient to
counteract the longitudinal shear force, the piles will develop full
section modulus.
However, it is advisable, in certain conditions, to connect together
the inner and outer leaves of a wall by crimping or welding the
common interlock to ensure that the necessary resistance to
longitudinal shear is developed. Such conditions arise when:
• The piles are acting in cantilever
• The piles are prevented from penetrating to the design depth of
embedment by rock or hard ground
• The piles are supporting open water or very soft clays and silts;
• The pile interlocks have been lubricated

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Product information
U piles have been in use for almost a century for the construction
of embedded retaining walls and the need for caution when
designing walls in the situations mentioned above is understood.
Whilst adoption of the maximum modulus in the situations
mentioned above may be slightly optimistic, the automatic
reduction of the wall modulus developed by U piles to that of the
unconnected sections is far too pessimistic.

1.14.3 Crimping and welding of the interlocks

Pairs of piles can be crimped or welded together if required.
Normally 3 to 4 crimps per metre are requested but other
configurations can be accommodated with prior agreement. Each
crimp is applied to provide an allowable shear resistance of 75kN
P S
A
with less than 5mm movement.
Fig 1.14.3
PU, PU-R and AU-Section
GU Sections Standard
Standard Crimping
Crimping 6 crimping points every 1,7 m = 3,5 points/m 3 crimping points every 0,75 m = 4 points/m
< 500

< 500
100 100

100 100
700

700
Crimping
points
100 100

100 100
Crimping
points

800
1000

100 100
100 100

700
700

100 100

Smaller crimping Smaller crimping

100 100

paths on request. paths on request.

800
1000

1.14.4 Pile form Piles can be supplied as illustrated.

Fig 1.14.4

Form S standard Form Z on request

Single pile Double pile Triple pile

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Product information
1.14.5 Circular construction
Steel sheet piling can be driven to form a complete circle without
the need for corner piles. The maximum angle of deviation for AU,
PU, PU-R and GU sections is 5° for single piles.
The following table gives the approximate minimum diameters of
circular cofferdam which can be constructed using various sheet
pile sections. The diameters are only intended to be for guidance
as the actual interlock deviation achieved will be a function of the
pile length, the pile section, the penetration required. Smaller
diameters can be achieved by introducing bent corner piles, but
larger diameters will result from using pairs of piles that have been
crimped or welded.

Table 1.14.5
Section Minimum Approx. min diameter to
number of internal face of wall
single piles
used
Angle = 5° m

AU 14, AU 16, AU 17 72 16.8

AU 18, AU 20, AU 21 72 16.8

AU 23, AU 25, AU 26 72 16.8

PU 12, PU 12 10/10 72 13.4

PU 18, PU 22, PU28, PU 32 72 13.3

PU 8R 72 13.5

PU 9R, PU 10R, PU 11R 72 13.4

PU 13R, PU 14R, PU 15R 72 15.1

GU 7-600, GU 8-600, GU 9-600 72 13.4

GU 12-500, GU 13-500, GU 15-500 72 11.1

GU 16-400, GU 18-400 72 8.9

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Product information
1.15 Straight web piles
1.15.1 Dimensions and properties for AS-500 Straight Web piles
Fig 1.15.1a
finger
t

δ
thumb
~ 92mm b
finger
t

α
thumb
~ 92mm b

Table 1.15.1
Section Nominal Web Deviation Peri- Steel Mass per Mass Moment Section Coating
width* thickness angle meter of section m of a per m2 of inertia modulus area***
a single of a single of wall of a single pile
pile single pile pile
b t δ
mm mm ° cm cm2 kg/m kg/m2 cm4 cm3 m2/m

AS 500-9,5 500 9.5 4.5** 138 81.3 63.8 128 168 46 0.58
AS 500-11,0 500 11.0 4.5** 139 90.0 70.6 141 186 49 0.58
AS 500-12,0 500 12.0 4.5** 139 94.6 74.3 149 196 51 0.58
AS 500-12,5 500 12.5 4.5** 139 97.2 76.3 153 201 51 0.58
AS 500-12,7 500 12.7 4.5** 139 98.2 77.1 154 204 51 0.58
Note: all straight web sections interlock with each other.
* The effective width to be taken into account for design purposes (lay-out) is 503 mm for all AS 500 sheet piles.
** Max. deviation angle 4.0° for pile length > 20 m.
*** On one side, excluding inside of interlocks.

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Product information
Interlock Strength
The interlock complies with EN 10248. Following interlock strength
Fmax can be achieved with a steel grade S 355 GP. However, higher
steel grades are available.

Sheet pile Fmax [ kN/m]

AS 500 - 9.5 3,000
AS 500 - 11.0 3,500
AS 500 - 12.0 5,000
AS 500 - 12.5 5,500
AS 500 - 12.7 5,500

Junction piles
In general junction piles are assembled by welding in accordance
with EN 12063.
Fig 1.15.1b

b_ b_
2 2

120°
θ θ

150mm
b_ b_ b_ b
_
2 2 2 2

BI BP Y

The connecting angle θ should be in the range from 30° to 45°.

Types of cell
Fig 1.15.1c

Circular cells with 35° junction piles and Diaphragm cells with 120° junction piles.
one or two connecting arcs.

Bent piles
If deviation angles exceeding the values given in table 1.15.1 have
to be attained, piles pre-bent in the mill may be used.
Fig 1.15.1d

β β

CI CP

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Product information
1.16 Combined wall systems
1.16.1 HZ/AZ pile system
The HZ /AZ wall is a combined wall system involving HZ king piles
as the main structural support elements, AZ sheet piles as the
infill members with special connectors to join the parts together.
The following tables give dimensions and properties for the
component parts (AZ pile data can be found in Section 1.13.1).
A new combined wall system HZ-M/AZ will be available from
end of 2008 on, based on an innovative concept. During a
transition period, both HZ and HZ-M systems will be
manufactured.

Table 1.16.1a
Section Dimensions Sec- Mass Moment Elastic Peri- Interlocking
tional of section meter section
area inertia modulus
h b t s r y-y y-y
mm mm mm mm mm cm2 kg/m cm4 cm3 m2/m
HZ t HZ 775 A 775.0 460.0 17.0 12.5 20 257.9 202.4 280070 7230 3.39 RH16-RZDU16
HZ 775 B 779.0 460.0 19.0 12.5 20 276.3 216.9 307930 7905 3.40 RH16-RZDU16
r
HZ 775 C 783.0 461.5 21.0 14.0 20 306.8 240.8 342680 8755 3.41 RH20-RZDU18
HZ 775 D 787.0 461.5 23.0 14.0 20 325.3 255.3 371220 9435 3.42 RH20-RZDU18
h y y
s
HZ 975 A 975.0 460.0 17.0 14.0 20 297.0 233.1 476680 9780 3.79 RH16-RZDU16
HZ 975 B 979.0 460.0 19.0 14.0 20 315.4 247.6 520700 10635 3.79 RH16-RZDU16
HZ 975 C 983.0 462.0 21.0 16.0 20 353.9 277.8 582170 11845 3.81 RH20-RZDU18
b HZ 975 D 987.0 462.0 23.0 16.0 20 372.4 292.3 627120 12710 3.81 RH20-RZDU18
RH
z

y y h RH 16 62 68 – 12.2 – 20.4 16.0 83 26 – –

RH 20 67 79 – 14.2 – 25.5 20.0 123 34 – –
z
b

RZU
z

RZU 16 62 80 – – – 20.6 16.1 70 18 – –

y y h
RZU 18 67 84 – – – 22.9 17.9 95 23 – –

z
b

RZD
z
RZD 16 62 80 – – – 20.6 16.2 58 19 – –
y y h
RZD 18 67 84 – – – 22.9 18.1 80 22 – –

z
b

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Product information
The outstanding feature of this form of wall is the range of options
that can be created by combining different beams, sheet piles and
connectors.
For example the combination of a single beam and sheet pile with
connectors to join everything together can be modified by adding
additional ‘connectors’ to the rear flange of the beam at the level
of highest bending moment applied or by adopting two beams for
every pair of sheet piles.
The following tables give an indication of what properties can be
generated for particular combinations of components.

Table 1.16.1b
Section Dimension Properties per metre of wall Mass*** Coating area
h Sectional Moment Elastic* Elastic**
area of inertia section section l AZ = l AZ = Water-
modulus modulus 60 % l HZ l HZ side
mm cm /m
2
cm /m
4
cm3/m cm /m
3
kg/m2 kg/m2 m2/m

HZ . . . . - 12 / AZ . . HZ … -12 / AZ 18
Combination HZ 775 A 775.0 273.0 210000 5720 4765 174 214 2.332
HZ 775 B 779.0 283.3 225980 6095 5140 182 222 2.332
HZ 775 C 783.0 303.0 248530 6660 5630 197 238 2.346
h HZ 775 D 787.0 313.3 264810 7040 6005 205 246 2.346
y y
HZ 975 A 975.0 294.8 337840 7340 6180 191 231 2.332
1790 HZ 975 B 979.0 305.1 363060 7815 6655 199 240 2.332
HZ 975 C 983.0 329.3 402610 8610 7360 217 258 2.347
HZ 975 D 987.0 339.6 428250 9095 7835 225 267 2.347
Combination HZ … -24 / AZ 18 HZ 775 A 775.0 346.8 317820 7120 7675 240 272 2.866
HZ . . . . - 24 / AZ 18 HZ 775 B 779.0 363.0 342750 7690 8270 253 285 2.866
HZ 775 C 783.0 396.5 382550 8540 9190 279 311 2.886
HZ 775 D 787.0 412.8 407960 9120 9780 291 324 2.886
h y y
HZ 975 A 975.0 381.3 521630 9505 10090 267 299 2.865
2270
HZ 975 B 979.0 397.5 561040 10220 10840 280 312 2.865
HZ 975 C 983.0 438.0 629940 11440 12135 311 344 2.888
HZ 975 D 987.0 454.3 670070 12170 12885 324 357 2.888
* Referring to outside of connector
** Referring to outside of HZ flange
*** Length of RZ connector = Length of AZ
*** Length of RH connector = Length of HZ

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Product information
Combination C1
Table 1.16.1c
Section Dimension Properties per meter of wall Mass Coating area
b h Sectional Moment of Elastic* Elastic**
area inertia section section Water-
modulus modulus side
mm mm cm /m
2
cm4/m cm3/m cm3/m kg/m 2
m2/m
Combination C1 HZ 775 A 475.0 775.0 585.8 649450 16595 15615 460 0.534
Driving Direction HZ 775 B 475.0 779.0 624.5 708720 17985 17030 490 0.534
b
HZ 775 C 479.0 783.0 693.7 789060 20055 18735 545 0.540
h y y HZ 775 D 479.0 787.0 732.3 849160 21470 20140 575 0.540
HZ 975 A 475.0 975.0 668.1 1098910 22515 21185 524 0.534
HZ 975 B 475.0 979.0 706.8 1192510 24280 22970 555 0.534
* Referring to outside of connector HZ 975 C 480.0 983.0 790.4 1330350 27130 25380 620 0.541
** Referring to outside of HZ-flange HZ 975 D 480.0 987.0 828.9 1424880 28915 27155 651 0.541

1.16.2 Box piles General

Welded box piles are fabricated from conventional hot rolled sheet
piles and can therefore be supplied in the steel grades indicated
in table 1.3.1 and to the lengths indicated in section 1.6. Where
greater lengths are required or in cases where equipment on site
is unable to handle the total required length, the piles can be
extended with minimal effort using site butt welds. Welding details
are available on request.
Box piles, formed from four AZ sections, a pair of AZ’s and a plate
or a pair of U sections can be conveniently introduced into a line
of sheet piling at any point where heavy loads are to be applied.
They can be used to resist vertical and horizontal forces and can
generally be positioned in the wall such that its appearance is
unaffected.
Boxes may also be used as individual bearing piles for
foundations or in open jetty and dolphin construction. Their large
radius of gyration makes them particularly suitable for situations
where construction involves long lengths of pile with little or no
lateral support.
In general, box piles are driven open ended. Soil displacement
and ground heave is normally eliminated since the soil enters the
open end of the pile during initial penetration and forms an
effective plug as the toe depth increases. Box piles can be driven
into all normal soils, very compact ground and soft rocks.
CAZ box piles
CAZ box piles are formed by welding together two pairs of
interlocked and intermittently welded AZ sheet piles.

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Product information

Table 1.16.2a Dimensions and properties of CAZ box piles

Section b h Perim Sectional Total Mass* Moment of Elastic section Min Coating **
Area Section Inertia modulus Rad of area
Area gyration
y-y z-z y-y z-z
mm mm cm cm2 cm2 kg/m cm4 cm4 cm3 cm3 cm m2/m

CAZ 12 1340 604 348 293 4166 230 125610 369510 4135 5295 20.7 3.29
CAZ 13 1340 606 349 320 4191 251 136850 402270 4490 5765 20.7 3.29
CAZ 14 1340 608 349 348 4217 273 148770 436260 4865 6255 20.7 3.29
CAZ 17 1260 758 360 305 4900 239 205040 335880 5385 5105 25.9 3.41
CAZ 18 1260 760 361 333 4925 261 222930 365500 5840 5560 25.9 3.41
CAZ 19 1260 762 361 362 4951 284 242210 396600 6330 6035 25.9 3.41
CAZ 25 1260 852 376 411 5540 323 343000 450240 8020 6925 28.9 3.57
CAZ 26 1260 854 377 440 5566 346 366820 480410 8555 7385 28.9 3.57
CAZ 28 1260 856 377 471 5592 370 392170 513050 9125 7820 28.9 3.57
CAZ 46 1160 962 401 595 5831 467 645940 527590 13380 8825 32.9 3.81
CAZ 48 1160 964 402 628 5858 493 681190 556070 14080 9300 32.9 3.81
CAZ 50 1160 966 402 661 5884 519 716620 584560 14780 9780 32.9 3.81
CAZ 12-770 1540 687 389 328 5431 257 175060 557980 3295 4545 23.1 3.67
CAZ 13-770 1540 688 389 344 5446 270 183440 584640 3445 4755 23.1 3.67
CAZ 14-770 1540 689 390 360 5461 283 191840 611290 3600 4985 23.1 3.67
CAZ 14-770-10/1 1540 690 390 376 5476 295 200280 637960 3750 5190 23.1 3.67
CAZ 17 - 700 1400 839 391 330 6015 259 265280 457950 6300 6285 28.3 3.69
CAZ 18 - 700 1400 840 391 347 6029 272 277840 479790 6590 6590 28.3 3.69
CAZ 19 - 700 1400 841 392 363 6044 285 290440 501620 6880 6890 28.3 3.69
CAZ 20 - 700 1400 842 392 379 6058 297 303090 523460 7170 7195 28.3 3.69
CAZ 24 - 700 1400 918 407 436 6616 342 412960 596900 8965 8260 30.8 3.85
CAZ 26 - 700 1400 920 407 469 6645 368 444300 641850 9625 8900 30.8 3.85
CAZ 28 - 700 1400 922 408 503 6674 395 475810 686880 10285 9510 30.8 3.85
CAZ 37 - 700 1400 998 431 556 7223 437 652440 738380 13030 10285 34.2 4.10
CAZ 39 - 700 1400 1000 432 592 7253 465 692730 784530 13805 10930 34.2 4.10
CAZ 41 - 700 1400 1002 432 628 7283 493 733230 830690 14585 11570 34.2 4.10
* The mass of welds is not taken into account
** Outside surface, excluding inside of interlocks

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Product information
z

y y h

Table 1.16.2b Dimensions and properties of CAU, CU, CPU-R and CGU box piles
Section b h Perim Sectional Total Mass* Moment of Elastic section Min Coating **
Area Section Inertia modulus Rad of area
Area gyration
y-y z-z y-y z-z
mm mm cm cm2 cm2 kg/m cm4 cm4 cm3 cm3 cm m2/m
CAU double box piles
CAU 14 - 2 750 451 230 198 2598 155.8 54400 121490 2415 3095 16.6 2.04
CAU 16 - 2 750 454 231 220 2620 172.5 62240 130380 2745 3325 16.8 2.04
CAU 17 - 2 750 455 231 227 2626 178.1 64840 133330 2855 3400 16.9 2.04
CAU 18 - 2 750 486 239 225 2888 177.0 73770 142380 3035 3625 18.1 2.14
CAU 20 - 2 750 489 240 247 2910 193.8 83370 151220 3405 3850 18.4 2.14
CAU 21 - 2 750 490 240 254 2916 199.3 86540 153990 3530 3920 18.5 2.14
CAU 23 - 2 750 492 244 260 3013 204.2 94540 157900 3845 4020 19.1 2.19
CAU 25 - 2 750 495 245 281 3034 220.8 104810 166600 4235 4240 19.3 2.19
CAU 26 - 2 750 496 245 288 3041 226.4 108260 169510 4365 4315 19.4 2.19
CU double box piles
CU 12 - 2 600 403 198 168 1850 132.2 34000 70000 1685 2205 14.2 1.72
CU 12 10/10 - 2 600 403 198 177 1850 139.2 35580 73460 1765 2315 14.2 1.72
CU 18 - 2 600 473 212 196 2184 153.8 58020 78300 2455 2470 17.2 1.86
CU 22 - 2 600 494 220 219 2347 172.3 73740 88960 2985 2800 18.3 1.94
CU 28 - 2 600 499 226 259 2468 203.6 96000 103560 3850 3260 19.2 2.00
CU 32 - 2 600 499 223 291 2461 228.3 108800 109200 4360 3435 19.3 1.97
CPU-R double box piles
CPU 8R-2 600 318 188 124 1555 97.3 17380 52200 1095 1655 11.8 1.62
CPU 9R-2 600 399 199 126 1893 98.9 25850 54900 1295 1740 14.3 1.73
CPU 10R-2 600 399 199 137 1893 107.6 28930 57700 1450 1825 14.5 1.73
CPU 11R-2 600 399 199 148 1893 116.3 31970 60490 1600 1915 14.7 1.73
CPU 13R-2 675 441 215 167 2275 131.2 43580 82570 1975 2335 16.1 1.89
CPU 14R-2 675 441 215 180 2275 141.0 47510 86610 2155 2450 16.3 1.89
CPU 15R-2 675 441 215 192 2275 150.8 51400 90640 2330 2560 16.4 1.89
* The mass of welds is not taken into account
** Outside surface, excluding inside of interlocks
* The mass of welds is not taken into account
** Outside surface, excluding inside of interlocks

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Product information
Table 1.16.2b – continued
Section b h Perim Sectional Total Mass* Moment of Elastic section Min Coating **
Area Section Inertia modulus Rad of area
Area gyration
y-y z-z y-y z-z
mm mm cm cm2 cm2 kg/m cm4 cm4 cm3 cm3 cm m2/m
CGU double box piles
CGU 7-600 600 350 184 120 1613 94.0 18320 50470 1045 1595 12.4 1.60
CGU 8-600 600 352 184 132 1625 103.6 20760 54520 1180 1725 12.5 1.60
CGU 9-600 600 354 184 145 1638 114.0 23330 58990 1320 1865 12.7 1.60
CGU 12-500 500 381 178 144 1514 113.2 25800 44790 1355 1665 13.4 1.54
CGU 13-500 500 383 179 155 1525 121.7 28420 47370 1485 1760 13.5 1.54
CGU 15-500 500 387 180 177 1546 138.6 33750 52570 1740 1955 13.8 1.54
CGU 16-400 400 336 169 158 1170 123.9 25270 31900 1505 1465 12.7 1.40
CGU 18-400 400 340 169 177 1187 138.7 29520 34560 1735 1585 12.9 1.40
* The mass of welds is not taken into account
** Outside surface, excluding inside of interlocks

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Product information
z

y y h

z
b

Table 1.16.2c Dimensions and properties of CAU, CU and CPU-R box piles
Section b h Perim Sectional Total Mass* Moment of Elastic section Min Coating **
Area Section Inertia modulus Rad of area
Area gyration
y-y z-z y-y z-z
mm mm cm cm2 cm2 kg/m cm4 cm4 cm3 cm3 cm m2/m
CAU triple box piles
CAU 14 - 3 957 908 341 298 6454 233.7 300330 6510 6275 31.7 3.03
CAU 16 - 3 960 910 342 330 6486 258.7 333640 7235 6955 31.8 3.03
CAU 17 - 3 960 910 343 340 6496 267.2 344760 7475 7180 31.8 3.03
CAU 18 - 3 1009 927 355 338 6886 265.5 363690 7825 7205 32.8 3.17
CAU 20 - 3 1012 928 356 370 6919 290.7 399780 8570 7900 32.9 3.17
CAU 21 - 3 1013 929 359 381 6926 299.0 411460 8810 8125 32.9 3.17
CAU 23 - 3 1036 930 361 390 7073 306.3 431940 9235 8340 33.3 3.24
CAU 25 - 3 1038 931 364 422 7106 331.3 469030 9995 9035 33.3 3.24
CAU 26 - 3 1039 932 364 433 7115 339.6 481240 10245 9260 33.3 3.24
CU triple box piles
CU 12 - 3 800 755 293 253 4431 198.3 173100 4555 4325 26.2 2.54
CU 12 10/10 - 3 800 755 293 266 4432 208.8 182100 4790 4555 26.2 2.54
CU 18 - 3 877 790 315 294 4931 230.7 227330 5475 5185 27.8 2.76
CU 22 - 3 912 801 326 329 5174 258.4 268440 6310 5890 28.6 2.87
CU 28 - 3 938 817 336 389 5356 305.4 330290 7720 7040 29.1 2.96
CU 32 - 3 926 809 331 436 5345 342.4 367400 8585 7935 29.0 2.92
CPU-R triple box piles
CPU 8R-3 757 709 278 186 3983 146.0 116000 3120 3065 25.0 2.40
CPU 9R-3 815 750 295 189 4492 148.4 131850 3490 3235 26.4 2.57
CPU 10R-3 815 750 295 206 4492 161.4 143590 3800 3525 26.4 2.57
CPU 11R-3 815 750 295 222 4492 174.4 155280 4110 3810 26.4 2.57
CPU 13R-3 888 836 319 251 5483 196.9 214670 5110 4835 29.3 2.81
CPU 14R-3 888 836 319 269 5483 211.5 230660 5490 5195 29.3 2.81
CPU 15R-3 888 836 319 288 5483 226.2 246580 5870 5555 29.3 2.81
* The mass of welds is not taken into account
** Outside surface, excluding inside of interlocks

Chapter 1/35
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 38

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
z

y y h

z
b
Table 1.16.2d Dimensions and properties of CAU, CU and CPU-R box piles
Section b h Perim Sectional Total Mass* Moment Elastic Min. Coating
Area Section of inertia section radius of area**
Area modulus gyration

y-y z-z y-y z-z

mm mm cm cm2 cm2 kg/m cm4 cm4 cm3 cm3 cm m2/m

CAU quadruple box piles

CAU 14 - 4 1222 1222 453 397 11150 311.6 692030 11325 41.7 4.02
CAU 16 - 4 1225 1225 454 440 11193 345.0 770370 12575 41.8 4.02
CAU 17 - 4 1226 1226 454 454 11206 356.2 796520 12990 41.9 4.02
CAU 18 - 4 1258 1258 471 451 11728 354.0 826550 13140 42.8 4.20
CAU 20 - 4 1261 1261 472 494 11771 387.6 910010 14430 42.9 4.20
CAU 21 - 4 1262 1262 473 508 11783 398.6 937100 14855 43.0 4.20
CAU 23 - 4 1263 1263 481 520 11977 408.4 979870 15510 43.4 4.30
CAU 25 - 4 1266 1266 482 563 12020 441.6 1064910 16820 43.5 4.30
CAU 26 - 4 1267 1267 483 577 12033 452.8 1093300 17250 43.5 4.30
CU quadruple box piles
CU 12 - 4 1025 1025 388 337 7565 264.4 394000 7690 34.2 3.36
CU 12 10/10 - 4 1025 1025 388 355 7565 278.4 414830 8095 34.2 3.36
CU 18 - 4 1095 1095 417 392 8231 307.6 507240 9270 36.0 3.65
CU 22 - 4 1115 1115 432 439 8556 344.6 593030 10635 36.8 3.80
CU 28 - 4 1120 1120 445 519 8799 407.2 725730 12955 37.4 3.93
CU 32 - 4 1120 1120 440 582 8782 456.6 811100 14480 37.3 3.87
CPU-R quadruple box piles
CPU 8R-4 938 938 369 248 6958 194.7 268400 5725 32.9 3.18
CPU 9R-4 1019 1019 391 252 7637 197.9 297710 5840 34.4 3.41
CPU 10R-4 1019 1019 391 274 7637 215.2 325130 6380 34.4 3.41
CPU 11R-4 1019 1019 391 296 7637 232.5 352430 6915 34.5 3.41
CPU 13R-4 1136 1136 423 334 9376 262.5 490480 8640 38.3 3.70
CPU 14R-4 1136 1136 423 359 9376 282.1 528080 9300 38.3 3.70
CPU 15R-4 1136 1136 423 384 9376 301.6 565540 9960 38.4 3.70
* The mass of welds is not taken into account
** Outside surface, excluding inside of interlocks

Chapter 1/36
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 39

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.16.3 Special arrangements - CAZ + AZ combinations

bsys

y y
AZ-sheet pile

AZ-box pile

Table 1.16.3
Section Dimension Mass 100 Mass 60 Moment Elastic
of inertia section
modulus
Isvs/m Wsvs/m
bsvs
mm kg/m 2
kg/m 2
cm4/m cm3/m
CAZ 13 / AZ 13 2680 147 126 60910 2000

CAZ 18 / AZ 13 2600 156 134 95900 2510

CAZ 18 / AZ 18 2520 163 139 105560 2765

CAZ 26 / AZ 13 2600 188 166 151240 3530

CAZ 26 / AZ 18 2520 196 173 162660 3795

CAZ 48 / AZ 13 2500 255 232 283040 5850

CAZ 48 / AZ 18 2420 265 241 299290 6190

CAZ 13-770 / AZ 13-7 3080 137 117 70740 2045

CAZ 18-700 / AZ 13-7 2940 144 124 106220 2530

CAZ 18-700 / AZ 18-7 2800 152 130 118130 2800

CAZ 26-700 / AZ 13-7 2940 177 156 162840 3530

CAZ 26-700 / AZ 18-7 2800 186 164 177580 3845

CAZ 39-700 / AZ 13-7 2940 210 189 247340 4930

CAZ 39-700 / AZ 18-7 2800 221 199 266300 5305

Mass 100 LAZ = 100% Lbox pile

Mass 60 LAZ = 60% Lbox pile

Chapter 1/37
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 40

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.16.4 Combined walls with U-type sections

1/1

1/2

1/3

1/4

Table 1.16.4
2/4
Section 1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4

Mass Moment Elastic Mass Moment Elastic Mass Moment Elastic Mass Moment Elastic
of inertia section of inertia section of inertia section of inertia section
modulus modulus modulus modulus
kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m
AU box piles / AU sheet piles
AU 14 208 72530 3220 156 40660 1805 139 43300 1920 130 37980 1550
AU 16 230 82990 3660 173 46230 2035 153 49560 2185 144 43440 1755
AU 17 238 86450 3805 178 48070 2115 158 51660 2275 148 45270 1820
AU 18 236 98360 4045 177 55020 2260 157 58990 2425 148 51760 1950
AU 20 258 111160 4545 194 61830 2525 172 66680 2725 162 58460 2180
AU 21 266 115390 4705 199 64080 2615 177 69250 2825 166 60700 2255
AU 23 272 126050 5125 204 69580 2830 182 75820 3080 170 66410 2435
AU 25 294 139750 5645 221 76800 3105 196 84080 3395 184 73590 2675
AU 26 302 144350 5820 226 79230 3195 201 86880 3505 189 76020 2755
PU box piles / PU sheet piles
PU 12 220 56670 2810 165 32080 1590 147 33290 1650 138 29190 1370
PU 12 10/1 232 59300 2945 174 33480 1660 155 34820 1730 145 30520 1430
PU 18 256 96700 4090 192 54370 2300 171 58000 2450 160 50940 1980
PU 22 287 122900 4975 215 68730 2785 192 73940 2995 180 64920 2395
PU 28 339 160000 6415 255 88390 3545 226 96310 3860 212 84370 3050
PU 32 381 181330 7270 285 99790 4000 254 108660 4355 238 95070 3445
PU-R box piles / PU-R sheet piles
PU 8R 162 28970 1825 122 16210 1020 108 16880 1065 101 14760 875
PU 9R 165 43080 2160 124 24460 1225 110 25650 1285 103 22550 1050
PU 10R 179 48210 2415 135 27190 1365 120 28710 1440 112 25210 1170
PU 11R 194 53280 2670 145 29880 1500 129 31730 1590 121 27830 1290
PU 13R 194 64560 2930 146 36270 1645 130 38650 1755 122 33930 1415
PU 14R 209 70390 3190 157 39360 1785 139 42130 1910 131 36960 1535
PU 15R 223 76150 3455 168 42410 1925 149 45570 2065 140 39950 1655

Chapter 1/38
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 41

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.16.4 Combined walls with U-type sections
Table 1.16.4 continued
Section 1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4

Mass Moment Elastic Mass Moment Elastic Mass Moment Elastic Mass Moment Elastic
of inertia section of inertia section of inertia section of inertia section
modulus modulus modulus modulus
kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m

GU box piles / GU sheet piles

GU 7-600 157 30540 1745 117 17300 990 104 17750 1015 98 15540 850
GU 8-600 173 34600 1965 130 19520 1110 115 19990 1135 108 17480 955
GU 9-600 190 38880 2195 142 21850 1235 127 22340 1260 119 19500 1060
GU 12-500 227 51590 2705 170 29390 1540 151 30290 1590 142 26590 1325
GU 13-500 243 56830 2965 183 32290 1685 162 33200 1730 152 29110 1445
GU 15-500 277 67490 3485 208 38160 1970 185 39040 2015 173 34150 1695
GU 16-400 310 63180 3760 232 35270 2100 207 36110 2150 194 31460 1805
GU 18-400 347 73800 4340 260 41010 2410 231 41990 2470 217 36530 2075

Chapter 1/39
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 42

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.16.5 Load bearing foundations
The development of rolled corner sections has enabled a new
generation of bearing pile to be created. By interlocking a number
of sheet piles with the same number of Omega bars a closed tube
results which can be driven into the ground sequentially. Using
equipment that installs piles without noise and vibration, the
ability to drive a closed section pile by pile means that load
bearing foundations made of steel can be installed at sensitive
sites and in urban areas where impact driven piles would not be
tolerated.
In addition to the reduction in environmental disturbance offered
by this system, the foundation is effectively load tested as it is
installed and can be loaded immediately. Furthermore, the
opportunity exists to extract the piles once the useful life of the
structure is passed in a reversal of the installation process.
Table 1.16.5 gives the dimensions and properties for foundations
created using 4, 5 and 6 sheet pile/omega combinations and
ultimate load capacities for both S270GP and S355GP steel
grades. The capacity of the foundation in geotechnical terms will
need to be assessed for the particular site location.
The effective radius of the pile (used for calculating torsional
resistance) is the value given in the column headed ‘Maximum
boundary distance’.

Fig 1.16.5

Chapter 1/40
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 43

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
Table 1.16.5 Dimensions and properties for foundations using sheet
pile / omega combinations
Section Steel Perimeter Moment Radius Max Elastic Ultimate axial capacity Coating *
area of inertia of gyration boundary section area
distance modulus S270GP S355GP
cm2 mm cm4 mm mm cm3 kN kN m2
4 531.2 4750 970430 427 632.7 15340 14342 18858 4.50
AU 16 5 664.1 5950 1826530 524 784.5 23285 17931 23575 5.62
6 796.8 7160 3062970 620 928.9 32975 21514 28287 6.75

4 585.5 4920 1114760 436 649.6 17160 15809 20784 4.67

AU 20 5 731.8 6170 2083840 534 801.3 26005 19759 25981 5.84
6 878.2 7410 3476950 629 945.7 36765 23711 31177 7.01

4 654.3 5020 1278190 442 652.4 19595 17666 23226 4.77

AU 25 5 817.8 6290 2383790 540 804.1 29645 22081 29033 5.96
6 981.4 7560 3968200 636 948.5 41835 26498 34840 7.15

4 428.5 4090 525260 350 522.6 10050 11570 15213 3.84

PU 12 5 535.7 5130 983560 429 655.9 14995 14464 19016 4.80
6 642.8 6170 1645660 506 773.6 21275 17356 22819 5.76

4 483.6 4380 645550 365 567.4 11380 13057 17167 4.13

PU 18 5 604.5 5490 1194290 444 690.9 17285 16322 21458 5.16
6 725.4 6600 1979340 522 808.6 24480 19586 25750 6.19

4 530.7 4520 735850 372 577.4 12745 14329 18840 4.27

PU 22 5 663.4 5670 1353710 452 700.9 19315 17912 23552 5.34
6 796.1 6820 2233930 530 818.6 27290 21495 28260 6.41

4 673.4 4580 964470 378 578.4 16675 18182 23905 4.33

PU 32 5 841.8 5740 1771180 459 701.9 25235 22729 29883 5.41
6 1,010.1 6900 2915900 537 819.6 35575 27273 35857 6.49

4 390.2 4150 486560 353 532.3 9140 10535 13851 3.90

PU 11R 5 487.7 5170 908170 432 672.5 13505 13168 17314 4.84
6 585.3 6180 1516130 509 773.6 19600 15802 20777 5.77

4 453.3 4460 696450 392 589.8 11810 12238 16091 4.21

PU 14R 5 566.6 5560 1304470 480 740.5 17615 15298 20114 5.23
6 679.9 6650 2181080 566 858.6 25405 18358 24137 6.24

4 403.9 3810 373590 304 472.3 7910 10906 14340 3.56

GU 13-500 5 504.9 4740 693400 371 590.3 11750 13633 17924 4.41
6 605.9 5680 1153520 436 677.0 17040 16359 21509 5.27

4 409.7 3520 271530 257 397.3 6835 11061 14544 3.27

GU 16-400 5 512.1 4380 499730 312 501.3 9970 13827 18179 4.05
6 614.5 5240 826250 367 565.4 14615 16592 21815 4.83
* = one side, excluding inside of interlocks

Chapter 1/41
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 10/11/08 16:32 Page 44

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.16.6 Jagged walls Jagged walls may be formed by threading AZ piles together in the
reverse direction as illustrated below.
This arrangement results in a very wide system which is particularly
efficient for the creation of walls such as contamination barriers
where section strength is not the main criterion for pile selection,
but water-tightness and reduced costs for sealing are.
Fig 1.16.6a AZ Jagged wall

Table 1.16.6a AZ Jagged wall

Section Dimensions Sectional Mass Moment Elastic Coating
area of interia section area*
b h modulus
mm mm cm2/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m m2/m2
AZ 12 718 185 117 92.1 2540 275 1.14
AZ 13 718 186 128 100.3 2840 305 1.14
AZ 14 718 187 139 109.1 3130 335 1.14

AZ 17 714 223 122 95.8 3840 345 1.19

AZ 18 714 225 133 104.2 4280 380 1.19
AZ 19 714 226 144 113.4 4720 420 1.19

AZ 25 736 237 158 124.3 6070 515 1.21

AZ 26 736 238 169 132.9 6590 555 1.21
AZ 28 736 239 181 141.8 7110 595 1.21

AZ 46 725 308 233 182.9 16550 1,070 1.30

AZ 48 725 310 245 192.6 17450 1,125 1.30
AZ 50 725 312 258 202.3 18370 1,180 1.30

AZ 13 10/10 718 187 133 104.7 2980 320 1.14

AZ 18 10/10 714 225 139 109.0 4500 400 1.19

AZ 12-770 826 181 112 87.9 2330 255 1.12

AZ 13-770 826 182 117 92.1 2460 270 1.12
AZ 14-770 826 182 123 96.2 2600 285 1.12
AZ 14-770 10-10 826 183 128 100.4 2730 300 1.12

AZ 17-700 795 212 117 92.0 3690 330 1.16

AZ 18-700 795 212 123 96.2 3910 350 1.16
AZ 19-700 795 213 128 101.0 4120 365 1.16
AZ 20-700 795 214 134 105.0 4330 385 1.16

AZ 24-700 813 241 150 117.7 5970 495 1.19

AZ 26-700 813 242 161 126.6 6500 535 1.19
AZ 28-700 813 243 172 135.4 7030 580 1.19

AZ 37-700 834 287 190 149.0 11600 810 1.22

AZ 39-700 834 288 201 158.2 12390 860 1.22
AZ 41-700 834 289 213 167.4 13170 910 1.22
* One side, excluding inside of interlocks.

Chapter 1/42
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 10/11/08 16:33 Page 45

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
It is also possible to arrange pairs of U piles to form a jagged wall
by connecting them together with Omega 18 special connectors.
In this arrangement, the pile pairs are orientated at 90° to each
other creating a deep wall with very high inertia and section
modulus. The choice of section for this type of wall must include
driveability criteria and the designer must ensure that the sections
are crimped or welded together in order to guarantee the shear
force transfer across the interlock on the neutral axis. Omega 18
connectors must also be welded if their contribution is taken into
account during design.

Fig 1.16.6b U Jagged wall

1.17 Cold formed sheet piles

Cold formed sheet piles increase the range of sections available
to designers particularly at the lower end of the section modulus
range. Manufactured in accordance with European standards,
cold formed sections are complementary to the range of hot rolled
sheet piles.
Cold formed sheet piles are normally used in the structural
protection of river banks from erosion and collapse. They are
recommended for retaining walls of medium height and are
particularly effective as containment walls at polluted sites.

Chapter 1/43
 Fig 1.17.1 M

e
h

Chapter 1/44
α
Form II standard tseuqer no I mroF
N
b
Table 1.17.1
Type Thickness System Height Angle Other dimensions Mass Section Inertia Radius of Cross Coating area (*)
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet

width single wall modulus gyration section single SSP

e b h α M N pile elastic I area
mm mm mm ° mm mm kg/m kg/m2 cm3/m cm4/m cm cm2/m m2/m
Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

1.17.1 PAL and PAU sections

Product information

PAL3030 3.00 660 89.0 41 260 466 19.4 29.4 112 500 3.70 37.5 0.80
PAL3040 4.00 660 90.0 41 260 466 25.8 39.2 147 666 3.70 49.9 0.80
11/11/08

PAL3050 5.00 660 91.0 41 260 466 32.2 48.8 181 831 3.70 62.2 0.80

PAL3130 3.00 711 125.0 79 350 419 23.5 33.1 199 1244 5.40 42.2 0.97
PAL3140 4.00 711 126.0 79 350 419 31.3 44.0 261 1655 5.40 56.1 0.97
10:39

PAL3150 5.00 711 127.0 79 350 419 39.0 54.9 322 2063 5.40 70.0 0.97

PAL3260 6.00 700 149.0 61 299 471 46.2 66.0 413 3096 6.10 84.1 0.92
PAL3270 7.00 700 150.0 61 299 471 53.2 76.0 479 3604 6.10 96.8 0.92
PAL3280 8.00 700 151.0 61 299 471 61.6 88.0 545 4109 6.10 112.1 0.92
Page 46

PAL3290 9.00 700 152.0 61 299 471 70.0 100.0 605 4611 6.00 127.4 0.92

PAU2240 4.00 922 252.0 48 252 725 39.0 42.3 404 5101 9.70 53.9 1.22
PAU2250 5.00 921 253.0 48 252 725 48.7 52.8 504 6363 9.70 67.3 1.22
PAU2260 6.00 921 254.0 48 252 725 58.3 63.3 600 7620 9.70 80.7 1.22

PAU2440 4.00 813 293.0 60 252 615 39.0 48.0 537 7897 11.40 61.1 1.22
PAU2450 5.00 813 294.0 60 252 615 48.7 59.9 669 9858 11.40 76.3 1.22
PAU2460 6.00 813 295.0 60 252 615 58.3 71.8 801 11813 11.40 91.4 1.22

PAU2760 6.00 804 295.0 60 252 615 60.4 75.1 803 12059 11.20 95.7 1.16
PAU2770 7.00 804 296.0 60 252 615 70.4 87.5 934 14030 11.20 111.4 1.16
PAU2780 8.00 804 297.0 60 252 615 80.3 99.8 1063 15995 11.20 127.1 1.16

Other thicknesses in the PAL and PAU series can be formed. (*) 1 side, excluding inside of interlocks
 Fig 1.17.2

Position A Position B
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet

1.17.2 PAZ sections

Form II standard Form I on request

Type Thickness System Height Angle Other dimensions Mass Section Per m of wall Cross Coating area (*)
width single wall modulus Inertia Radius section single SSP
e b h M N O P pile elastic I of gyration area
Product information

α
10/11/08

mm mm mm ° mm mm mm mm kg/m kg/m2 cm3/m cm4 cm cm2 m2/m

PAZ4350 5.00 770 213.0 34 465 1078 208 182 38.2 49.6 448 4770 8.7 63.2 0.91
PAZ4360 6.00 770 214.0 34 465 1078 208 182 45.8 59.4 534 5720 8.7 75.7 0.91
17:54

PAZ4370 7.00 770 215.0 34 465 1078 208 182 53.3 69.2 619 6660 8.7 88.2 0.91

PAZ4450 5.00 725 269.0 45 444 988 203 177 37.7 52.0 612 8240 11.2 66.2 0.91
PAZ4460 6.00 725 270.0 45 444 988 203 177 45.1 62.2 730 9890 11.2 79.3 0.91
PAZ4470 7.00 725 271.0 45 444 988 203 177 52.4 72.3 846 11535 11.2 92.1 0.91
Page 47

PAZ4550 5.00 676 312.0 55 444 890 203 177 37.7 55.8 772 12065 13 71.0 0.91
PAZ4560 6.00 676 313.0 55 444 890 203 177 45.1 66.7 922 14444 13 85.0 0.91
PAZ4570 7.00 676 314.0 55 444 890 203 177 52.4 77.5 1069 16815 13 98.8 0.91

PAZ4650 5.00 621 347.0 65 438 778 203 177 37.7 60.7 940 16318 14.5 77.3 0.91
PAZ4660 6.00 621 348.0 65 438 778 203 177 45.1 72.6 1122 19544 14.5 92.5 0.91
PAZ4670 7.00 621 349.0 65 438 778 203 177 52.4 84.4 1302 22756 14.5 107.5 0.91

Other section and thickness PAZ’s can be formed. (*) 1 side, excluding inside of interlocks

Chapter 1/45
Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)
 Fig 1.17.2

Chapter 1/46
Position A Position B

Form II standard Form I on request

Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet

Type Thickness System Height Angle Other dimensions Mass Section Per m of wall Cross Coating area (*)
width single wall modulus Inertia Radius section single SSP
1.17.2 PAZ sections continued
Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

e b h M N O P pile elastic I of gyration area

Product information

α
mm mm mm ° mm mm mm mm kg/m kg/m2 cm3/m cm4 cm cm2 m2/m
10/11/08

PAZ5360 6.00 857 300.0 37 453 1245 192 173 54.3 63.3 766 11502 11.9 80.7 1.04
PAZ5370 7.00 857 301.0 37 453 1245 192 173 63.2 73.7 888 13376 11.9 93.9 1.04
PAZ5380 8.00 857 302.0 37 453 1245 192 173 72.1 84.0 1009 15249 11.9 107.1 1.04
17:55

PAZ5390 9.00 857 303.0 37 453 1245 192 173 81.0 94.4 1131 17123 11.9 120.3 1.04

PAZ5460 6.00 807 351.0 45 442 1149 180 167 53.9 66.8 968 16989 14.1 85.1 1.04
PAZ5470 7.00 807 352.0 45 442 1149 180 167 62.6 77.6 1123 19774 14.1 98.9 1.04
Page 48

PAZ5480 8.00 807 353.0 45 442 1149 180 167 71.4 88.4 1277 22546 14.1 112.7 1.04
PAZ5490 9.00 807 354.0 45 442 1149 180 167 80.2 99.3 1431 25318 14.1 126.5 1.04

PAZ5560 6.00 743 407.0 55 438 1020 180 167 53.9 72.5 1233 25074 16.5 92.4 1.04
PAZ5570 7.00 743 408.0 55 438 1020 180 167 62.6 84.3 1432 29179 16.5 107.4 1.04
PAZ5580 8.00 744 409.0 55 438 1020 180 167 71.4 96.0 1628 33263 16.5 122.3 1.04
PAZ5590 9.00 744 410.0 55 438 1020 180 167 80.2 107.8 1825 37387 16.5 137.3 1.04

PAZ5660 6.00 671 451.0 65 434 875 180 167 53.9 80.3 1525 34340 18.3 102.3 1.04
PAZ5670 7.00 671 452.0 65 434 874 180 167 62.6 93.3 1770 39954 18.3 118.9 1.04
PAZ5680 8.00 672 453.0 65 434 874 180 167 71.4 106.3 2013 45537 18.3 135.4 1.04
PAZ5690 9.00 672 454.0 65 434 874 180 167 80.2 119.3 2259 51180 18.4 151.9 1.04
Other section and thickness PAZ’s can be formed. (*) 1 side, excluding inside of interlocks
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 49

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.17.3 Trench sheet sections

267

e
h
48

Table 1.17.3
Type Thickness System Height Mass Section Inertia Radius of Cross Coating area(*)
width single wall modulus gyration section single
e b h pile elastic area SSP
mm mm mm kg/m kg/m2 cm3/m cm4/m cm cm2/m m2/m
RC 8 600 6.0 742 92.0 40.9 55.1 194 896 3.6 70.2 0.87
RC 8 700 7.0 742 93.0 47.6 64.2 224 1045 3.6 81.8 0.87
RC 8 800 8.0 742 94.0 54.2 73.0 254 1194 3.6 93.0 0.87
(*) 1 side, excluding inside of interlocks

1.17.4 Threading options

PAZ sheet piles are usually delivered threaded in pairs and welded at
regular intervals using 100 mm runs of weld, the amount is dependent on
the length of the sheet piles.
Table 1.17.4
PAL PAU PAZ
Series 30 31 32 22 24 27 44 54 55
PAL 30 X X
PAL 31 X X
PAL 32 X X

PAU 22 X X
PAU 24 X X
PAU 27 X X X X

PAZ 44 X
PAZ 54 X X X
PAZ 55 X X X

Chapter 1/47
 60°
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 50

90°

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008) 60°

75°

Product information
75°
1.17.5 Sheet pile assembly
Fig 1.17.5

90°

PAL or PAU welded PAZ welded T 60°

assembly assembly

75°
90°

60°
90° and 0° bent 45° and 30° bent
assembly assembly

75°

30° and 30° bent

assembly
60°

75°

Chapter 1/48
Chapter 1_'08:Chapter 1 jet 28/10/08 09:35 Page 51

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Product information
1.17.6 Thickness Maximum allowable thickness per type of sheet pile and grade of
steel
Table 1.17.6
Series Grade of steel
S 235 JRC S 275 JRC S 355 JOC
PAL 30 5.0 5.0 4.5
PAL 31 5.0 5.0 4.5
PAL 32 9.0 9.0 7.0

PAU 22 6.0 6.0 5.0

PAU 24 6.0 6.0 5.0
PAU 27 8.0 8.0 6.5

PAZ 44 7.0 7.0 6.0

PAZ 54 9.0 9.0 7.5
PAZ 55 9.0 9.0 7.5

RC 8000 10.0 10.0 10.0

1.17.7 Handling holes

Table 1.17.7
The sheet pile sections can be provided with the following standard
handling holes
PAL 30-31 Ø = 40 mm Y = 150 mm
PAL 32 Ø = 45 mm Y = 150 mm
PAU Ø = 45 mm Y = 200 mm
PAZ Ø = 50 mm Y = 200 mm
Other dimension on request

Fig 1.17.7

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Product information
1.17.8 Tolerances in accordance with EN 10249 Part 2.

Characteristics Figures Nominal size Tolerances

(in mm) (in mm)
h ≤ 200 ± 4
SECTIONAL DEPTH 200 < h ≤ 300 ± 6
depth h 300 < h ≤ 400 ± 8
400 < h ± 10

SECTIONAL WIDTH single sheet piles ± 2% l

width l
double sheet piles ± 3% l

e = 3,00 ± 0,26
SECTIONAL THICKNESS 3,00 ≤ e ≤ 4,00 ± 0,27
Section thickness tolerance is as specified in Table 3 of EN 10051 4,00 < e ≤ 5,00
Plan view ± 0,29
for a nominal width of steel strip or sheet of 1800 mm. 5,00 < e ≤ 6,00 ± 0,31
6,00 < e ≤ 8,00 ± 0,35
8,00 < e ≤ 10,00 ± 0,40

Plan view
BENDING Plan view
0,25% L
Deflection (S) Elevation

Plan
Plan view
view
Plan view
Plan view
Plan view
Elevation
Elevation

CURVING
0,25% L
Deflection (C) Elevation
Elevation
Elevation
Elevation
Elevation

2% L
TWIST with
Dimension (V) 100 mm max

LENGTH ± 50

SQUARENESS OF ENDS 2%
Out-of-squareness (t) of end cuts: of width

MASS OF SECTIONS
Difference between total actual and total theoretical mass delivered: ± 7%

Chapter 1/50
 2

Sealants
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
Chapter 2_'08:Chapter 2 jet2 28/10/08 09:38 Page 1

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Sealants
Contents Page
2.1 Introduction 1
2.2 Basements 1
2.3 Containment barriers 2
2.4 Demountable foundations 2
2.5 Site or factory application 3
2.6 How the sealants work 3
2.7 Installation techniques 4
2.8 Location of the sealants 5
2.9 Chemical durability 6
2.10 Permeability 6
2.11 Welding 7
2.12 Horizontal sealing 9
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Sealants
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Sealants
2.1 Introduction The ability of retaining walls to prevent or restrict the passage of
ground water is of great importance in many applications e.g. in
basements, underground tanks, temporary cofferdams and
containment barriers.
A sealed sheet pile wall provides a safe, economic solution in any
situation where control of groundwater, to minimise the risk of
settlement of adjacent property and keeping excavations dry, is
an issue. The water-tightness of sheet pile interlocks almost
invariably improves with time but a sealant will provide a means
by which the flow/passage of water can be controlled
immediately.
All construction projects are unique with ground conditions and
installation methods varying from site to site; therefore the sealant
system adopted must be designed accordingly.
The integrity of a sealant system in use will depend upon it’s
suitability with respect to the method of pile installation adopted
and the ground conditions. Sealants are available to make driving
easier and systems are also available to protect the sealants when
driving the piles into gravels and difficult ground.

2.2 Basements The use of permanent sheet piling for the walls of basement
structures has, until recently, been considered on relatively few
occasions partly because the interlocks were assumed to be a
potential leakage point. If a steel basement was built, the
interlocks would be seal welded following installation to give a
fully watertight wall. With narrow piles this would involve a
substantial amount of welding on site but following development
of wider piles, the amount of sealing to be carried out reduced
considerably making sealed basement walls a much more
attractive option. The development of new forms of sealant and
improved installation techniques means that sealed substructures
can now be created using non-welded piles.
The table below is extracted from BS 8102:1990, ‘The protection
of structures against water from the ground’ and indicates the
performance level required for the range of possible basement
grades. These are all achievable using steel sheet pile walls and
appropriate interlock sealants or sealing systems.

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Sealants
Table 2.2 Extract from BS 8102 indicating basement
performance levels
Basement Basement usage Performance level
grade
1 Car parking; plant rooms Some seepage and
(excluding electrical damp patches tolerable
equipment); workshops

2 Workshops & plant rooms No water penetration

requiring drier environment; but moisture vapour
retail storage areas tolerable

3 Ventilated residential & Dry environment

working areas including
offices, restaurants etc.;
leisure centres

4 Archives and stores requiring Totally dry environment

controlled environment

2.3 Containment Barriers

Sealed sheet pile cut off walls can be used to prevent leachate
from contaminated ground or refuse and disposal sites leaking
beyond the boundaries of the site.
Traditionally these barriers to horizontal movement of liquids have
been made using clay bunds or cement bentonite walls. These
traditional methods take up large areas of ground, are generally
formed away from the edge of the site and are prone to leakage.
It should be noted that concrete and slurry wall systems are
porous in the long term and, as they are both relatively brittle
materials, their ability to retain water will diminish if cracks appear
as a result of movement or exposure to loading fluctuations.
Sheet pile barriers offer a sealed solution on a much smaller
footprint and the barrier can be placed at the site boundaries to
maximise the ground area contained. Sheet piles used in
basements or as the foundations at the perimeter of a building
can also be sealed to prevent gases and leachate from
redeveloped brown field sites from entering the building.
Steel sheet piles can also be removed at a later date and reused
or recycled.

2.4 Demountable foundations

With the rapidly changing use of buildings and structures,
designers are required to take into consideration the demolition
and removal of the building at the end of its life. For a truly
sustainable design, this requirement should also include the
foundations.

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Sealants
All steel pile foundations and retaining systems, including most
sealed pile walls, can be extracted and either reused or recycled.
This has the advantage that the site will be free of obstructions
and in a much better state to be redeveloped and is therefore less
likely to lose value in the long term.

2.5 Site or factory application

It has been shown by performance testing the various sealant
products that best results are obtained by thoroughly preparing
the interlocks prior to the application of the sealant. This has the
effect of removing any mill scale or other deleterious materials
from the interlock and producing a steel surface that the sealant
can properly adhere to. Not only is it difficult to clean and prepare
the interlocks to the required standard on the construction site but
weather conditions, temperature and humidity or the presence of
surface moisture may be detrimental to the bond between the
sealant and the steel. Interlock preparation to new piles will
ensure good adhesion of the sealant to the steel, reducing the risk
of damage when driving the piles and loss of performance in
service.
Once they have cured, most sealant products are inert and
therefore a non-hazard but handling the constituents requires care
as this operation introduces the possibility of exposure to
potentially hazardous substances and may involve working with
hot fluids. By applying sealants in the workshop, rather than on a
construction site, the handling of these materials can be
controlled by stringent safety standards. The work is confined to
experienced personnel operating in a controlled environment and
third parties are not subjected to unnecessary risk.
Once the sealants have cured, the safety risks reduce dramatically
so it is possible to carry out a risk assessment for sealant
application in the workshop that is complete as the operation is
carried out in a fixed and controlled environment. This does not
occur on the construction site where conditions will vary with
location.

2.6 How the sealants work

Sealant systems are designed to stop water penetrating the
interlocking joints in sheet pile walls and consequently the actual
performance of a sealant system will be a function of the interlock
geometry and amount of sealant applied by different suppliers.
Sealants can generally be said to operate in two ways; those that
create a compression seal between adjacent parts of the interlock
and those that displace to fill the voids. Compression sealants will

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Sealants
generally resist greater water pressures than displacement sealants
but as indicated above, preparation of the steel surface is essential
to performance.
The sealants that are soft in texture when applied to the interlock
will generally perform as displacement seals when piles are
interlocked together as the material can be squeezed into the
voids in the interlocks preventing water flow. However these
sealants are usually supplied unprotected and performance can be
affected when driving in gravelly soil or by jetting.
Sealants that are firmer in texture will tend to be squashed during
installation and form a compression seal when piles are interlocked
together. They are generally more durable than displacement
sealants from both the design and installation points of view.
Hydrophilic compression sealants can also be supplied which have
a relatively low volume during the installation phase of a project
but swell up following contact with water to fill the voids in the
interlocks. The swelling action can occur if the sealant is wetted
accidentally by spraying or in heavy rain but a protected form of
hydrophilic sealant is available to overcome these issues.
In addition to the materials that are applied before driving, it is also
possible to seal weld the interlocks after installation. Further
information is given in 2.11.

2.7 Installation techniques

One of the best ways to minimise the risk of water ingress
through a sheet pile wall is to reduce the number of interlocks.
This can be achieved by selecting profiles with a larger system
width or, where installation conditions allow, it is recommended
that sheet piles are welded together into multiple units e.g. pairs
or triples and that they are driven in that form.
It has been found during site trials that pitch and drive methods to
install sheet piles are usually more practical than panel driving
when using pre-applied sealants. Traditionally, panel driving rather
than pitch and drive techniques, have been recommended to
improve the accuracy with which sheet piles are installed.
However, the need to work above ground level can make sealed
sheet piles more difficult to pitch and sequential driving may
disturb the sealants more. Dependant upon the type, more sealant
may be extruded before the piles have been fully driven when
panel driving.
Significant technological advances in sheet pile installation
equipment have facilitated pitch & drive methods. Telescopic
leader rigs and silent pressing machines have revolutionised pile
installation and, in the right conditions, it is now possible to install
piles accurately using this technique.
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Sealants
To ensure good joint integrity it is important to control the
alignment of the piles in both the horizontal and vertical planes but
excessive corrective actions can damage the sealants. If it is
necessary to remove a pile then suitable repairs should be carried
out to the sealant before reuse. If repair is not practical, withdrawn
piles should be replaced by new ones.
It is essential not to overdrive sealed sheet piles with a vibratory
hammer as the heat generated by vibro driving may cause the
sealant to decompose or burn. If hard driving or refusal is
encountered it is recommended that vibro driving ceases at once.
The pile should then be driven to level with an impact hammer.
It has been found that displacement sealants can reduce friction in
the interlocks and make driving easier, but a compression sealant
can increase the interlock friction making pitching more difficult.
This will not normally be a problem for silent pressing machines
and telescopic rigs provided that the mast is of adequate size to
enable the piles to be pitched easily.
It is essential that any application of heat to interlocks containing
sealant, for example for cutting or welding, should only take place in
well-ventilated areas. Inhalation of smoke and vapours could be
harmful and should be prevented. It is the Contractor’s responsibility
to carry out adequate risk assessment procedures for any site
operations that involve handling damaged sealant substances,
welding, cutting or trimming of piles and carrying out repairs.
When trimming piles containing sealants using oxy acetylene
equipment, suitable fire extinguishing equipment and breathing
apparatus should be available.

2.8 Location of the sealants

Hydrophilic sealants should always be applied to the trailing
interlock to avoid early swelling. Parts of a sheet pile that will be
below excavation level in service cannot be economically sealed
after installation and, if required, the sealant system should be
applied before driving. Displacement or compression sealants
should be applied to the leading interlock when it is necessary to
seal the lower part of the pile.
If only the upper part of the pile requires sealant, a sealant system
suitable for application to the trailing interlock should be specified.
However it should not be forgotten that any exposed lengths of
sheet pile can be seal welded after driving to achieve the required
water tightness.
The sealant system may be curtailed above the bottom of the pile
if penetration into an impermeable strata is required and sealant is
not necessary over that part of the pile.

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Sealants
Piles should always be specified and ordered long enough to
allow for trimming, in order that the piles and sealed lengths are
driven to the required depth. Please note that contractors and
designers should specify the distance from the top of the piles to
the start of the sealant if trimming with oxy-acetylene equipment
is foreseeable.

2.9 Chemical durability

After installation, the durability of the various sealant options in
the presence of a number of chemicals can be summarised as
follows:
Chemical Hot applied bituminous Compressible sealant Hydrophilic sealant
product product product

pH 3.5 to pH 11.5 Excellent Excellent Excellent

Seawater Excellent Excellent Excellent

Mineral oil Low Excellent Excellent

Petrol Very low Excellent Excellent

Crude oil Very low No data available Excellent

2.10 Permeability
The level of permeability achieved by an unsealed sheet pile wall will
depend on the soil conditions, the pile section chosen, the water head
and the quality of the installation. For this reason it is not easy to
predict the permeability of an unsealed wall with any degree of
accuracy. However when sealants have been applied to the interlocks
many of the variables are no longer relevant and the permeability of
the wall and sealant system as a whole may be assessed.
It is imperative for a wall to be watertight that the sheet piles must
interlock correctly at corners and junctions. De-clutching caused by
faulty installation practice has to be avoided.
A special de-clutching detector, Dixeran, has been developed by
ArcelorMittal to confirm that pile interlocking has been successfully
achieved. It is welded to the leading interlock of the previously
installed pile and gives a signal when the pile being installed has
reached the design toe position and is still interlocked. Further
information is available from the ArcelorMittal Technical Department.
Sealed and welded sheet pile walls should be impermeable if the
sealant system is performing adequately and as a sheet pile wall is
very resistant to structural loading, movements occurring after the
construction phase, that are sufficient to cause a seal to displace, are
not expected in the normal course of events.

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Sealants
The following table gives an indication of the relative permeability
values for a number of sealant options.
Table 2.10 Relative permeability of sealant options

Sealing system ρ [10-10

Approx permeability
m/s] of system Application of Cost ratio1)
System r (10-9 m/s) Application of
the system
100 kPa 200kPa
the System
100 kPa 200 kPa
No sealant >1000(1 bar) - (2 bar) - 0

Interlock with Beltan

Empty Joints <600 >100 not recommended
- easy - 1
TM
Interlock with bituminous
Hot applied Arcoseal product <600 < 60 not Not
recommended
recommended easy Easy 2.5

Interlock with ROXAN

Compressible
TM
sealantSystem
product 0.3 ≤ 0.2 3 ≤ 0.2 with care
Relatively easy5

Welded interlocksealing product

Hydrophillic 0 ≤ 0.3 0 0.3 2) With Care 15

Cost of sealing system

1) Cost ratio = 2) After excavation for the interlock
Cost of bituminous sealing system to be threaded on jobsite

2.11 Welding
Welding of the sheet pile interlocks is perhaps the most effective
way of permanently sealing sheet pile interlocks. This is
commonly carried out in basement construction where the
exposed face of the piling is easily accessed and water tightness
to Grade 2 or 3 as defined in Table 2.2 is required. However to
achieve a quality weld it is necessary to clean the surface and
carry out the welding in dry conditions. A special welding
procedure for this situation is available from the ArcelorMittal
Commercial RPS Technical Department.

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Fig 2.11.1

When the gap between adjacent interlocks is small enough, it is

possible to create a seal by applying a simple fillet weld across
the joint as illustrated above.
However, as sheet piling work is subject to on site tolerances, a
range of practical options have been developed to cope with gaps
of varying sizes.

Fig 2.11.2

Where the gap is too large to be bridged by a single pass,

introduction of a small diameter bar can be effective with a weld
run applied to either side of the joint to create the seal.

Fig 2.11.3

For wide gaps or where water is running through the interlock

making an acceptable weld difficult to achieve, by welding a plate
of sufficient width to suit the specific conditions across the joint it
is possible to create a vertical drain to channel any seepage away
from the weld.

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Sealants
2.12 Horizontal sealing
In addition to sealing the walls of an underground structure, it is
also necessary to prevent water flow through the joint between
the walls and floor. As with many construction activities, attention
to detail and workmanship will ensure that the joint remains
watertight, but the picture below illustrates a simple waterstop
arrangement that can be formed by welding a plate to the piles
before it is cast into the base slab. In this example, a hydrophilic
strip has been attached to the plate to further enhance the
performance of this water barrier.

Fig 2.12
When designing the horizontal joint it is suggested that
consideration is given to welding the slab reinforcement to the
piles to prevent the concrete shrinking away as it cures thereby
creating a crack.

Chapter 2/9
1 Product information
3
2 Sealants

Durability
3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
Chapter 3_'08:Chapter 3 jet2 28/10/08 09:40 Page 1

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Durability
Contents Page
3.1 Introduction 1
3.2 Corrosion of piling in various environments 1
3.2.1 Underground corrosion of steel piles 1
3.2.2 Atmospheric corrosion 2
3.2.3 Corrosion in fresh waters 2
3.2.4 Corrosion in marine environments 3
3.2.5 Other environments 4
3.2.6 Localised corrosion 4
3.3 The effective life of steel sheet piles 6
3.4 Example durability calculations 8
3.5 Protection for new and existing structures 15
3.5.1 Measures for new structures 15
3.5.1.1 Use of a heavier section 15
3.5.1.2 Use of a high yield steel 16
3.5.1.3 Coating systems 16
3.5.1.4 Cathodic protection 17
3.5.1.5 Concrete encasement 18
3.5.2 Measures for existing structures 19
3.5.2.1 Plating of sections 19
3.5.2.2 Protective coatings 19
3.5.2.3 Cathodic protection 20
3.5.2.4 Frontal protection 20
3.5.2.5 Other protection options 20
3.6 Recommendations for various environments 21
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Durability
3.1 Introduction Steel piling is widely used in permanent earth retaining and
structural foundation works, and in the majority of circumstances
it can be used in an unprotected condition. The degree of
corrosion and whether protection is required depends upon the
working environment - which can be variable, even within a single
installation.
In general, marine environments are the most corrosive and
variable. In the few metres of vertical zoning which most
structures encompass, piles are exposed to underground,
seawater immersion, inter-tidal, splash and marine atmospheric
environments. For most environments characteristic corrosion
rates have been established. However, in some cases, localised
corrosion may occur, requiring detailed site examinations and
data analysis.
This chapter outlines the corrosion performance and effective life
of steel piling in various environments and reviews the protective
measures that can be taken to increase piling life in aggressive
environments.

3.2 Corrosion of piling in various environments

In determining the effective life of unprotected piles, the
selection of piling section and the need for protection it is
necessary to consider the corrosion performance of bare steels
in different environments. The corrosion data given for the
following environments indicate the loss of section where only
one face is exposed to the environment. In practice, opposite
sides of a piling structure may be exposed to different
environments. For example, one side of a harbour retaining wall
may be subject to a marine environment whilst the opposite side
is in contact with soil.
These situations are taken into account in 3.3, the tables of
corrosion losses being based on those given in Eurocode 3:
Part 5.

3.2.1 Underground corrosion of steel piles

The underground corrosion of steel piles has been studied
extensively. A review of published data, outlining mainly overseas
experiences, concluded that the underground corrosion of steel
piles driven into undisturbed soils is negligible, irrespective of the
soil type and characteristics; the insignificant corrosion attack
being attributed to the very low oxygen levels present in
undisturbed soils. Pitting corrosion in the water table zone is
frequently reported in the literature, but nowhere is this regarded
as affecting the structural integrity of piling, except for excessive
pitting found in some Norwegian marine sediments. Evaluations of
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Durability
piles extracted from UK sites, ranging from canal and river
embankments through harbours and beaches to a chemical slurry
lagoon containing acid liquors (pH 2.8), also confirm negligible
underground corrosion losses.
A further evaluation in Japan of test piles driven into natural soils
at ten locations which were considered to be corrosive gave a
maximum corrosion rate of 0.015 mm/side per year after ten years
exposure.
An aspect of underground corrosion that can arise is that of
microbial corrosion by sulphate-reducing bacteria, which is
characterised by iron sulphide-rich corrosion products. Although
this form of corrosion has been observed on buried steel
structures, e.g. pipelines, there is no evidence from the literature
or within ArcelorMittal experience that this is a problem with
driven steel piles.
It is concluded that in natural, undisturbed soils steel pile
corrosion is very slight and, for the purpose of calculations, a
maximum corrosion rate of 0.012 mm/side per year can be used.
In the special case of recent-fill soils or industrial waste soils,
where corrosion rates may be higher, protective systems should
be considered.

3.2.2 Atmospheric corrosion

At inland sites, piles used for foundation work may also be used
as support columns or retaining walls above ground level. In such
cases bare steel will corrode in the atmosphere at a rate which
depends upon the site environment. In order of increasing
corrosivity, this can be broadly classified as rural, urban or
industrial. Similarly, piling at coastal sites may be subject to a
marine atmospheric environment.
Eurocode 3: Part 5 indicates that the atmospheric corrosion of
steel averages approximately 0.01 mm/side per year and this
value can be used for most atmospheric environments.
However, higher corrosion rates may be experienced in close
proximity to the sea or when pollution produces very
aggressive microclimates.

3.2.3 Corrosion in fresh waters

Fresh waters are very variable and can contain dissolved salts,
gases or pollutants which may be either beneficial or harmful to
steel. The term ‘fresh waters' is used to distinguish these from sea
or estuarine brackish waters.

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Durability
The corrosion of steel in fresh waters depends upon the type of
water, although acidity/alkalinity has little effect over the range pH
4 to pH 9, which covers the majority of natural waters. Corrosion
losses from fresh water immersion generally are lower than for sea
water and effective lives are normally proportionately longer.
However fresh waters are very variable and these variable
conditions are reflected in the guidelines on corrosion rates given
in Eurocode 3: Part 5.

3.2.4 Corrosion in marine environments

Marine environments normally encompass several exposure zones of
differing aggressivity and the corrosion performance of marine
structures in these zones requires separate consideration. Factors
which can contribute to loss of pile thickness due to localised
corrosion are also considered in 3.2.6. Information on loss of section
thickness with time is given in tables 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.
Below the Bed-Level
Where piles are below the bed level very little corrosion occurs
and the corrosion rate given for underground corrosion is
applicable, i.e. 0.012 mm/side per year.
Sea Water Immersion Zone
Above the bed-level, and depending upon the tidal range and
local topography, there may be a continuous seawater immersion
zone in which, with time, piling exposed to unpolluted waters
acquires a protective blanket of marine growth, consisting mainly
of seaweeds, anemones and seasquirts. Corrosion of steel piling
in immersion conditions therefore is normally low.
Tidal Zones
This zone lies between the low-water neap tides and high-water
spring tides and tends to accumulate dense barnacle growths
with fiIamentous green seaweeds. The marine growths again give
some protection to the piling, by sheltering the steel from wave
action between tides and by limiting the oxygen supply to the
steel surface.
Corrosion investigations show that rust films formed in this zone
contain lime, derived from barnacle secretions, which also helps
to limit the long term corrosion rate of steels to a level similar to
that of immersion zone corrosion.
Low Water Zone
At the low water level, where a lack of marine growth is observed,
higher corrosion rates are often experienced. It has been
established that, for piles in tidal waters, the low water level and
the splash zone are regions of highest thickness losses.

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Higher corrosion rates are sometimes encountered at the low water
level because of specific local conditions and it is recommended
that periodic inspection of these areas is undertaken.
Splash and atmospheric zones
Above the tidal zone are the splash and marine atmospheric
zones, the former being subject to wave action and salt spray and
the latter mainly to airborne chlorides. Unlike the tidal zone, these
zones are not covered with marine growths. In the splash zone,
which is a more aggressive environment than the atmospheric
zone, corrosion rates are similar to the low water level, i.e. 0.075
mm/side per year. In this zone thick stratified rust layers can
develop and at thicknesses above about 10 mm these tend to
spall from the steel, especially on curved parts of the piles such
as the shoulders and the clutches. However, it should be borne in
mind that rust has a much greater volume than the steel from
which it is derived and steel corrosion losses may amount to no
more than 10% to 20% of the rust thickness.The boundary
between the splash and atmospheric zones is not well defined;
however, corrosion rates diminish rapidly with distance above
peak wave height and the mean atmospheric corrosion rate of
0.02 mm/side per year can be used for this zone.

3.2.5 Other environments

The corrosion performance of piling in natural environments has
so far been considered. For environments such as industrial waste
tips, land reclamation schemes or those affected by man-made
pollution, guidelines on corrosion rates are given in Eurocode
3:Part 5.

3.2.6 Localised corrosion

Localised corrosion can occur particularly in marine environments
and recently anomalous corrosion effects have been observed in
parts of structures within a number of ports throughout Western
Europe. In these cases, highly localised corrosion has occurred at
the low water level which conforms to a specific pattern. This
form of localised corrosion has become known as 'accelerated
low water corrosion'.
Localised corrosion in the low water zone
This form of corrosion has been experienced on sheet piles, pipe
piles, and H sections and on parts of fabricated structures, e.g.
angle and channel sections and plate material. These products
have been produced by various manufacturers in Europe and
Japan and therefore this phenomenon is not restricted to a
particular section or steel manufacturer. Localised corrosion at the
low water level has been investigated in Japan where it is termed

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'concentrated corrosion'. In a recent survey of port and harbour
authorities throughout five Western European countries it was
found that, on steel sheet piles, the localised corrosion followed a
distinct pattern. In almost all cases the effect was confined to the
outpans of sheet piled walls in a zone at, or just below, the mean
low water level. The inpans were almost invariably unaffected. On
'U' shaped piles, this corrosion is most severe in the centre of the
outpans, whilst for 'Z' shaped piles, the effect tends to be
concentrated on the corners or webs of the outpans. Corrosion
rates of 0.3 - 0.8 mm/year have been observed in these
circumstances.
In extreme cases, pile thickness reductions in the outpan areas
may lead to the premature formation of localised holes or slits in
the steel. This can cause a reduction in structural integrity and in
some cases, loss of fill material from behind the wall.
Factors affecting localised corrosion
In marine environments, localised higher rates of corrosion can be
caused by several mechanisms, individually or in combination, as
discussed below:-
a. Macro-cell effects have been found to occur on steel sheet
piling in tidal waters where a range of corrosive environments
is experienced. Research investigations have shown that
potential differences exist between the various zones that
occur in a marine environment such that the low water zone is
anodic with respect to the tidal zone and that a corrosion
peak occurs at the low water level due to the formation of a
large differential aeration cell. The macro-cathode of this cell
being in the tidal zone, where oxygen is available for the
cathodic reduction reaction, and the macro-anode being in
the adjacent low water zone. These macro-cell effects will
vary depending upon local conditions.
b. Continual removal of the protective corrosion product layer
through abrasion or erosion, by the action of fendering
systems, propeller wash, bow-thrusters, waterborne sands
and gravels or repeated stresses, can lead to intense localised
corrosion. The area where the rust layer is continually
removed becomes anodic to the unaffected areas, particularly
in the low water zone where macro-cell effects are strongest.
c. In some cases, localised corrosion at the low water level has
been associated with microbiological activity. A detailed
evaluation of corrosion products from affected structures
indicates the presence of compounds e.g. sulphides, which
stimulate localised corrosion. It is considered that these
compounds are associated with the presence of a consortia
of bacteria including sulphate reducing bacteria and aerobic
species.

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d. Bi-metallic corrosion can occur where steel is electrically
connected to other steels, metals or alloys, having nobler
potentials or where weld metals are significantly less noble than
the parent material. Corrosion is concentrated in the less noble
steel, often at the junction between the dissimilar materials.
e. Discontinuous marine fouling by plants and animals can
accelerate the corrosion rate in localised areas because of
differential environmental conditions caused by their presence
(resulting in the formation of differential aeration cells etc.) or
possibly by their biological processes. However, dense
continuous marine growth can stifle general corrosion by
impeding the diffusion of oxygen to the steel surface.
f. Stray currents entering the structure from improperly
grounded DC power sources can cause local severe localised
damage at the point where the current leaves the structure.

3.3 The effective life of steel sheet piles

The effective life of unpainted or otherwise unprotected steel
piling, depends upon the combined effects of imposed
stresses and corrosion.
Performance is clearly optimised where low corrosion rates
exist at positions of high imposed stresses.
The opposite faces of a sheet pile may be exposed to
different combinations of environments. The following tables
indicate the mean loss of thickness due to corrosion for these
environments in temperate climates over a given life span.
Table 3.3.1 Loss of thickness [mm] due to corrosion for piles
and sheet piles in soils, with or without groundwater
Required design working life 5 years 25 years 50 years 75 years 100 years
Undisturbed natural soils (sand, silt
clay, schist, ...) 0,00 0,30 0,60 0,90 1,20
Polluted natural soils and industrial
grounds 0,15 0,75 1,50 2,25 3,00
Aggressive natural soils (swamp,
marsh, peat, ...) 0,20 1,00 1,75 2,50 3,25
Non-compacted and non-aggressive
fills (clay, schist, sand, silt, ...) 0,18 0,70 1,20 1,70 2,20
Non-compacted and aggressive fills
(ashes, slag, ...) 0,50 2,00 3,25 4,50 5,75
Notes:
1) The values given are only for guidance
2) Corrosion rates in compacted fills are lower than those in non-
compacted ones. In compacted fills the figures in the table should
be divided by two.
3) The values given for 5 and 25 years are based on measurements,
whereas the other values are extrapolated.

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Table 3.3.2 Loss of thickness [mm] due to corrosion for piles
and sheet piles in fresh water or in sea water
Required design working life 5 years 25 years 50 years 75 years 100 years
Common fresh water (river, ship canal, ...)
in the zone of high attack (water line) 0,15 0,55 0,90 1,15 1,40
Very polluted fresh water (sewage, industrial
effluent, ...) in the zone of high attack 0,30 1,30 2,30 3,30 4,30
(water line)
Sea water in temperate climate in the zone
of high attack (low water and splash zones) 0,55 1,90 3,75 5,60 7,50
Sea water in temperate climate in the zone
permanent immersion or in the intertidal zone 0,25 0,90 1,75 2,60 3,50

Notes:
1) The values given are only for guidance.
2) The highest corrosion rate is usually found at the splash zone or at
the low water level in tidal waters.
However, in most cases, the highest bending stresses occur in the
permanent immersion zone,
3) The values given for 5 and 25 years are based on measurements,
whereas the other values are extrapolated.

The corrosion losses quoted are extracted from Eurocode

3:part 5 and based upon investigations carried out over many
years on steel exposed in temperate climates. While the
values quoted are considered to be relevant to the design and
performance of most sheet piling structures, in some
circumstances the designer may have local knowledge which
leads to the adoption of higher values.
For combinations of environments where low water corrosion
is involved, higher losses than those quoted have been
observed at or just below the low water level mark and it is
recommended that periodic inspection is undertaken.
Recent fill ground or waste tips will require special
consideration.

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3.4 Example durability calculations
To establish the pile section needed for a given effective life in a
specific environment it is necessary to follow the procedure
below:
1 Establish the corrosion losses for each zone using tables
3.3.1, and 3.3.2.
2 Using the bending moment diagram Fig 3.4b establish the
maximum bending moment in each corrosion zone.
3 Calculate the minimum required section modulus for each
corrosion zone.
4 Using the graphs in 3.4.1, 3.4.2 and 3.4.3 determine the most
appropriate section giving the required minimum section
modulus after the loss of thickness calculated in step 1
above.
Fig 3.4a Design cross section Fig 3.4b Typical marine wall bending
moments

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Using the design cross section and bending moment diagrams
given in Figs 3.4a and 3.4b, assess the pile section needed to
give a 50 year design life.

Step 1 Depth Face Face Total thickness loss

1 2 over 50 year life (mm)
0 - 1m Soil Splash 4.35
1 - 5m Soil Tidal 2.35
5 - 6m Soil Low Water 4.35
6 - 12m Soil Immersion 2.35
12 - 18m Soil Soil 1.2

Step 2 Depth Maximum ultimate bending moment

0 - 1m 10kNm/m
1 - 5m 440kNm/m
5 - 6m 520kNm/m
6 - 12m 590kNm/m
12 - 18m 370kNm/m

This example is based on the use of S390GP steel and hence a

Yield Stress of 390N/mm 2 is used to determine the minimum
section modulus needed for each corrosion zone.

Step 3 Depth Minimum section modulus

3
0 - 1m
3
10x10 x 1.2/390 = 31cm /m
3
1 - 5m
3
440x10 x 1.2/390 = 1354cm /m
3
5 - 6m
3
520x10 x 1.2/390 = 1600cm /m
3
6 - 12m
3
590x10 x 1.2/390 = 1815cm /m
3
12 - 18m
3
370x10 x 1.2/390 = 1139cm /m
Step 4
From the critical minimum section modulus requirements calculated in
Step 3 and the appropriate thickness loss from step 1
(Zmin = 1815cm3/m, t = 2.35mm or Zmin = 1600cm3/m, t = 4.35mm)
an appropriate pile section can be selected: in this case, AZ 25 in grade
S390GP steel is to be adopted.
With application of a coating suitable for marine exposure conditions, an
additional 20+ years can be anticipated.

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3.4.1a Elastic section modulus against loss of thickness AZ piles

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3.4.1b Elastic section modulus against loss of thickness AZ piles

AZ 41-700
AZ 39-700

AZ 37-700

AZ 28-700
AZ 26-700
AZ 24-700

AZ 20-700
AZ 19-700
AZ 18-700
AZ 17-700

AZ 14-770-10/10
AZ 14-770
AZ 13-770
AZ 12-770

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3.4.2 Elastic section modulus against loss of thickness AU piles

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3.4.3a Elastic section modulus against loss of thickness PU piles

PU 32

PU 28

PU 28-1

PU 22

PU 22-1

PU 18

PU 18-1

PU 15R
PU 14R
PU 13R
PU 12 10/10
PU 12
PU 11R
PU10R

PU 9R

PU 8R

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3.4.3b Elastic section modulus against loss of thickness GU piles

GU 18-400

GU 16-400
GU 15-500

GU 13-500
GU 12-500

GU 9-600

GU 8-600
GU 7-600

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3.5 Protection for new and existing structures
In many circumstances steel corrosion rates are low and the use
of protective systems etc. is not necessary. However, there are
circumstances where corrosion of steel piling can be more
significant:
In these circumstances methods of increasing the effective life of
a structure may need to be considered and the measures that can
be taken include the following:
(a) Use of a heavier section
(b) Use of a high yield steel at mild steel stress levels
(c) Applying a protective organic coating or concrete encasement
(d) Applying cathodic protection
If a sheet piling wall is to be constructed in an area which may be
prone to localised corrosion, one or more of the specified
measures to provide the desired effective life should be
considered at the design stage to allow for the possibility of
higher corrosion rates on unprotected steel piles particularly at or
around the low water level. (Given the effects are highly localised,
the additional expense involved in engineering a repair, when
necessary, to account for the phenomenon is often modest in the
context of the overall project cost).
Consideration should be given to the provision of an engineered
solution to structures which are likely to be subject to abrasion or
erosion. The effects of abrasion and erosion should also be taken
into account when methods of corrosion protection are being
considered, e.g. the use of a paint coating.

3.5.1 Measures for new structures

3.5.1.1 Use of a heavier section
Effective life can be increased by the use of additional steel
thickness as a corrosion allowance. The extra steel thickness
required depends upon the working life and environment of the
piling structure. The thickness losses for steel piling in various
service environments have been outlined in 3.3. In determining this
corrosion allowance it is important to consider the stress distribution
in the structure in order to locate the region where corrosion losses
can be least tolerated. It is possible that the most corrosive zones
will not coincide with the most highly stressed zone and therefore, in
many circumstances, the use of a corrosion allowance can be a cost
effective method of increasing effective life.
Alternatively, it may prove more economical to increase the pile
thickness locally in the low water zone by the attachment of
plates. Typically, these will need to be 2-3m in length.

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3.5.1.2 Use of a high yield steel
An alternative approach to using mild steel in a heavier section is
to use a higher yield steel and retain the same section. Although
all grades of carbon steel have similar corrosion rates, the
provision for example, of grade S355GP sheet piles to EN10248
designed to grade S270GP stresses will allow an additional 30%
loss of permissible thickness to be sustained without detriment.
This method, in effect, builds in a corrosion allowance and gives
an increase of 30% in effective life of a steel piling structure for an
increase of less than 2% in steel costs. An even greater
performance increase can be achieved by specifying S390GP or
S430GP steels for piles designed to S270GP stresses.

3.5.1.3 Coating systems

Atmospheric exposure.
In industrial and coastal regions, the corrosion process may be
accelerated by the presence of salt and/or industrial pollution –
particularly sulphur dioxide. The life of conventional paints is
rather short, resulting in frequent maintenance periods. The use of
heavy duty epoxy/polyurethane systems will extend the time to
first maintenance and reduce the overall cost of steel protection.
Sheet piling is often used in situations where part of it is exposed
to the atmosphere, for example as a retaining wall. In such
applications, the aesthetic and functional look is important. A coal
tar epoxy finish or a rusty surface are unlikely to be acceptable
and so polyurethane finishes become an automatic choice. They
combine gloss and colour retention and the latest formulations are
easy to apply and maintain.
Suggested system:
Zinc silicate epoxy primer
Re-coatable epoxy intermediate coating
Aliphatic polyurethane topcoat
Nominal dry film thickness of the system 240 µm
Fresh water immersion.
Fresh water is usually less corrosive than sea water although
brackish or polluted water conditions can still be quite severe.
There are often aesthetic considerations in fresh water projects.
For convenience a system has been chosen which is capable of
performing well both above and below water avoiding the need to
apply separate systems and hence saving time and cost.
The proposed system is tar free and suitable for both immersion
and atmospheric exposure. Where maximum colour and gloss
retention is required, a polyurethane finish may be applied as a
topcoat.
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Suggested system:
Polyamine cured epoxy coating
Nominal dry film thickness of the system 300 µm
Seawater immersion.
Structures continuously or partially immersed in sea water require
careful attention. Abrasion and impact (direct or indirect) may
damage the coating system and soluble salts from the sea will
accelerate the rate of corrosion for the damaged areas.
For long term performance in immersed conditions, there should
be no compromise on quality. The specification must be clear and
the surface preparation must be good.
The application must be properly carried out and inspected and
the coating system must be of high quality. Cathodic protection is
often specified in combination with a coating system and it is
essential that the chosen coating system has been fully tested for
compatibility.
Suggested system:
Polyamide cured epoxy primer
Polyamide cured coal tar epoxy coating
Nominal dry film thickness of the system 450 µm
(As an alternative, glass flake reinforced epoxy coating could
be used with the appropriate primer and sealer).
Waste disposal.
Sheet piling is increasingly being used to isolate severely
contaminated ground. It is also used to contain polluted soil
which has been moved from other areas. Here, an excellent
standard of steel protection is essential. The coating system may
have to protect the steel from highly acidic soil. It must have an
outstandingly good chemical resistance and especially good
resistance to mineral and organic acids. The system must be able
to withstand abrasion and impact.
Suggested system:
Micaceous iron oxide pigmented polyamide cured epoxy primer
Polyamine cured epoxy coating with increased chemical
resistance
Nominal dry film thickness of the system 480 µm

3.5.1.4 Cathodic protection

The design and application of cathodic protection systems to
marine piled structures is a complex operation requiring the
knowledge and experience of specialist firms. The principles
involved are outlined below.
Two systems are employed, utilising either sacrificial anodes or
impressed DC currents. In normal electrochemical corrosion all

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metal-loss occurs at the anode and both types of CP system
impart immunity from corrosion by rendering the steel structure
cathodic to externally placed anodes. Bare steel structures initially
require an average current density at about 100 mA/m 2 in
seawater, but this value normally falls over a long period of
continuous operation to within the range 30 to 70 mA/m 2.
Therefore, for a sheet piled structure of large surface area, the
total current required could be considerable. If piles are coated
below the water level then, depending upon the type of coating
employed, current requirements are considerably reduced and
can be as low as 5mA/m2. Deterioration of the protective coating
occurs with time, though this is counteracted to some extent, by
the deposition of protective calcium and magnesium salts on bare
areas of the sheet piling and the growth of marine organisms.
However, in the long term, an increase in total current may be
necessary and the cathodic protection system should be
designed with an appropriate margin of capacity to cover this
situation. Not all protective coatings can be used in conjunction
with cathodic protection. The coating should be of high electrical
resistance, as continuous as possible, and resistant to any alkali
which is generated by the cathodic reaction on the steel surface.
The coating system suggested for sea water immersion in 3.5.1.3
can be used with cathodic protection.
When considering cathodic protection it should be borne in mind
that this method is considered to be fully effective only up to the
half-tide mark. For zones above this level, including the splash
zone, alternative methods of protection are required.
Sacrificial anode or impressed current alone or in conjunction
with CP compatible protective coating systems have been
evaluated and recommended as a method of protection against
localised corrosion at the low water level in both Europe and
Japan. These evaluations include bioreactor tests in the
presence of bacteria.
It is considered that CP is effective at sea bed level where
localised corrosion occurs due to sand eroding away the
corrosion product layer (rather than the steel surface). However,
sand erosion prevents the deposition of protective calcareous
deposits normally formed during CP and, therefore, the
protective current density would be higher than typical values.

3.5.1.5 Concrete encasement

Concrete encasement can be used to protect steel piles in marine
environments. Often the use of concrete is restricted to the splash
zone by extending the concrete cope to below the mean high
water level. However, in some circumstances, both splash and
tidal zones are protected by extending the cope to below the
lowest low water level.
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Experience has shown that where the splash zone is only partially
encased, a narrow zone of increased corrosion can occur at the
steel-concrete junction. This is a result of electrochemical effects
at the steel-concrete junction, i.e. a potential difference is
generated between steel in concrete and in seawater which,
combined with the effects of differential aeration at the junction,
causes the exposed steel immediately adjacent to the concrete to
become anodic and corrode preferentially.
Concrete is not itself always free from deterioration problems. It
normally has a pH value of about 12 to 13 and within this pH
range steel remains passive and corrosion is superficial. However,
diffusion of chloride ions into the concrete from seawater can
break down steel passivity and stimulate the corrosion reactions.
Therefore, concrete for protecting steel in seawater must be of
good quality, i.e. have high strength, good bonding
characteristics, low permeability and be free initially from
chlorides. It must also provide adequate cover and be properly
placed and cured. If these requirements are not met, then rust
formed from corrosion of the steel piles or steel reinforcement
within the concrete can exert sufficient pressure to spall the
concrete and expose the steel to the marine environment.
Remedial work on partially spalled concrete and exposed steel is
difficult and expensive.
With correct design and the use of good quality concrete,
encasement is an effective method of increasing the working life
of a steel piling structure.

3.5.2 Measures for existing structures

3.5.2.1 Plating of sections
Affected areas of a sheet pile wall can be 'thickened' by the
attachment of plates, which can also be used to repair holes and
slits. Welding of plates is feasible in either wet or dry conditions
but the latter is normally preferable to avoid the necessity for
divers and special techniques. Limpet dam type devices can be
used to dewater around the affected regions and allow welding in
dry conditions. After repair, further protective measures can be
considered such as the application of a protective coating or
cathodic protection.

3.5.2.2 Protective coatings

Protective coatings can be applied on site to areas affected by
localised corrosion. However, it should be noted that surface
preparation and cleanliness as well as the properties of the
coating are critical to long-term durability.

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Surface tolerant coatings are available that can be applied under
dry conditions using a limpet dam. Such devices have limited
depth and enable application of coatings to below the low water
level but not necessarily down to bed level.
Solvent free coatings also have been developed that can be
applied and will cure under water using special application
equipment which enables large surface areas to be treated. Two
coats are normally applied to minimise the possibility of through
coating defects and such coatings can be applied to bed level.

3.5.2.3 Cathodic protection

Cathodic protection can be retrofitted to affected or repaired
structures. Provided the structure to be protected is electrically
continuous and is maintained at the correct protection potential, a
good degree of attenuation of corrosion effects is feasible.

3.5.2.4 Frontal protection

In the extreme, a new steel face to the piled wall can be created
by driving a row of shorter piles in front of the existing structure
and connecting them together. Concrete may be used to fill the
gap. Thus, the front wall may be allowed to corrode away
completely without prejudicing the integrity of the overall
structure. Obviously, such measures will be impractical in many
circumstances owing to the geometrical requirements for berthing
etc.

3.5.2.5 Other protection options

Some developments that are being carried out at the time of
writing are outlined below.
An electrochemical method is being developed for the treatment
of localised corrosion during its early stages. The affected area is
electrochemically cleaned, sterilised and subsequently coated
with a calcareous deposit, formed from the salts dissolved in
seawater, which protects the treated surface from further
corrosion. However, the long term durability of the coating
remains to be validated.
Water based cementitious modified polymer coatings are available
which are tolerant of on-site conditions and have given long term
durability on steel surfaces at coating thicknesses of about 2mm.
These coatings are being further developed so that they can be
spray applied on-site at economical rates.
Alternatives to existing underwater coatings are currently being
developed and tested.

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3.6 Recommendations for various environments
The recommendations outlined below are based on the corrosion
data given in 3.3 for the various environments and on our
experience. Where local conditions are likely to impair life, for
example where the piling is subject to localised corrosion, these
circumstances have also been considered.
Underground exposures
Steel piles driven into undisturbed ground require no protection
irrespective of the soil types encountered. This also applies to
piles driven into harbour, river and sea beds.
For piling driven into recent fill soils and particularly industrial fill
soils some protection may be necessary, though each case
should be judged on its merits. Where protection is required it is
recommended that a durable protective organic coating is applied
to a dry film thickness of 480 microns (see 3.5.1.3).
Seawater immersion exposures
Normally the corrosion rate of steel immersed in seawater is low
enough to give acceptable steel loss over the design life of a
piling structure. Therefore bare steel can be used in immersion
conditions. Alternatively, paint coatings or cathodic protection can
be used to achieve the required design life.
Fresh water immersion exposures
For practical purposes, the situation is the same as for seawater
immersion and corrosion is low enough to permit the use of bare
steel. In fresh water immersion conditions, protective organic
coatings would be expected to last longer.
Fresh water exposures at or above the water level
In non-tidal situations, corrosion can occur at the water line of
piled river embankments and, more usually, canals where these
support roughly a constant water level. On smaller canals where
this is likely to be a problem, protected trench sheets are normally
used. On larger canals etc., where piling is more often used, it is
recommended that a protective organic coating is applied to a
depth of 1 m above and below the water level to a dry film
thickness of 300 microns on the water side. At areas other than
the water line, protection is unnecessary. However, if the section
of piling above water level is required to be painted for aesthetic
reasons, then a protective coating can be used above the
recommended 1 m level, depending upon the cost and durability
requirements.
Where the water level is variable, protective systems are
unnecessary. However, if painting above the water line is required
for aesthetic reasons then again, depending upon requirements,
protective coatings can be used.

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Marine tidal exposures
Tidal zones tend to accumulate marine fouling which affords some
protection to the underlying steel and acceptable corrosion rates
occur over this zone, although a corrosion peak tends to occur at
the low water level. Bare steel with an appropriate corrosion
allowance can be used or alternatively, the design life can be
achieved through the use of a paint coating or cathodic
protection. Localised corrosion can occur at the low water level
and possible corrosion protection measures that can be applied
are discussed in 3.5.2.
Marine splash zone exposures
This zone, together with the low water level, presents the most
corrosive conditions for steel and several options exist. In many
circumstances bare steel can be used with a corrosion allowance
where appropriate. The ASTM standard claims that Grade A690
steel (Mariner grade) gives a performance improvement of 2 to 3
times that of conventional carbon steel in marine splash zone
conditions. Alternatively, protection can be employed in the form
of organic coatings or concrete encasement. With the former it is
recommended that the coating be applied to a dry film thickness
of 450 microns and should extend to at least 1 m below mean
high water level. It should be borne in mind that, in the absence of
good borehole data, it is often impossible to estimate beforehand
the driven depth of piling. In such cases more of the pile length
may have to be coated to ensure that the piles in situ are
protected in the splash zone. The ease and effectiveness of
maintenance will depend upon local conditions, for instance the
degree of shelter from wave action.
Where the tidal range is small concrete encasement can also be
used. With this method the cope should be extended to a
minimum of 1 m below mean high water level and the highest
quality concrete used. Good coverage of the encased steel
should be ensured.
Atmospheric exposures
Piling exposed to rural, urban or industrial atmospheres is usually
painted for aesthetic reasons.
A variety of coatings can be used depending upon requirements.
Where aesthetic considerations are of prime importance, some
coatings can be overcoated on-site with a polyurethane finish
coat.
These coatings can also be used where sheet piled bridge
abutments or other piled land-sited structures are subject to road
salt spray or where piled walls or bridge abutments are hidden by
stand-off brick or stone facias.

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Durability
The marine atmosphere zone of a piling structure is normally
considered on the same basis as the splash zone and if
protection is used on the splash zone then it is normally extended
to protect the atmospheric zone.

Chapter 3/23
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

4
5 Design of sheet pile

water pressure
structures

Earth and
6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
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Contents Page
Notation 1
4.1 Introduction 3
4.2 Determination of soil properties 3
4.3 Types of boreholes samples 5
and methods of testing
4.3.1 Cohesionless soils (gravel, sand etc.) 5
4.3.2 Cohesive soils (clays and silts) 6
4.3.3 Mixed soils (sand with clay, sand with silt) 7
4.3.4 Rock 7
4.3.5 Geophysical methods of site investigation 7
4.3.6 Chemical analysis 8
4.3.7 Seepage water 8
4.4 Information required for design of steel sheet 8
pile retaining walls and cofferdams
4.5 Typical soil properties 9
4.6 Earth pressure calculation 9
4.7 Short term, total stress analysis 11
4.8 Long term, effective stress analysis 12
4.9 Tension crack 15
4.10 Groundwater pressures 16
4.11 Permanent structures 17
4.12 Temporary structures 17
4.13 Battered walls 18
4.14 Concentrated and linear surcharge 18
4.15 Sloping ground surface 19
4.16 Earth pressure calculation 19
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Notation Units
γ Bulk “weight density” of soil kN/m3
γ sat Saturated “weight density” of soil kN/m3
γ′ Submerged “weight density” of soil kN/m3
γw “Weight density” of water kN/m3
c′ Effective cohesion kN/m2
c′d Design cohesion value (effective stress) kN/m2
c′mc Moderately conservative value of effective kN/m2
cohesion
δ Angle of wall friction degrees
δ max Limiting angle of wall friction between soil degrees
and piles
Fs Factor of safety -
Fsc ′ Factor applied to the effective cohesion value -
Fs ø ′ Factor applied to the effective angle of -
shearing resistance
F ss u Factor applied to the undrained shear strength -
Ka Coefficient of active earth pressure -
K ac Active pressure coefficient for cohesion -
Kp Coefficient of passive earth pressure -
K pc Passive pressure coefficient for cohesion -
pa Intensity of active earth pressure (total stress) kN/m2
p′a Intensity of active earth pressure (effective stress) kN/m2
pp Intensity of passive earth pressure (total stress) kN/m2
p′p Intensity of passive earth pressure
(effective stress) kN/m2
ø Total stress angle of shearing resistance degrees
ø′ Effective stress angle of shearing resistance degrees
ø′crit Critical state angle of shearing resistance degrees
(effective stress parameter)
ø′mc Moderately conservative value of shearing degrees
resistance of the soil (effective stress parameter)
ø′d Design angle of shearing resistance degrees
(effective stress)

continued Chapter 4/1

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Notation Units
q Surcharge Pressure kN/m2
su Undrained shear strength (total stress) kN/m2
s ud Design Undrained shear strength (total stress) kN/m2
s umc Moderately conservative value of kN/m2
undrained shear strength (total stress)
s wmax Limiting value of wall adhesion (total stress) kN/m2
u Water pressure kN/m2
z Depth m

“Weight Density” in kN/m3 can be readily converted to Mass

Density” in kg/m3 by multiplying by 102.

Types of soil
1 Cohesionless soils: granular materials such as sand, gravel,
hardcore, rock, filling etc.
2 Cohesive soils: clays and silts. Under certain conditions chalk
and other similar materials can be treated as cohesive soils
3 Mixed soils: combinations of groups 1 and 2 such as sand with
clay, or sand with silt.
4 Rock

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4.1 Introduction The assessment of soil stratification and assignment of
appropriate engineering parameters is a fundamental part of the
design process for an embedded retaining wall. The soil not only
creates the forces attempting to destabilise the wall but also
provides the means by which stability is achieved so an
understanding of the importance of soil in the design of retaining
walls is paramount.
It is assumed that the reader has a basic knowledge of soil
mechanics and consequently this chapter is included as a
refresher for some of the principles on which retaining wall design
is based.
Soil parameters for use in design calculations should, wherever
possible, be obtained by sampling and testing material from the
job site but indicative parameter values are included in this
chapter for use in preliminary calculations.
The amount and complexity of data needed to carry out the
design of a retaining wall is, to an extent, governed by the
calculation method to be used. For example, if the analysis is to
be carried out on the basis of limiting equilibrium, relatively simple
soil data can be used to obtain a satisfactory answer but if the
problem is to be analysed using finite element techniques, the
data input required to adequately describe the behaviour of the
soil is significantly more complex. Additional or more complex soil
data will involve a greater site investigation cost and it is often the
case that the client is not prepared to sanction greater expenditure
at this stage of a project. In many cases, however, the additional
cost is easily recouped by avoiding false economies and
conducting a more sophisticated analysis.

4.2 Determination of soil properties

Site Investigation, Boreholes, Soil Sampling and Testing
The precise and adequate determination of site conditions prior to
the commencement of any form of civil engineering construction
work is necessarily regarded as standard practice.
Where piled foundations, cofferdams, retaining walls etc. are to be
driven it is essential that as much information as possible be
obtained regarding strata, ground water, tidal water,
embankments, existing foundations, buried services and the like in
order to design the most suitable piling in terms of strength,
stability and economy.
Full use should therefore be made of all available information, no
matter how old, regarding previous investigation of the proposed
site and its surroundings. Such information should be
supplemented with data obtained from borehole sampling and
testing, the number of boreholes depending upon the size and
nature of the site.
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For piling work, the number of boreholes, or other form of
investigation, should be adequate to establish the ground
conditions along the length of the proposed piling and to
ascertain the variability in those conditions. The centres between
boreholes will vary from site to site but should generally be at
intervals of 10 to 50m along the length of the wall. The depth of
the investigation will be related to the geology of the site; it is
recommended that boreholes be taken down to at least three
times the proposed retained height. To assess the precise nature
of the ground, samples should be taken at regular intervals within
this depth or wherever a change in stratum occurs.
If ground anchorages are proposed, the ground investigation
should be of sufficient extent and depth to provide data for the
strata in which the anchorages will attain their bond length.
Samples obtained by the borehole method must be correctly
labelled to avoid possible error. Duplicate records of all boreholes
giving depth and location, should also be maintained.
Table 4.2 Field Identification of Soils
Very Soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed in fist.

Soft Can be readily excavated with a spade and can be easily

moulded by substantial pressure in the fingers.

Firm Can be excavated with a spade and can be remoulded by

substantial pressure in the fingers.

Stiff Requires a pick or pneumatic spade for its removal and

cannot be moulded with the fingers.

Very Stiff Requires a pick or pneumatic spade for its removal and will
be hard and brittle or very tough.

Many stiff clays exist in their natural state with a network of joints
or fissures. A large piece of such clay, when dropped, will break
into polyhedral fragments. If possible, it should be determined
whether the clay is fissured or intact, as this could be a criterion in
the design of steel sheet pile structures.

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4.3 Types of borehole sample and methods of testing
4.3.1 Cohesionless soils (gravel, sand etc)
Air tight jar or bag samples (disturbed) are normally forwarded to
the laboratory for scientific analysis. When examined on site, this
should be carried out by a qualified engineer or geologist.
Table 4.3.1 Relationship of In-situ Tests to Relative Density of
Cohesionless Soils
Relative Standard Cone ø′
Density Penetration Penetration (Degrees)
Test Test
‘N’ Value ‘q s’ (MN/m2 )
Very Loose 0-4 2.5 25
Loose 4-10 2.5-7.5 27.5

Medium Dense 10-30 7.5-15.0 30

Dense 30-50 15.0-25.0 35

Very Dense Over 50 Over 25.0 40

(TESPA – Installation of Steel Sheet Piles)

Standard Penetration Test (in-situ density)

The resistance offered by a cohesionless soil to a 50mm external
diameter thick-walled sample tube when driven into the bottom of
a borehole can be approximated to the relative density of the soil
encountered. It is usual to neglect the first 150mm of penetration
because of possible loose soil in the bottom of the borehole from
the boring operations. The force applied is that of a free-falling
load of 64kg travelling 760mm before impact, the number of
blows (N) per 300mm of penetration being recorded. See Table
4.3.1 for interpretation of results.
Beware of false values in very fine grained soils when the stratum
is subject to high groundwater pressure. Under these conditions it
is possible for the bottom of the borehole to blow while the SPT
test equipment is being put into the borehole creating very loose
conditions for the test that will not be realised in practice.
Shear Box Test.
Used to determine the angle of internal friction. Because granular
soils are relatively free draining, any excess pore water pressures
developed, even under rapid loading, will dissipate readily. Hence
the results of this test will always give effective stress values (ø′).

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Mechanical Analysis.
This comprises two stages involving the separation of coarser
particles by means of sieves and determination of the size of finer
particles by a special sedimentation process known as wet
analysis. The subject of mechanical analysis exceeds the scope of
this type of handbook. Reference should be made to appropriate
literature for methods of procedure.

4.3.2 Cohesive soils (clays and silts)

Shear strength. Two distinct methods of testing are given as the
correct procedure, ie “direct” shear tests and “indirect” shear
tests.
Direct shear testing involves the use of the Vane Test in which a
metal vane is pushed into the soil in the borehole and torque
applied. Measurement of the resultant angle-of-twist in the
transmitting rod or spring indicates the magnitude of the torque,
hence, the strength of the sample material.
Indirect shear tests are carried out on undisturbed samples in two
forms:
1 Triaxial Compression Test wherein a cylindrical specimen
(undrained) is subject to a constant lateral hydrostatic pressure
whilst the axial pressure is steadily increased to the yield point
of the material.
The test will give the ‘total’ stress parameters of ø and su for all
types of clay.
In the absence of site-specific data the undrained shear
strength value (su), of the clay, can be deduced from the soil
descriptions shown in table 4.3.2.1.
Table 4.3.2.1 Relationship between soil consistency and undrained
shear strength.

Consistency of Clay Undrained

Shear Strength (su)
(kN/m2)

Very Soft <20

Soft 20 - 40

Firm 40 - 75

Stiff 75 - 150

Very Stiff 150 - 300

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When “effective” stress parameters are required (ø′ and c′), a
drained triaxial test should be performed, with the strain rate
sufficiently low to ensure the dissipation of pore water pressures.
If no effective stress parameters are available from triaxial tests,
Table 4.3.2.2 may be used for initial design studies in conjunction
with an effective cohesion value c′=0.
Table 4.3.2.2 Relationship of Plasticity Index to the critical
angle of shearing resistance for cohesive soils.
Plasticity Index ø′crit
% (degrees)
15 30
30 25
50 20
80 15

2 Unconfined Compression Test which measures the shear

strength of undrained cohesive soils under zero lateral
pressures by means of a special test apparatus, normally
portable.
Natural Moisture Content. Determination of the natural or in-situ
moisture content of a soil sample by weighing before and after
drying the sample in a ventilated oven at 105°C. The loss of
weight is expressed as a percentage of the final or “dry weight”.

4.3.3 Mixed soils (sand with clay, sand with silt)

The method referred to in “Cohesive Soils” may be applied to the
testing of mixed or combined soils.

4.3.4 Rock The resistance to drilling is a good indication of strata material

strength. Where possible, especially during the exploration of
virgin territory, samples of rock should be obtained for analysis.

4.3.5 Geophysical methods of site investigation

Information produced as a result of this type of survey should be
used only to supplement borehole sampling. It should not be
regarded as an alternative method to site investigation.

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4.3.6 Chemical analysis
The destructive influence of natural deposits and buried waste or
industrial effluent should be fully investigated during soil sampling
and testing. Examination will reveal the suitability of the anti-
corrosion measures referred to in Chapter 3, or the need for
special precautionary measures.
When sealants are to be used in the pile interlocks, and where
tests indicate aggressive compounds within the groundwater, for
example in landfill sites, the suitability of the sealant product
should be checked. Further information and advice on sample
testing may be obtained from the ArcelorMittal brochure ‘The
Impervious Steel Sheet Pile Wall – Practical Aspects’.

4.3.7 Seepage water The effect which water has on the engineering properties of a soil
must be clearly understood and carefully considered during the
site investigation period. In addition to the tests on individual soil
samples, the direction of seepage, upwards and downwards,
should be determined before any decision is reached on the
design of a piling system.

4.4 Information required for the design of steel sheet pile retaining walls
and cofferdams
Having determined the precise nature of the ground within the site
and ascertained the individual soil properties, it is desirable to
release certain basic information to the piling designer to ensure
the best possible arrangement in terms of strength and economy.
The minimum details should include the following:
• Copies of relevant site drawings showing the projected retaining
wall/cofferdam areas and the proximity of roads, rail or crane
tracks, buildings, embankments, viaducts and waterways.
• Information regarding any underground workings, surface traffic
loadings, capital plant or heavy machinery which could be
affected by piling operations or in turn, affect ground stability by
vibration.
• Copies of actual borehole logs, soil analyses and test reports.
• Details of any faults or fissures encountered during drilling.
• Details of seasonal rainfalls, standing water levels, tidal waters
and the depths of off-shore reaches. Stream and river velocities,
currents etc, should be given where possible.

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4.5 Typical soil properties
Table 4.5 Typical Moderately Conservative Soil Properties
Soil Loose Compacted Loose or Compacted Angle of Internal Friction Undrained
Bulk Bulk Bulk Bulk Submerged Submerged Loose Compacted Shear
Density “Weight Density “Weight Density “Weight ø′ ø′ Strength
Density” Density” Density” Su
kg/m3 kN/m3 kg/m3 kN/m3 kg/m3 kN/m3 Degrees Degrees kN/m2

Fine Sand 1750 17.2 1900 18.6 1050 10.3 30 35 0

Coarse Sand 1700 16.7 1850 18.2 1050 10.3 35 40 0

Gravel 1600 15.7 1750 17.2 1050 10.3 35 40 0

Brick Hardcore 1300 12.8 1750 17.2 800 7.9 40 45 0

Quarry Waste 1500 14.7 1750 17.2 1000 9.8 40 45 0

Rock Filling 1500 14.7 1750 17.2 1000 9.8 40 45 0

Slag Filling 1200 11.8 1500 14.7 900 8.8 30 35 0

Ashes 650 6.4 1000 9.8 400 3.9 35 40 0

Peat - - 1300 12.8 300 3.0 - 5 5

River Mud 1450 14.2 1750 17.2 1000 9.8 - 5 5

Loamy Soil 1600 15.7 2000 19.6 1000 9.8 - 10 10

Silt - - 1800 17.7 800 7.9 - 10 10

Sandy Clay - - 1900 18.6 900 8.8 - 0 15 to 40

Very Soft Clay - - 1900 18.6 900 8.8 - 0 <20

Soft Clay - - 1900 18.6 900 8.8 - 0 20 to 40

Firm Clay - - 2000 19.6 1000 9.8 - 0 40 to 75

Stiff Clay - - 2100 20.6 1100 10.8 - 0 75 to 150

Very Stiff Clay - - 2200 21.6 1200 11.8 - 0 >150

NOTE: Soil properties should normally be obtained from ground

investigation wherever possible.

4.6 Earth pressure calculation

Calculation of Earth Pressures using Limit State Design
Current standards and codes of practice used in the design of
embedded retaining walls favour limit state design philosophy.
The limit states to consider are the Ultimate Limit State (ULS),
which represents the state at which failure of all or part of the wall
occurs, and the Serviceability Limit State (SLS), which represents
the state, short of failure, beyond which specific service
performance requirements are no longer met.
It is important from the outset that the designer establishes the
performance criteria of the wall, as this will assist in determining
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which limit state will govern the design, and then demonstrate that
the ultimate or serviceability limit state will not be exceeded over
the design life of the wall.
It is generally recognised that the loading conditions under ULS
are normally more severe than the SLS condition, however there
are cases, (for example in the design and construction of urban
basements), when SLS conditions (wall deflections, associated
ground movements, watertightness etc.), are just as critical as the
structural integrity of the wall in the ULS condition.
In limit state design calculations it is usual practice to apply a
mobilisation/partial factor to the principal uncertainties, which in
geotechnical design tends to be soil strength. A direct adjustment
on the other hand, is normally made to any uncertainties in
groundwater pressure, excavation depth and ground levels etc.
Application of a mobilisation factor to soil strength is often referred
to as the Factor on Strength method, and is incorporated in many
of the established codes of practice. The value of the factor used
is dependent on the standard/code of practice adopted, whether
the design case is that of ULS or SLS, the soil strength parameter
under review and also whether the soil parameters are moderately
conservative or worst credible values.
Moderately conservative values are generally defined as being a
cautious best estimate. They are considered to be equivalent to
characteristic values as defined by EC7(1994) or representative
values as defined in the United Kingdom Standard BS8002 (1994).
Worst credible values on the other hand are the worst case values
that the designer believes might occur or values that are
considered unlikely, in practice
Generally, for ULS calculations, a factor of safety greater than 1.0
is applied to moderately conservative soil strength parameters, or
Fs=1.0 if using worst credible values. The more onerous of these
two sets of parameters is then used for the ULS design. With SLS
calculations, moderately conservative soil strength parameters are
used with Fs=1.0.
For the ULS design examples in this handbook, representative
moderately conservative soil values have been used. The
mobilisation factors used are those shown in section 4.7 (Short
term, total stress analysis) and section 4.8 (Long term effective
stress analysis).
The factored design soil strength parameters are used to
determine the earth pressure coefficients that increase the earth
pressures on the retained side and reduce the earth pressures on
the restraining side as the mobilisation factor increases above
unity.

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The pressure applied to a vertical wall, when the ground surfaces

are horizontal are calculated as follows

Active pressure = p a = γ .z.tan 2(45 - ø )-2.s u .tan(45 - ø )

2 2
Passive Pressure = p p = γ .z.tan 2(45 + ø )+2.s u .tan(45 + ø )
2 2
The terms

tan 2(45 - ø ) and tan 2(45 + ø )

2 2

can be more conveniently referred to as Ka coefficient of active

Hence p a = K a γ .z – 2.s u . √ K a
earth pressure and Kp coefficient of passive pressure respectively.

and p p = K p γ .z + 2.s u . √ K p

The above expressions however do not allow for the effects of

friction and adhesion between the earth and the wall. They are
based on extensions of the Rankine Equation (by the addition of
cohesion), from ‘Earth Pressures’ – A.L. Bell: Proceedings of the
Institute of Civil Engineers, Vol. 199 - 1915.
Subsequent research has further developed these formulae to
allow for the effects of wall friction, wall adhesion etc on the earth
pressure coefficients. These are shown in 4.7 and 4.8 of this
chapter.
The above formulae represent the total stress condition. For
effective stress the undrained shear strength parameter of the soil
(su) is simply replaced by the effective cohesion value of the soil, c′.

4.7 Short term, total stress analysis

The short term total stress condition represents the state in the
soil before the pore water pressures have had time to dissipate
i.e. immediately after construction in a cohesive soil. The initial
(total stress) parameters are derived from undrained triaxial tests –
section 4.3.2.
For total stress the horizontal active and passive pressures are
calculated using the following equations :
p a = K a ( γ .z + q ) – s u K a c
p p = K p ( γ .z + q ) + s u K pc
where
( γ .z + q ) represents the total overburden pressure
K a = K p = 1.0 for cohesive soils.

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Design s u = s ud = s umc / Fs s u where Fssu is typically 1.5.

√ (1+s s
The earth pressure coefficients, Kac and Kpc, make an allowance
for wall /soil adhesion and are derived as follows :

w max
K ac= K pc= 2 . )
ud

The limiting value of wall adhesion swmax at the soil/sheet pile

interface is generally taken to be smaller than the design

clays. i.e. Sw max = α x Sud, where α = 0.5. Lower values of wall

undrained shear strength of the soil, sud, by a factor of 2 for stiff

adhesion, however, may be realised in soft clays.

A range of α values and corresponding Kac and Kpc values are
shown in Table 4.7.1.

Table 4.7.1

α=
s wmax Values of
sud K a c and K p c

0.00 2.00

0.25 2.24

0.50 2.45

In any case, the designer should refer to the design code they are
working to for advice on the maximum value of wall adhesion they
may use.

4.8 Long term, effective stress analysis

The long term effective stress condition represents the state when
all the excess pore water pressures, within the soil mass, have
dissipated. i.e. the drained state.
Cohesionless soils are free draining, therefore excess pore water
pressures created during construction, will dissipate so quickly
that “effective stress” conditions exist in both the short and long
term. Hence ø′ is used throughout.
In cohesive soils, the change from total stress (undrained
conditions) to effective stress (drained conditions) generally occurs
over a much longer period of time. The exception being the
presence/addition of fine silts/granular material which can greatly
reduce the time in which effective stress conditions are reached.
During this period the strength parameters of the cohesive soil may
change significantly due to pore water pressures changes induced
following construction of a retaining structure. The change in
strength is caused by equalisation of negative pore water pressure

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in the soil and results in reduced values of cohesion c′ but

increased values of angle of internal friction (ø′).
Whilst all cohesive soils are subject to these changes, the
effective stress condition is not usually critical when fine silts and
naturally consolidated and slightly over consolidated clays, ie
those with cohesion values of less than about 40kN/m2, are
involved, since the change from effective parameters gives an
overall increase in soil strength. However, the reverse is true for
over-consolidated clays, ie those with undrained values in excess
of about 40kN/m2. The overall strength will, in most cases, be
reduced as the stress condition changes from total to effective
because the loss of substantial cohesive strength is not
compensated adequately by the increasing angle of internal
friction. Hence it is advised that for cohesive soils both short and
long term stress analyses be carried out to determine the more
onerous design case.
For effective stress analysis the horizontal active and passive
pressures are calculated using the following equations :
p′a = K a ( γ z – u + q ) – c′d K a c
p′p = K p ( γ z – u + q ) + c′d K p c
where:
γ z – u + q represents the effective overburden pressure
design c′ = c′d = c′mc / Fsc′ where Fsc′ is typically 1.2,
and K a, K p, K ac and K pc are the coefficients of lateral earth
pressure.

substituting K ac and K pc for the terms 2.√ K a and 2.√ K p

The effects of wall friction on active and passive pressures are
taken into account by using modified values of K a and K p and

respectively. It is usual to assume no wall adhesion in effective

stress analysis and hence this term has been omitted from the
formulae.
In determining Ka and Kp the limiting value of wall friction, δ max,
is traditionally taken to be less than the angle of shearing
resistance of the soil. This is to allow for variations in roughness at
the soil/wall interface and also soil movements associated with
the transfer of lateral load to the wall. The designer should refer to
the adopted design code to determine whether particular values
of wall friction are specified but care is also required to ensure
that the sign conventions in the code are obeyed. Positive values
of δ are usually used for active pressures (resultant acting
downwards) and negative values for passive pressures (resulting
acting upwards).

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For examples in this Handbook the limiting value of wall friction
is taken to be δ max = + 2/3 ø′d on the active and passive sides
of the wall.
Generally, wall friction is beneficial to the stability of the wall by
reducing the value of Ka on the retained side, and increasing Kp in
the soil in front of the wall. This is based on the assumption that
the soil behind the wall (i.e. on the retained side) moves
downwards relative to the wall, and heaves upwards in front of the
wall (passive side) as the wall takes up the lateral loading from the
ground. There are instances however, when the direction of soil
movement in front or behind the wall may not be beneficial to wall
stability - as is normally assumed. For example, load bearing piles,
where the pile may move downwards relative to the soil on both
sides, or an activity such as dewatering / tunnelling which may
cause the soil at the front of the wall to settle. In such cases the
direction of the angle of wall friction may change, resulting in
much higher active earth pressure coefficients and much lower
passive earth pressure coefficients, hence the need for care when
selecting appropriate wall friction values.
Values of Ka and Kp are given in tables 4.8.1 and 4.8.2. The design
angle of shearing resistance ø′d is determined as follows :
Design ø′ = ø′d = tan-1 (tan ø′mc / Fsø′) where Fsø′ is typically 1.2.

Table 4.8.1 Values of K a

Values Values Values of δ
of ø′mc of ø′d
(°) (°) 0 1/ ø′d 2/ ø′d
2 3

0.00 0.00 1.000 1.000 1.000

5.00 4.17 0.864 0.842 0.837

10.00 8.36 0.746 0.710 0.702

15.00 12.59 0.642 0.599 0.590

20.00 16.87 0.550 0.504 0.494

25.00 21.24 0.468 0.423 0.413

30.00 25.69 0.395 0.352 0.343

35.00 30.26 0.330 0.291 0.282

40.00 34.96 0.271 0.238 0.229

45.00 39.81 0.219 0.191 0.184

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Table 4.8.2 Values of K p

Values Values Values of δ
of ø′mc of ø′d
(°) (°) 0 – 1/2 ø′d – 2/3 ø′d

0.00 0.00 1.000 1.000 1.000

5.00 4.17 1.157 1.193 1.200

10.00 8.36 1.340 1.431 1.451

15.00 12.59 1.557 1.732 1.772

20.00 16.87 1.818 2.122 2.193

25.00 21.24 2.136 2.638 2.761

30.00 25.69 2.531 3.347 3.554

35.00 30.26 3.032 4.356 4.712

40.00 34.96 3.684 5.864 6.493

45.00 39.81 4.558 8.256 9.421

The above tables represent earth pressure coefficients where the

ground surface behind the wall is horizontal. The values of Ka and
Kp are derived using equations from EC7 (1995) Annex G. For
sloping surfaces, and for differing values of wall friction the reader
may wish to refer to the adopted code of practice or, Appendix A6
of the CIRIA C580 publication “Embedded retaining walls –
guidance for economic design”
The total effective horizontal active and passive earth pressures
acting against the wall are then determined by :
p′a (total) = p′ a + u
and
p′p (total) = p ′p + u
where u is the pore water pressure.

4.9 Tension crack

At small depths in cohesive soils or when the soil possesses high
undrained cohesion, it may be found that the calculated active
pressure has a negative value. Although this implies that the soil is
in tension, the situation in fact represents zero pressure and the
depth over which it occurs is referred to as a tension crack. In any
cohesive soil, the theoretical depth to which a tension crack can
develop is given by the expression
depth = ( 2 x su - q) / γ

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Earth and water pressure

where su is the undrained shear strength of the soil,
q is any applied surcharge,
and γ is the density of the soil.
When a tension crack is able to develop, careful consideration of
the water regime in the vicinity of the wall is needed to ensure that
appropriate design pressures are adopted. If the crack could fill
up with water to either the normal ground water level or the soil
surface then hydrostatic pressures should be adopted from the
appropriate elevation. If it is considered unlikely that ground water
could enter the crack it is recommended that a minimum effective
fluid pressure (MEFP) equivalent to that of a fluid with a density of
5kN/m3 is applied.
The fluid pressure, either hydrostatic or MEFP, should be applied
to the wall to the depth at which the calculated soil and water
pressures dominate.

Fig 4.9

stress = γwZ
Minimum total horizontal

(For cantilever walls and

MEFP=5z
where water is expected)
(where water is
not expected)

Total horizontal stress

4.10 Groundwater pressures

When considering the effects of water pressure for Ultimate Limit
State Design (ULS), the water pressure and seepage forces
assumed should be the most unfavourable values which may
occur in extreme or accidental circumstances over the wall’s
construction sequence and throughout its design life. An example
of an extreme/accidental event being a burst water main in close
proximity to the wall.
For Serviceability State Calculations (SLS) the water pressures
and seepage forces should be those that occur in ‘normal’
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circumstances over the wall’s construction sequence and

throughout its design life. Extreme/accidental events such as a
burst water pipe may be excluded, unless the designer considers
that in reasonable circumstances such an event may occur.

4.11 Permanent structures

The critical design condition for permanent structures in fine silts,
normally and slightly over-consolidated clays, will usually be that
using total stress parameters, although a check with the
alternative effective values may be advisable.
The critical design condition for permanent structures in over-
consolidated clays will usually be with effective stress parameters,
but a check using total values may be advisable.

4.12 Temporary structures

When the anticipated life of the structure is less than three
months, and when construction is in clay, it is usual to adopt total
stress parameters for the design. However, this assumption carries
significant risk and therefore the designer should, if possible,
ensure regular monitoring of the works to check that the design
assumptions are realised in practice. Where the designer has no
direct control over construction activities then it is advisable that
the designer also considers the use of long term, effective stress
parameters for the design. In any case, contingency measures
should also be on hand in case of any untoward changes during
the temporary phase.
An allowance in the design should also be made for softening of
the soil on the restraining side of the wall for the duration of the
temporary works. i.e. due to excavation disturbance and
dissipation of pore water pressures at excavation level. The value
of the undrained shear strength on the restraining side should be
assumed to be zero at excavation level rising to su at a depth of L,
where :
L = 0.5 m where there is no potential for groundwater recharge

√ ( 12.c v .t)
either at excavation level or within the soil
L= where recharge occurs at excavation level but with
no recharge within the soil. cv is the coefficient of
consolidation and t is the time elapsed.
Temporary structures of greater than three months anticipated life
should be treated as permanent structures.

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Earth and water pressure

4.13 Battered walls
The effect of batters up to 5° may be neglected.

4.14 Concentrated and linear surcharge

These are treated in a similar manner to superimposed loads
except that allowance should be made for dissipation of the load
at increasing depth.
There are various methods of allowing for this dissipation and the
following is suggested by Krey when designing for cohesionless soils.
The maximum increase in horizontal total stress is given by :
4 q . t a n 2 ( 4 5 ° – ø′/ 2 )
2 + ( 1 + t a n 2( 4 5 – ø′ / 2 ) ) . x / z
(σh max) =

where q = magnitude of surcharge (kN/m2)

a = x.tan ø ′
c = x / tan(45° – ø ′ / 2 )
d = z / tan(45° – ø ′ / 2 )

Fig 4.14.1

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4.15 Sloping ground surface

Approximate pressures can be obtained by assuming a horizontal
surface and increasing the pressures thus obtained by 5% for
each 5° inclination above the horizontal.
Alternatively an arbitrary horizontal ground surface, at some level
above that at which the sloping surface intersects the wall may be
assumed.
When dealing with cohesionless soils the following method may
be adopted.
pa at A = 0.Ka
p a a t B = γ . h 1. K a
p a a t C = γ . h 2. K a

Fig 4.15.1

4.16 Earth pressure calculation

In this section a set of design earth pressures for use in Ultimate
Limit State checks have been produced for the total stress and
effective stress condition. The method of calculation corresponds to
that discussed in paragraphs 4.6 to 4.8. i.e. using moderately
conservative soil parameters with Fs values of 1.2 applied to effective
stress parameters c′ and o/′ and an Fs of 1.5 on the total stress
parameter s u.
An assessment of the stress in the soil at any change of circumstance,
i.e. stratum boundary, water level, formation/excavation level etc is
carried out at for both sides of the wall.
For total stress analysis, cohesive strata are assumed to be
impervious and the bulk weight density should be used in
calculations.
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Earth and water pressure

The earth pressure coefficients, Ka and Kp used for both total and
effective stress analyses are obtained from tables 4.8.1 and 4.8.2.
Values of Kac and Kpc for cohesive layers in the total stress analysis
are taken from table 4.7.1, assuming α = 0.50.

Table 4.16.1 - Total Stress Analysis

Values of K a , K a c , K p, K pc
Ka K ac Kp K pc

Loose Fine Sand 0.317 3.963

Soft Clay 1.000 2.450 1.000 2.450

Sand and Gravel 0.229 6.493

Firm Clay 1.000 2.450 1.000 2.450

Table 4.16.2 - Effective Stress Analysis

Values of K a , K a c , K p, K pc
Ka K ac Kp K pc

Loose Fine Sand 0.317 3.963

Soft Clay 0.494 1.406 2.193 2.962

Sand and Gravel 0.229 6.493

Firm Clay 0.444 1.333 2.512 3.170

* For the above earth pressure coefficients it is assumed that on

both the active and passive sides of the wall, wall/soil friction
δ = + 2 /3 ø′d

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Earth and water pressure

Fig 4.16.1 Total Stress Analysis Example

Earth and water pressures : Total stress analysis (short term)

Soil overburden including effects of water pressure and buoyancy : Active Side
Overburden at ground level = 10.00 KN/m2
Overburden at -1.2m level in loose fine sand = (14.70 x 1.20)+ 10.00 = 27.64 KN/m2
Overburden at -2.4m level in loose fine sand = (9.29 x 1.20) + 27.64 = 38.79 KN/m2
Overburden at -2.4m level in soft clay = 38.79 + (1.20 x 9.81) = 50.56 KN/m2
Overburden at -6.1m level in soft clay = (17.20 x 3.70) + 50.56 = 114.20 KN/m2
Overburden at -6.1m level in sand and gravel = 114.20 - (4.90 x 9.81) = 66.13 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (10.79 x 4.90) + 66.13 = 119.00 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in firm clay = 119.00 + (9.80 x 9.81) = 215.14 KN/m2
Overburden at -16.0m level in firm clay = (18.60 x 5.00) + 215.14 = 308.14 KN/m2

Soil overburden including effects of water pressure and buoyancy : Passive Side
Overburden at -7.9m level = 0.00 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (10.79 x 3.10) = 33.45 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in firm clay = 33.45 + (3.10 x 9.81) = 63.86 KN/m2
Overburden at -16.0m level in firm clay = (18.60 x 5.00) + 63.86 = 156.86 KN/m2

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Earth and water pressure

Earth pressures
Active side
pa at ground level = 0.317 x 10 = 3.17 KN/m2
pa at -1.2m level in loose fine sand = 0.317 x 27.64 = 8.76 KN/m2
pa at -2.4m level in loose fine sand = (0.317 x 38.79) + 11.77 = 24.07 KN/m2
pa at -2.4m level in soft clay = (1.00 x 50.56) - (2.45 x 25/1.5) = 9.73 KN/m2
pa at -6.1m level in soft clay = (1.00 x 114.20) - (2.45 x 25/1.5) = 73.37 KN/m2
pa at -6.1m level in sand and gravel = (0.229 x 66.13) + 48.07 = 63.21 KN/m2
pa at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (0.229 x 119.00) + 96.14 = 123.39 KN/m2
pa at -11.0m level in firm clay = (1.00 x 215.14) - (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 108.97 KN/m2
pa at -16.0m level in firm clay = (1.00 x 308.14) - (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 201.97 KN/m2

Passive side
pp at -7.9m level = 0 x 6.493 = 0.00 KN/m2
pp at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (6.493 x 33.45) + 30.41 = 247.60 KN/m2
pp at -11.0m level in firm clay = (1.00 x 63.86) + (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 170.03 KN/m2
pp at -16.0m level in firm clay = (1.00 x 156.86) + (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 263.03 KN/m2

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Earth and water pressure

Fig 4.16.2 Total Stress Diagrams

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Earth and water pressure

Fig 4.16.3 Effective Stress Analysis Example

Effective stress analysis (long term)

Soil overburden including effects of water pressure and buoyancy : Active side
Overburden at ground level = 10.00 KN/m2
Overburden at -1.2m level in loose fine sand = (14.70 x 1.20) + 10.00 = 27.64 KN/m2
Overburden at -2.4m level in loose fine sand = (9.29 x 1.20) + 27.64 = 38.79 KN/m2
Overburden at -2.4m level in soft clay = 38.79 KN/m2
Overburden at -6.1m level in soft clay = (7.39 x 3.70) + 38.79 = 66.13 KN/m2
Overburden at -6.1m level in sand and gravel = 66.13 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (10.79 x 4.90)+ 66.13 = 119.00 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in firm clay = 119.00 KN/m2
Overburden at -16.0m level in firm clay = (8.79 x 5.00)+ 119.00 = 162.95 KN/m2

Soil overburden including effects of water pressure and buoyancy : Passive side
Overburden at -7.9m level = 0.00 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (10.79 x 3.10) = 33.45 KN/m2
Overburden at -11.0m level in firm clay = 33.45 KN/m2
Overburden at -16.0m level in firm clay = (8.79 x 5.00) + 33.45 = 77.40 KN/m2

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Earth and water pressure

Earth pressures
Active side
p′a at ground level = 0.317 x 10 = 3.17 KN/m2
p′a at -1.2m level in loose fine sand = 0.317 x 27.64 = 8.76 KN/m2
p′a at -2.4m level in loose fine sand = (0.317 x 38.79) + 11.77 = 24.07 KN/m2
p′a at -2.4m level in soft clay = (0.494 x 38.79) + 11.77 = 30.93 KN/m2
p′a at -6.1m level in soft clay = (0.494 x 66.13) + 48.07 = 80.74 KN/m2
p′a at -6.1m level in sand and gravel = (0.229 x 66.13) + 48.07 = 63.21 KN/m2
p′a at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (0.229 x 119.00) + 96.14 = 123.39 KN/m2
p′a at -11.0m level in firm clay = (0.444 x 119.00) - (1.333 x 2/1.2) + 96.14 = 146.75 KN/m2
p′a at -16.0m level in firm clay = (0.444 x 162.95) - (1.333 x 2/1.2) + 145.19 = 215.32 KN/m2

Passive side
p′p at -7.9m level = 0 x 6.493 = 0.00 KN/m2
p′p at -11.0m level in sand and gravel = (6.493 x 33.45) + 30.41 = 247.60 KN/m2
p′p at -11.0m level in firm clay = (2.512 x 33.45) + (3.170 x 2/1.2) + 30.41 = 119.72 KN/m2
p′p at -16.0m level in firm clay = (2.512 x 77.40) + (3.170 x 2/1.2) + 79.46 = 279.17 KN/m2

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Earth and water pressure

Fig 4.16.4 Effective Stress Diagrams

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Earth and water pressure

It is clear from the pressure diagrams, Figures 4.16.2 and 4.16.4,
that the active earth pressures generated in the soft/firm clays are
considerably greater for the effective stress condition than those
produced in the total stress analyses. Also on the passive side,
the pressures which provide stability in the effective stress
condition are significantly less than for the total stress condition.
Clearly in this case the most onerous condition is the effective
stress case which should be used for any permanent works
design. The earth pressures calculated for the short term condition
may be used for temporary construction, but designers should
always satisfy themselves that total stress conditions will exist
throughout the temporary phase. If in doubt designers should
always err on the side of caution and use the worst case earth
pressure values.
The methods by which earth pressure diagrams are used to
design the embedment depth and minimum structural
requirements of a sheet pile structure are illustrated in chapters 6
and 7.

Chapter 4/27
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams 5

Design of sheet
pile structures
8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
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Design of sheet pile structures

Contents Page
5.1 Introduction 1
5.2 Types of wall 1
5.3 General considerations 3
5.4 Selection of design method 5
5.5 Factor of safety 5
5.6 Limit state designs 8
5.7 Free or fixed earth design 8
5.8 Dealing with water 10
5.8.1 Flow nets 11
5.9 Surcharge loading 11
5.10 Support location 11
5.11 Walls supported by more than one
level of struts or ties 12
5.11.1 Hinge method 12
5.11.2 Continuous beam method 12
5.12 Softened zone 13
5.13 Bending moment reduction 14
5.14 Calculating support forces 14
5.15 Structural design of wall 15
5.16 Selection of pile section 16
5.17 Design bending stresses 16
5.18 Checklist of design input parameters 17
5.18.1 ULS conditions 17
5.18.2 SLS conditions 17
5.19 Analysis of pressure diagrams 19
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Design of sheet pile structures

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Design of sheet pile structures

5.1 Introduction A sheet pile retaining wall has a significant portion of its structure
embedded in the soil and a very complex soil/structure interaction
exists as the soil not only loads the upper parts of the wall but also
provides support to the embedded portion.
Current design methods for retaining walls do not provide a rigorous
theoretical analysis due to the complexity of the problem. The
methods that have been developed to overcome this, with the
exception of finite element modelling techniques, introduce empirical
or empirically based factors that enable an acceptable solution to
the problem to be found. As a result, no theoretically correct solution
can be achieved and a large number of different approaches to this
problem have been devised.
The design of a retaining structure using currently available
techniques requires the performance of two sets of calculations, one
to determine the geometry of the structure to achieve equilibrium
under the design conditions, the other to determine the structural
requirements of the wall to resist bending moments and shear forces
determined from the equilibrium calculations. The selected design
conditions should be sufficiently severe and varied so that all
reasonable situations which may occur during the life of the
structure are taken into account.
Designers should not overlook the possibility of global failure
resulting from deep-seated slip failure of the soil and ensure that the
slip plane passing through the pile toe is not critical. Similarly,
anchor walls should be located outside potential slip planes.
This chapter covers the fundamental issues involved in the design of
earth retaining structures and is therefore relevant for retaining walls
and cofferdams. Information of specific relevance to retaining wall
design is included in chapter 6 and to cofferdams in chapter 7.

5.2 Types of wall Retaining walls can be divided into cantilever or supported types.
Cantilever walls are dependent solely upon penetration into the soil
for their support and clearly fixity of the toe is required to achieve
equilibrium of the forces acting on the structure. As fixity of the wall
toe requires longer and, in many cases, heavier piles to achieve the
necessary penetration into the soil, this type of wall can only be
economic for relatively low retained heights. It is also likely that
deformations will be large for a cantilever solution.
Variations in soil properties, retained height and water conditions
along a wall can have significant effects on the alignment of a
cantilever wall and care must be taken when designing them for
permanent structures, although provision of a capping beam will
often alleviate alignment problems.

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Design of sheet pile structures

Fig 5.2

Supported walls, which can be either tied or strutted, achieve

stability by sharing the support to be provided between the soil
and the supporting member or members. In this situation the soil
conditions at the toe of the wall are not as critical to the overall
stability of the structure as in the case of a cantilever wall. The
provision of longitudinal walings to transfer the soil loadings into
ties or struts also caters for variations in displacement along the
structure.
The maximum height to which a cantilever wall can be considered
to be effective will generally be governed by the acceptable
deflection of the wall under load. This comment doesn’t just apply
to sheet pile walls where the relative flexibility of the wall is often
seen as a drawback because the overall deflection of the wall is a
combination of bending of the wall structure and movement in the
soil which will occur irrespective of the type of wall to be built.
However as a rough guide, it is unlikely that a cantilever wall will
be more cost effective than a tied or propped wall when the
retained height exceeds about 4.5 to 5 metres because the pile
section needed for an unpropped wall of that height will be both
long and heavy to resist the applied bending moments. Similarly a
wall supported by a single tie or prop will generally only be cost
effective up to a retained height in the order of 10 metres.
When more than one level of supports is used, wall stability
becomes a function of the support stiffness and the conventional
active/passive earth pressure distribution does not necessarily
apply.

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Design of sheet pile structures

5.3 General considerations
An earth retaining structure must be designed to perform
adequately under two particular sets of conditions, those that can
be regarded as the worst that could conceivably occur during the
life of the structure and those that can be expected under normal
service conditions. These design cases represent the ultimate and
serviceability limit states respectively for the structure.
Ultimate limit states to be taken into account in design include
instability of the structure as a whole including the soil mass,
failure of the structure by bending or shear and excessive
deformation of the wall or soil to the extent that adjacent
structures or services are affected.
Where the mode of failure of the structure involves translation or
rotation, as would be expected in the case of a retaining wall, the
stable equilibrium of the wall relies on the mobilisation of shear
stresses within the soil. Full mobilisation of soil shear strength
results in limiting active and passive conditions and these can only
act simultaneously on the structure at the point of collapse, the
ultimate limit state.
Design for serviceability involves a consideration of the
deformation of the structure and movement of the ground to
ensure that acceptable limits are not exceeded. The deformations
of the ground which accompany full shear strength mobilisation
are large in comparison to those which occur in normal service
and as the forces on the structure and the forces from the retained
soil are inversely proportional to movement, the serviceability limit
state of displacement will often be the governing criterion for
equilibrium. Although it is impossible or impractical to directly
calculate displacements, serviceability requirements can generally
be achieved by limiting the magnitude of the mobilised soil
strength. This is achieved in practice by applying factors of safety
to the design parameters.
One aspect of design that is often overlooked by inexperienced
designers is the advantage to be gained by considering at an early
stage in the design process which section will be required for
installation as it may be necessary to provide a heavy section and
/ or a high quality of steel where it is anticipated that piles will
need to be driven to significant depth or where driving will be
hard. Piles that have been sized for onerous driving conditions will
generally have high bending resistance and this additional
capacity may permit one or more levels of support to be
eliminated with a consequent reduction in design effort.
The designer of a retaining wall must assess the design situations
to which the wall could be subjected during its lifetime and apply
these to the structure to analyse their effect.

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Design of sheet pile structures

The design situations should include the following where
appropriate:
Applied loads and any combinations of loadings
Includes surcharges and externally applied loads on each side of
the wall.
The surcharge load acting on a wall will depend on its location and
intended usage. In the UK it is suggested that a minimum surcharge
of 10 kN/m2 is adopted on the retained side of the wall, but in other
European countries, a surcharge of 20 kN/m2 is recommended to
allow for the presence of plant or materials during construction. This
is discussed further in section 5.9.
Where very high levels of surcharge or concentrated loads occur,
e.g. ports and harbours, it is often more economical to carry them
on bearing piles which transfer them to a lower stratum where no
lateral pressure is exerted on the retaining structure.
Geometry of the problem
The basic retained height to be used in calculations will be the
difference in level between the highest anticipated ground level on
the active side of the wall and the lowest level on the passive. An
allowance for unplanned excavation in front of the wall of 10% of
the retained height of a cantilever or 10% of the distance below
the lowest support in a supported wall up to a maximum of 0.5m
should be included in the ultimate limit state calculations. It should
be noted that if excavation for pipes or cables in the passive zone
is likely then the trench depth is considered to be part of the basic
excavation depth and should not be part of the unplanned
excavation allowance. The unplanned excavation depth does not
apply to serviceability calculations.
Material characteristics
In permanent structures, the long-term performance of steel must
be considered and a heavier pile section than that determined by
structural analysis may be needed to take into account the long-
term effects of corrosion.
Environmental effects
Variations in ground water levels, due to dewatering, flooding or
failure of drainage systems need to be taken into account in
design. Consider the effects of providing weep holes to prevent
the accumulation of ground water behind the wall; however these
must be designed to prevent clogging by any fines transported in
the flowing water. Scour, erosion and tree removal will all affect the
structure. Weathering, freezing and other effects of time and
environment on the material properties will also have an effect on
structural performance.
Mining subsidence
Consider the tolerance of the structure to deformation.

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Design of sheet pile structures

Construction
Driving of sheet piles into dense soils may necessitate the
provision of a section larger than that needed to satisfy the
structural requirements. Driveability should be considered at an
early stage in the design process as the need to provide a
minimum section for driving may lead to a more efficient support
system and may also offset any additional thickness needed to
achieve the desired life expectancy for the structure.

5.4 Selection of design system

Modern computer software packages provide the engineer with
the opportunity to carry out a simple limit equilibrium design, a
more complex soil-structure interaction calculation or a
sophisticated finite element analysis. As the complexity of the
analysis method rises, the amount and complexity of data also
increases and the analysis method should therefore be selected to
suit the sophistication of the structure and to ensure that any
economies deriving from a more complex analysis can be realised.
When the structure is such that there will be little or no stress
redistribution, as can be expected for a cantilever wall, limit
equilibrium calculations and soil-structure interaction analyses are
likely to give similar wall embedment depths and wall bending
moments. For supported walls, where redistribution of stresses
may be expected, a soil structure interaction analysis will normally
provide a more economic design involving a shorter wall and
reduced bending moments.

5.5 Factor of safety Many different methods of analysis have been developed to
calculate the embedment depth required to ensure stability in a
retaining structure. These methods are generally empirical and
based on the concept that the soil will attain active and passive
pressure conditions at the point of failure. The pressure diagrams
resulting from this ultimate condition are then used to determine
the length of pile required to achieve moment equilibrium.
However as this represents imminent failure of the wall, a factor of
safety is applied, to ensure that the soil stresses are limited to an
appropriate value and that the failure condition is not realised in
practice.
The factor of safety may be applied in a number of different ways:
1 application of a scale factor to increase the calculated depth of
embedment required for limiting equilibrium,
2 reduction of the theoretical soil strengths by application of an
appropriate factor,
3 application of an appropriate factor to increase the nett or
gross pressures acting on the structure.

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The magnitude of the factor or factors applied is dependent upon
the method of analysis used and reflects the confidence the
designer places in his choice of soil parameters for design and
the deformation limits to be applied to the structure.
Eurocode 7, which covers geotechnical design, adopts a limit
state philosophy which is also a feature of many of the National
Standards currently in use (ie BS8002). The traditional design
methods – developed through many years of use – apply a global
factor of safety to the calculated values to cover all unknowns and
the effect of its introduction is well understood by designers.
Limit state design is a more scientific approach as it applies
different factors to the various parameters affecting the wall
design (i.e. soil density, surcharges, loads etc.) to enhance
unfavourable (disturbing) loads and pressures and reduce
favourable (restoring) ones. In this way, the design parameters
that introduce the most uncertainty are subject to more onerous
factors. For example, the reduction factor applied to undrained
cohesion is larger than that applied to the angle of internal friction
for a soil.
Different factors are applied dependent upon the nature of the
analysis being carried out i.e. serviceability or ultimate limit state.
By adopting a partial factor design method, the factors of safety
are introduced when the soil parameters and applied loads are
determined and the pressure diagram already includes the
necessary factors. The designer will need to carry out calculations
to determine the length of pile that results in equilibrium of the
earth pressures i.e. a factor of safety of 1. Although it is the
intention of this publication to support the use of partial factor
design, for the sake of completeness, the brief paragraphs
following are included to illustrate how factors of safety were
applied in some of the more common wall design methods.
Gross pressure method
The factor of safety is applied to the gross passive pressure
diagram only. This approach can lead to an anomaly in undrained
conditions where Ka = Kp = 1 as, beyond a certain depth of
embedment, the calculated factor of safety decreases with
increasing length of wall. This situation results from the fact that
the bulk weight of the soil on the passive side, used to calculate
the earth pressures acting on the wall, is effectively reduced by
the factor of safety.
Nett pressure method
The method has been used by designers for many years and is
often referred to as the Piling Handbook method. The factor of
safety is applied to the nett passive pressure diagram derived by
subtracting the active earth and water pressure at a given level
from the passive earth and water pressure. The method tends to

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give higher factors of safety for a given geometry when compared
to other methods, but careful selection of conservative design
parameters, will give acceptable analysis results.
Revised method
Developed by Burland and Potts, the factor of safety is applied to
the moment of the nett available passive resistance. This is the
difference between the gross passive pressure and those
components of the active pressure that result from the weight of
soil below dredge level. In effect the factor of safety is applied to
the dead weight of soil below dredge level on both sides of the
wall. This method partially overcomes the anomaly in the gross
pressure method.
Factor on strength method
The strength parameters of the soil are reduced by an appropriate
factor in a method analogous to the calculation of embankment
stability. The effect is to increase Ka and decrease Kp, modifying
the pressure distribution relative to that used as a base in the
other described methods.

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5.6 Limit state designs
The design calculations prepared to demonstrate the ability of a
retaining wall to perform adequately under the design conditions
must be carried out with full knowledge of the purpose to which
the structure is to be put. In all cases, it is essential to design for
the collapse condition or Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and in some
situations it may also be appropriate to assess the performance of
the wall under normal operating conditions, the Serviceability Limit
State (SLS). SLS calculations should be carried out where wall
deflections and associated ground movements are of importance.
When a wall is dependent upon its support system for stability
and where it is foreseen that accidental loading could cause
damage or loss of part or all of that support system, the designer
should be able to demonstrate that progressive collapse of the
structure will not occur. An example of this is the effect that loss
of a tie rod may have on a wall design.

5.7 Free or fixed earth design

When designing an earth retaining structure, the designer may
choose to adopt either free and fixed earth conditions at the toe of
the wall. The difference between these two conditions lies in the
influence which the depth of embedment has on the deflected
shape of the wall.

Fig 5.7a Free earth support

A wall designed on free earth support principles can be

considered as a simply supported vertical beam, The wall is
embedded a sufficient distance into the soil to prevent translation,
but is able to rotate at the toe providing the wall with a pinned

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support. A prop or tie near the top of the wall provides the other
support. For a given set of conditions, the length of pile required is
minimised, but the bending moments are at a maximum.

Fig 5.7b Fixed earth support

Kp
Ka
Kp

Ka

Deflected shape
Earth pressure distribution

Kp
Ka

Kp

do

Ka Resultant, R

Idealised earth pressure Simplified earth pressure

distribution distribution.

A wall designed on fixed earth principles acts as a propped

vertical cantilever. Increased embedment at the foot of the wall
prevents both translation and rotation and fixity is assumed. Once
again a tie or prop provides the upper support reaction. The effect
of toe fixity is to create a fixed end moment in the wall, reducing
the maximum bending moment for a given set of conditions but at
the expense of increased pile length. The assumption of fixed
earth conditions is fundamental to the design of a cantilever wall
where all the support is provided by fixity in the soil.
When a retaining wall is designed using the assumption of fixed
earth support, provided that the wall is adequately propped and
capable of resisting the applied bending moments and shear
forces, no failure mechanism relevant to an overall stability check
exists. However empirical methods have been developed to
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enable design calculations to be carried out, an example of which
is given in chapter 6.
Designers must be careful when selecting the design approach to
adopt. For example, walls installed in soft cohesive soils, may not
generate sufficient pressure to achieve fixity and in those soils it is
recommended that free earth conditions are assumed. Fixed earth
conditions may be appropriate where the embedment depth of the
wall is taken deeper than that required to satisfy lateral stability,
i.e. to provide an effective groundwater cut-off or adequate vertical
load bearing capacity. However, where driving to the required depth
may be problematic, assumption of free earth support conditions will
minimise the length of pile to be driven and ensure that the theoretical
bending moment is not reduced by the assumption of fixity.
When designing a wall involving a significant retained height and
multiple levels of support, the overall pile length will often be
sufficient to allow the designer to adopt fixed earth conditions for
the early excavation stages and take advantage of reduced
bending moment requirements.
The design methods used to determine the pile length required
for both free and fixed earth support conditions do not apply if
the support is provided below the mid point of the retained height
as the assumptions made in the analysis models will not be valid.

5.8 Dealing with water

The water pressure conditions adopted in retaining wall design
should be the most onerous that can be possibly imagined as the
effect of water pressures on design calculations is very significant.
When an analysis is being carried out assuming that drained
conditions exist, the effect of flow beneath the toes of the sheet
pile wall is to increase the active pressures on the wall and
decrease the passive pressures, both of which have a de-stabilising
effect on the wall.
Water pressures to adopt when tension cracks develop in cohesive
soils are covered in section 4.9.
In order to reduce the effect of large water pressures resulting from
a difference in water level on each side of a retaining structure, the
designer may provide weep holes through the wall preventing an
accumulation of ground water. These will generally be located at
the bottom of the exposed section of wall to maximise their effect
as a means of reducing water levels. It should be noted however
that weep holes are only fully effective when free drainage is
possible and they should be designed in such a way that any roots,
stones or fine material transported by the flow of ground water will
not cause them to become clogged. In cohesive soils, weep holes
are ineffective in the relief of water pressure behind the wall.

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5.8.1 Flow nets
The preparation of a flow net can be a useful design tool when
assessing the effect of water on a design situation, as it not only
allows the engineer to calculate the water pressures in a particular
situation, but also provides a visual representation of the flow
regime in the soil. An illustration of how a flow net is constructed
is included in chapter 7.

5.9 Surcharge loading

To allow for the presence of plant and equipment around the
edge of the excavation during construction, it is recommended
that a minimum surcharge load is applied to the surface of the
retained ground. The magnitude of the surcharge is dependent
upon the size of plant involved and the expected activities. As
plant is increasing in size and weight, selection of too low a
surcharge may restrict the type of plant that can be used and it is
now common practice in Europe to adopt a minimum surcharge
of 20 kPa.
In UK, the minimum suggested surcharge is 10 kPa but designers
are warned that this should be increased (locally or globally) if
heavy plant is to be located adjacent to the cofferdam or if
excavated spoil or construction materials are to be stacked close
to the pile wall – a 1m height of spoil will result in a surcharge
load in the order of 20 kPa. However, if the wall is retaining less
than 3 m height the UK codes allow the designer to reduce the
surcharge load provided he /she is confident that a minimum
surcharge of 10 kPa will not apply during the life of the structure.

5.10 Support location

The location of supports to a retaining structure has a critical
bearing on the structural requirements of the wall itself. As has
been mentioned in the preceding sections, consideration of the
wall as either fixed or free in terms of its mode of operation
directly affects the bending moments, shear forces and support
reactions acting on the wall.
Similarly, the position at which supports are assumed to act will
affect the magnitude of bending moments and shear forces in the
wall itself and consequently the support reaction required for
stability.
When unusual support locations are provided, the conventional
methods of analysis do not apply and consideration must be
given to the mode or modes of failure that may occur. Walls
involving low level props are discussed in section 6.3.1.

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5.11 Walls supported by more than one level of struts or ties
When more than one level of support is provided to a wall the
potential mode of failure is significantly different to that assumed
for a wall with a single support provided that the supports are not
close enough together to act as a single support. With multiple
levels of support, the wall will not fail by rotation in the
conventional manner – failure will be as a result of collapse of the
support system or excessive bending of the piles. Consequently,
provided that the wall and supports are sufficiently strong to resist
the worst credible loading conditions, failure of the structure
cannot occur.
To assess the bending moments and reaction forces in a multi-
propped wall, a number of analysis methods have been
developed. Unfortunately, the structure is statically indeterminate
and a number of assumptions need to be made to enable the
structure to be analysed.

5.11.1 Hinge method

This method allows the structure to be analysed at successive
stages of construction and the assumption is made that a hinge
occurs at each support position except the first. The spans
between the supports are considered as simply supported beams
loaded with earth and water pressures and the span between the
lowest support and the excavation level is designed as a single
propped wall with the appropriate earth and water pressures
applied. Prop loads calculated using this method include the
respective load from adjacent spans.
The analysis of structures using this method is carried out on a
stage-by-stage basis with excavation being carried out to
sufficient depth to enable the next level of support to be installed.
It is therefore possible that the support loads and bending
moments calculated for a given stage of excavation are exceeded
by those from a previous stage and it is important that the highest
values of calculated support force and bending moment are used
for design purposes.

5.11.2 Continuous beam method

The wall is assumed to act as a vertical beam subjected to a
pressure distribution with reactions at support points. The
bottom of the beam is also assumed to be supported below
excavation level by a soil reaction at the point at which the nett
active pressure on the wall falls below zero. Mobilised earth
pressures are assumed to act on the wall, the magnitude of
these pressures being dependent upon a factor governed by the

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permissible movements of the wall being designed. The
minimum recommended mobilised earth pressure is however 1.3
times that resulting from the use of ka to determine soil
pressures on the wall.
Each support is modelled either as rigid or as a spring,
depending on its compressibility. The displacement at a rigid
support is zero, whereas in a spring it is proportional to the force
carried by the spring.
The hypothetical soil support is modelled in one of three ways.
If the nett pressure (active pressure – passive pressure at a given
depth) does not fall to zero anywhere along the wall, the
hypothetical soil support is ignored and the embedded portion of
the wall is treated as if it were a cantilever. This situation is likely
to occur if there is only a short depth of embedment or the nett
pressures are particularly large. The applied load in this case is
carried entirely by the props.
If the nett pressure does fall to zero along the length of the wall,
the hypothetical soil support is considered as a rigid prop. This
situation is likely to occur if there is a large depth of embedment
or the nett pressures are particularly small. The applied load in
this case is shared by the props and the soil. The force carried
by the soil is equal to the jump in shear force that occurs at the
hypothetical soil support. Under this assumption it is essential to
check that the force assumed to be provided by the hypothetical
soil support is not greater than the available soil resistance
below that support. If it is greater, the following method should
be applied.
If the nett pressure falls to zero, but the available soil resistance
below the point at which that occurs is less than that required by
the rigid soil prop a finite soil reaction equal in magnitude to the
available soil resistance should be adopted in subsequent
calculations. This situation is likely to occur if there is a moderate
depth of embedment. The applied load in this case is shared by
the props and the soil. The force carried by the soil is equal to the
change in shear force that occurs at the hypothetical soil support.

5.12 Softened zone

Where soft cohesive soils are exposed at dredge or excavation
level it is advisable when calculating passive pressures to assume
that the cohesion increases linearly from zero to the design
cohesion value over a finite depth of passive soil. This is
discussed in more detail in 4.12.

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5.13 Bending moment reduction
The simplifying assumption made in design calculations
concerning the linear increase in active and passive pressures in a
material does not take into account the interaction between the
soil and the structure. Studies have shown that this can have a
significant effect on the distribution of earth pressures and
consequent bending moments and shear forces on a structure.
The reduction in calculated bending moments is a function of the
soil type and the flexibility of the wall in comparison to the
supported soil. When a supported, flexible wall deflects, a
movement away from the soil occurs between the support
position and the embedded portion of the wall. This effect often
leads to a form of arching within the supported soil mass which
allows the soil to maximise its own internal support capabilities
effectively reducing the pressures applied to the wall. For a
relatively flexible structure, such as an anchored sheet pile wall,
the effect of wall deformation will be to increase the pressures
acting above the anchor level, as the wall is moving back into the
soil using the support as a pivot, and reduce the pressures on the
wall below this level where the biggest deflections occur.
The result of a redistribution of pressures is therefore a reduction
in the maximum bending moment on a wall, but an increase in
support reaction. Support loads calculated by a limit equilibrium
analysis are generally lower than those resulting from soil structure
interaction
Redistribution should not be considered for cantilever walls or
where the structure is likely to be subjected to vibrational or large
impact forces that could destroy the soil 'arch'. Similarly, if the
support system is likely to yield or movement of the wall toe is
expected, moment reduction should not be applied. Where
stratified soils exist, moment reduction should be viewed with
caution since soil arching is less likely to occur in soils of varying
strength.
The beneficial effects of soil arching on wall bending moment are
automatically taken into account in analysis packages based on
soil-structure interaction.

5.14 Calculating support forces

Previous editions of the Piling Handbook have recommended that
the calculated reaction force be increased by 25% to ensure that
support systems were not under-designed in the event that
arching and stress redistribution behind the wall occurred. This
additional load was included to take into account the fact that
limit equilibrium methods of analysis would not automatically allow
for soil structure interaction. When a soil structure interaction

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analysis is undertaken, load redistribution is automatic and there is
no need to increase the calculated loads.
It is recommended that support loads are calculated for both the
serviceability limit state and the ultimate limit state and a
distinction should be made between limit equilibrium and soil
structure interaction analyses. The recommendation is that loads
calculated using limit equilibrium methods should be increased by
85% and that the ULS support load should be the greater of the
SLS prop load x 1.35 or the value derived from the ULS
calculation.
Although this may seem to be a large increase, the original Piling
Handbook approach to sizing of tie rods involved calculation of
the tie load under what were effectively service conditions and
application of an additional 25% for arching. The resultant load
was then used in conjunction with a maximum steel stress of 0.5f y
to determine the minimum steel area and hence the tie rod size.
This combination provided a load factor of 2.5 when compared to
fy and the proposed factors result in an effective factor of 1.85 x
1.35 = 2.4975.

5.15 Structural design of the wall

Traditionally the structural design of steel piling, walings, struts,
and tie rods based on loads calculated using the limit equilibrium
approach would involve the introduction of a permissible design
steel stress. This was almost universally taken to be about 2/3 of
the yield stress of the steel. The design method also allowed
designers to adopt a small increase in the permissible stress if the
work was designated as temporary.

Table 5.15
Class of Work Steel grade to EN 10248
S270GP S355GP
N/mm2 N/mm2
Permanent 180 230

Temporary 200 260

The values in the table above can be used in conjunction with

bending moments calculated using unfactored input parameters -
which equates to the serviceability limit state.
However when design calculations are based on a limit state
approach, factors given in an appropriate structural design code
(ie EC3:part5 for piling, EC3:part1 for the other structural
elements) should be adopted. For example, in UK, it is
recommended that an additional factor should be applied to
bending moments derived from worst credible earth and ground-

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water loads. These factored loads are then used with the yield
strength of the steel multiplied by a material factor. In the UK this
material factor is set to 1.0 at the time of going to press.

5.16 Selection of pile section

The absolute minimum sheet pile section required for the retaining
wall is that obtained from consideration of the bending moments
derived by calculation for the particular case in question. However,
it is also necessary to consider installation of the piles when
determining the section to be adopted as hard driving conditions
may require a heavier section to prevent buckling during
installation. This aspect is covered in more detail in Chapter 11.
Furthermore, the requirements with respect to the effective life of
the retaining wall will also need to be assessed. The effect of
corrosion on the steel piles is to reduce the section strength and
the design must ensure that the section selected will be able to
resist the applied bending moments at the end of the specified life
span without buckling or exceeding design stresses. In many
instances the need for a heavy section for driving automatically
introduces some if not all of the additional strength needed for
durability.

5.17 Design bending stresses

The Limit Equilibrium method of analysis enabled the designer to
assess the bending moments in the wall under working
conditions. To limit the stresses in the structure and thereby
control deflections, a factor of safety of 1.5 was applied to the
yield strength of the steel when calculating the minimum section
size required for the given conditions. Under these rules, normal
design conditions would result in a structure where the elements
were operating at a stress comfortably within their elastic capacity.
Corrosion activity reduces the section properties of the sheet pile
wall and, assuming that the bending moments in the wall do not
change, this has the effect of increasing the stress in the steel.
Clearly the upper limit on corrosion loss is defined by the point at
which the steel stress reaches yield and this was used traditionally
as a means of defining the effective life of a sheet pile structure. It
must not be overlooked that, while effective as a design method,
this approach created the condition where the factor of safety
against material failure was reducing with time.
It should be noted that when designing a wall using limit
equilibrium methods, it was possible for the designer to adopt a
different steel stress for permanent and temporary works on the
assumption that temporary works would not be subject to
corrosion conditions. Similarly, it was also possible to allow
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stresses in the steel to exceed the limit for temporary works for
conditions of short duration encountered during the construction
period – this was often referred to as the short term, temporary
condition.
The ability to flex the design stresses is not available under the
limit state system as the design stress in the steel is already
based on the yield strength.

5.18 Checklist of design input parameters

5.18.1 Ultimate Limit State (ULS) conditions
The designer should assess all construction and in-service
situations and design for the most onerous.
Soil design parameters
Factored soil design parameters should be used to derive earth
pressure coefficients for use in ULS calculations (see chapter 4).
Groundwater pressures
The worst credible groundwater pressures at each stage of the
construction sequence and throughout the wall’s design life
should be adopted.
Loads
The ULS design should be carried out using the worst credible
combination of loadings excluding extreme or accidental events.
It is recommended that a minimum surcharge load is applied to
the surface of the retained ground as discussed in 5.9.
Unplanned excavation
The ULS design condition should include an allowance for
unplanned excavation as outlined in 5.3.
Softened zone
If an allowance is to be made for softening of the passive soil in a
total stress analysis it should be applied beneath the unplanned
excavation level (see 5.12).

5.18.2 Serviceability Limit State (SLS) conditions

Soil design parameters
Unfactored soil design parameters should be used to derive earth
pressure coefficients for use in SLS calculations (see chapter 4).
Groundwater pressures
These should be the most unfavourable values which could occur
under normal circumstances during any construction stage or in
service. Extreme events such as a burst water main near the wall
may be excluded, unless the designer considers that under
normal circumstances this can be reasonably included.

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Loads
The loadings considered should be those that the designer
considers may apply under normal circumstances. Extreme or
accidental events should be excluded.
It is recommended that a minimum surcharge load is applied to
the surface of the retained ground, as discussed in 5.9.
Unplanned excavation
No allowance should be made for unplanned excavation below
the formation level expected in normal circumstances. However,
the expected formation level should take into account any
temporary excavation for services, if these can be reasonably
expected, and if appropriate any allowance for the excavation
tolerance.
Softened zone
If an allowance is to be made for softening of the passive soil in a
total stress analysis it should be applied beneath the unplanned
excavation level.

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5.19 Analysis of pressure diagrams
When creating a pressure diagram to work with, it is essential that
the pressure conditions are calculated at every change of state of
the problem i.e. strata boundaries, water tables, excavation depth
etc.. However when calculations involve a support, it is often very
convenient to include a pressure calculation at this level.
When taking moments of pressures about a given position, the
diagram can be broken down in different ways to produce a series
of sensible units.
It will be noted that in the situation where the pressure diagram is
divided into rectangles and triangles, care must be taken to
introduce the 1/2 factor for areas of triangles and either 1/3, 2/3 or
1/2 when assessing moments of areas about a point.

Fig 5.19 Analysis of pressure diagrams

When divided only into triangles, the 1/2 factor in the area
calculation appears everywhere and the moment factor will be 1/3
or 2/3.

Chapter 5/19
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation
6
10 Bearing piles and axially
loaded sheet piles
Retaining
walls

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
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Retaining walls
Contents Page
6.1 Introduction 1
6.2 Design activities for simple retaining walls 1
6.3 Pressure distributions 2
6.3.1 Low propped walls 3
6.3.2 Relieving platforms 4
6.4 Wall deflections 5
6.5 Anchorage systems 6
6.5.1 Location 6
6.5.2 Design of anchorages 6
6.5.3 Balanced anchorages 9
6.5.4 Cantilever anchorages 10
6.5.5 Grouted anchors 10
6.6 Walings 10
6.6.1 Design of walings 12
6.6.2 Ultimate bending capacity of parallel flange 13
channel walings.
6.7 Tie Rods 14
6.7.1 Tie rod fittings 16
6.7.2 Tie bar corrosion protection 17
6.7.3 Plates and washers 18
6.7.4 Special fittings 18
6.7.5 Site assembly 19
6.8 Example calculations 20
6.8.1 Cantilever retaining wall 20
6.8.2 Tied wall with free earth support 24
6.8.3 Tied wall with fixed earth support 27
6.8.4 Deadman anchorage 31
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Retaining walls
6.1 Introduction The design requirements that apply to any sheet pile structure are
included in Chapter 5. This chapter is given to highlight
information of particular relevance to the design of retaining walls.

6.2 Design activities for simple retaining walls

The following is a checklist of the activities needed to design a
simple retaining wall structure.
The sequence does not include any actions in respect of
calculations to confirm that progressive collapse will not occur.
SLS calculations should be carried out where wall deflections and
associated ground movements are of importance or if you wish to
adopt an allowable stress approach to the wall design.
Should the wall be subject to vertical loading, an additional
calculation to verify vertical equilibrium will be needed – this may
affect the design wall length determined in step 2 below and
subsequent stages will need to take any additional wall length into
account.
1 Determine soil parameters, groundwater pressures, load case
combinations and design geometry appropriate for ultimate
limit state (ULS) calculations.
2 Carry out collapse (ULS) calculations using limit equilibrium
methods or soil-structure interaction analysis and determine
the design wall depth
3 Carry out ULS limit equilibrium or soil-structure interaction
analysis to determine wall bending moment, shear force and
prop load.
Note: If SLS assessment is not required, steps 4 to 7 may be
omitted.
4 Determine soil parameters, groundwater pressures, load case
combinations, and design geometry appropriate to SLS
calculations. This step may be omitted if SLS calculations are
not required.
5 For the design wall depth, carry out SLS calculations using
limit equilibrium methods or soil-structure interaction analysis
to determine SLS load effects (wall bending moment, shear
force and prop or anchor loads). This step may be omitted if
SLS calculations are not required.
6 Determine wall deflections and ground movements from the
SLS soil-structure interaction analysis (if undertaken) and
empirical correlations with comparable case history data. This
step may be omitted if wall deflections and ground
movements are not of importance.

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7 Check that the SLS load effects, wall deflections and ground
movements determined in step 6 comply with criteria (ie
check compliance with allowable stress criteria for steel sheet
pile walls, if appropriate).
8 Determine ULS bending moments (BM) and shear force (SF)
appropriate for the structural design of the wall as the greater
of: BM and SF from step 3 or 1.35 times the BM and SF
values determined from step 5 (if undertaken)
To calculate the section modulus required using a limit state code,
it may be necessary to apply a further factor to the calculated
bending moments. In UK this factor is 1.2 for design to BS5950.
The calculation of the SLS wall bending moment, shear force and
prop or anchor load (if applicable) requires consideration of the
pressures acting on the wall when it is in limiting equilibrium
(Fs = 1.0). The wall under ULS conditions will have a deeper
embedment corresponding to Fs > 1.0.
The entire embedded depth of the wall should be considered when
calculating the groundwater seepage pressure in the SLS condition.

6.3 Pressure distributions

The pressure diagram most frequently adopted as the starting point
for retaining wall design involves a generally triangular distribution of
pressure based on the assumption that the wall moves away from
the active soil and towards the passive. This simple diagram is ideal
for hand calculations and generally results in a conservative solution.
The simple triangular pressure distribution can be modified – this
normally requires a computer program - to include the effects of
wall movement. The resultant pressure distribution will generally
involve a pressure increase at points on the wall where the
movement is small (ie supports) and a reduction due to arching
where the movement is large.
The pressure diagram can be further modified if the effects of
soil/pile interaction are taken into account. Once again a
sophisticated computer package is required for this and the effect is
generally a reduction in active pressure and an increase in passive.
The pressure diagram may also need to be amended if the wall
support is provided at a relatively low level - as may be the case
when a base slab is cast up against a cantilever retaining wall. In
this situation, the slab will act as the pivot point and the failure
mode may then involve forward movement of the upper part of the
wall and a backward movement of the lower portion of the pile.
This will cause the active and passive pressure zones to change
sides below the pivot, the effect of which needs to be included
in the design assessment. This is covered in more detail in
section 6.3.1.
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Similarly the inclusion of a relieving platform behind the wall will
allow active pressures to be reduced below the platform level on
the assumption that any surcharge and the weight of soil are
supported by the slab and distributed into the support system for
the slab as vertical loads. The intention is that this will result in
lower earth pressures and smaller bending moment in the wall.

6.3.1 Low propped walls

Research at Imperial College, London has shown that the earth
pressures acting on retaining walls that are restrained with a single
level of supports at or near excavation level, are different to those
assumed in conventional limit equilibrium calculations. Conventional
calculations assume that the mode of failure for a retaining
structure supported at or near the top will be in the form of a
forward rotation of the pile toe and the pressure distribution at
failure is based on this assumption. The failure mode assumed for a
low propped wall is that the pile will move away from the soil at the
top in a similar manner to a cantilever and the pile will move back
into the soil below the support level. This will result in the
generation of passive pressures on the back of the wall and active
pressures on the front.
To design a wall incorporating a low prop, there are two
fundamental requirements that must be satisfied for the calculation
method to be correct. Firstly, the prop must be sufficiently rigid to
act as a pivot and prevent any forward movement of the wall and
secondly, the sheet piles forming the wall must be capable of
resisting the bending moments induced at the prop level to ensure
that rotation of the pile occurs rather than buckling.

Fig 6.3.1 Pressure distribution on a low propped wall

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The design rules resulting from the Imperial College work suggest
that the earth pressures below the support should be calculated
assuming that active pressures apply at and above the prop
position with full passive pressure at the toe of the pile; the
change from one to the other being linear.
The support may be considered to be at low level if the depth to
the support exceeds two thirds of the retained height of the
excavation.
The operation of a low propped wall is very complex and it is
recommended that the design of such a structure is carried out
using soil structure interaction.

6.3.2 Relieving platforms

When the depth of soil to be retained and/or the applied
surcharge loading (e.g. from heavy wharf cranes) is excessive, soil
pressures may be reduced by the use of a relieving platform.
The relieving platform is constructed such that it will support the
surcharge loads and the upper portion of the retained soil, these
loads being transferred to lower strata where there will be no
effect on the pressures acting on the wall. Bearing piles, which
support the platform and transfer the loads into the soil at depth,
may also be designed to provide an anchorage to the wall.

Fig 6.3.2 Relieving platforms

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The platform can be supported in part by the main sheet pile wall
and if the vertical loading becomes excessive, box or high
modulus piles may be introduced into the wall at appropriate
intervals to carry this load. Alternatively, bearing piles may be
provided immediately behind the wall.
The relieving platform must be designed such that it will intersect
the plane of rupture from the soil above and behind the platform
preventing any load from that soil acting on the wall. The main
sheet piles may extend up to ground level or be curtailed at
platform level with a concrete retaining wall being provided above
that level; the concrete wall must be designed to derive its
stability from the platform.

6.4 Wall deflections The total deflection exhibited by a retaining wall comprises a
component based on the deflection of the section as a result of
the applied loads and a component based on compression of the
soil as the active/passive pressure regime is established. This
latter portion will apply irrespective of the material from which the
wall is formed as the magnitude of the movement is a function of
the soil properties rather than those of the wall. When assessing
the suitability of a particular form of wall for a given situation, the
engineer should consider what wall deflection is acceptable for
the environment in which the structure is to operate. For example
the deflection criteria may not need to be as onerous for a wall in
a rural setting compared to one in a congested inner city area.
It is often the case that the deflection for a flexible wall, for a given
set of conditions, is not substantially larger than that of a stiff wall.
It must not be overlooked however that it is often settlement of
the soil immediately behind the retaining wall that is the problem
to adjacent structures rather than the horizontal movement of the
wall itself.
A number of researchers have investigated the deflection of
retaining walls and it has been shown that the deflection of any
retaining wall is a function of the global system stiffness (Clough
et al, 1989) which is determined with the wall construction and the
propping arrangements in mind. This leads to the fact that the
expected deflection of a flexible wall with more props will be
similar to that of a stiff wall with fewer props.
Although deflection is probably considered to be a negative
feature of sheet piling construction, when the effects of flexibility
of the retaining structure are taken into account in the design
process, soil arching and stress redistribution will occur often
resulting in a significant reduction in the required bending moment
capacity when compared to a stiff wall. Hence in situations where
extra deflection can be accommodated, the reduced wall strength
demand means that a smaller pile section can be adopted

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allowing costs to be optimised and the wall footprint to be
minimised.
The deflection of the structure is not taken into account in a limit
equilibrium analysis and consequently a separate assessment of
the anticipated wall deflections is needed when wall movement is
important. The selection of appropriate soil parameters will
generally ensure that in-service stresses in the soils are not high
enough to result in large movements. It is suggested that adoption
of design effective stress parameters based on the lesser of the
representative critical state strength or representative peak
strength divided by a mobilisation factor of 1.2 will limit in service
displacements to 0.5% of the wall height if the soil is medium
dense or firm. In the case of total stress designs this limit on
movement will be achieved if the representative undrained
strength is divided by a mobilisation factor of at least 1.5.
Empirical methods have been developed to assess wall deflection
(Clough and O’Rourke, 1990) but when movements are critical, it
is recommended that an analysis involving soil structure
interaction is undertaken as the expected movements will be
incorporated into the analysis amending the soil pressures
accordingly.

6.5 Anchorage systems

6.5.1 Location For an anchorage system to be effective it must be located
outside the potential active failure zone developed behind a sheet
pile wall – outside line DE in figure 6.5.1a. Its capacity is also
impaired if it is located in unstable ground or if the active failure
zone prevents the development of full passive resistance of the
system.
If the anchorage is located between CA and DE, only partial
resistance is developed due to the intersection of the active and
passive failure wedges. However the theoretical reduction in
anchor capacity may be determined analytically.
In cohesive soils, the correct position for the anchorage is outside
the critical slip circle and at sufficient distance behind the wall to
develop a shear resistance equal to the ultimate capacity of the
anchorage.

6.5.2 Design of anchorages

Anchorages of this type can be formed as discrete units or as a
continuous wall and they should be positioned such that the
passive failure wedge from the toe of the anchor wall does not
coincide with the active failure zone behind the main wall as
illustrated in Fig. 6.5.1a.

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Fig 6.5.1a Location of anchorages

The net passive resistance to be obtained from the soil (passive

minus active) is calculated as for the retaining structure using the
worst conceivable combination of circumstances. Wall friction
should only be taken into account when deriving the earth pressure

Fig 6.5.1b Development of anchor resistance in cohesive soils

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coefficients if the designer is confident that it can be realised under
all loading conditions – the conservative approach is to ignore it.
However, the effect of variations in the ground water level on soil
strength properties and the application of surcharge loading to the
active side of the anchorage only should be included to maximise
the disturbing loads and minimise the restoring loads.
The anchorage system should be designed to provide sufficient
resistance to movement under serviceability limit state conditions
and sufficient resistance to satisfy ultimate limit state loads in the tie
rods.
In a similar manner to the design of the main wall, the anchorage
system may be assessed on the basis of serviceability and ultimate
limit states – see Section 6.2 for situations where an SLS analysis is
essential. The serviceability support load is taken as the actual
value derived from a soil structure interaction based analysis or that
derived from limit equilibrium based calculations multiplied by a
factor of 1.85 and this load is used in the structural design of the
anchor components. This factor is used to take into account the
fact that the anchorage is a critical part of the stability system for
the wall and that loads derived from a limit equilibrium analysis can
be significantly lower than those predicted by methods that adopt
soil structure interaction.
Similarly, the ultimate limit state load is the greater of that derived
for serviceability multiplied by 1.35 or that resulting from an analysis
of ULS conditions. Once again the 1.85 factor is applied to the ULS
loads derived using limit equilibrium analysis.
Design of the anchorage components, to established structural
codes will generally require the support loads generated as
indicated above, to be further multiplied by a factor to give ultimate
design loads.
In certain situations, progressive collapse of the structure may be
a consequence of an extreme condition ie failure of a tie rod and
under such circumstances, the designer should carry out a risk
assessment and if necessary avoid the possibility by changing the
design or applying controls to the construction activities.
If necessary calculations may be required to demonstrate that
progressive collapse will not occur.
These calculations should be carried out using unfactored soil
parameters and normal water levels, the resultant bending
moments and support forces being treated as ultimate loads.
With this robust construction requirement in mind, the
effectiveness of discrete anchorages needs to be given careful
consideration. The waling to the main wall will need to be
checked to ensure that it will not collapse if the span between
supports doubles following the loss of a tie rod. The ties on either

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side of the one that has failed will share the load from the missing
tie and, dependent upon the magnitude of the loads involved, the
resistance to be provided by each discrete anchorage may need
to increase to resist the loading. If the tie rods are attached to a
continuous anchorage, the total area of the anchorage will not
change but the walings will need to be strong enough to provide
the necessary support over a double span.
An example of anchorage design is included at the end of this
chapter.

6.5.3 Balanced anchorages

The design of balanced anchorages assumes that the resistance
afforded increases with depth below the ground surface giving a
triangular pressure distribution. The top of the anchorage is
assumed to be at a depth below the ground surface equal to 1/3
of the overall depth to its toe. The tie rod or tendon is placed
such that it connects with the anchorage at 2/3 of the overall
depth to the toe (on the centre line of the anchorage element).
This arrangement ensures that the tie rod force passes through
the centre of passive resistance.
The entire passive wedge developed in front of the anchorage,
including that above the top of the deadman unit, is effective in
providing resistance.
When the design is based on the provision of discrete anchorage
units, an additional force equal to that required to shear the
wedge of soil in front of the anchorage from adjacent soil at each
side can be added to the passive resistance to give the total
anchorage resistance.
The additional resistance resulting from shearing of the soil is
calculated using the following equations;
Cohesionless soils: Ps= 1/3 γ d3 Ka tan(45+φ/2) tanφ
and Cohesive soils Ps= su d2
where Ps is the total shear resistance on both sides
of the wedge
d is the depth to the toe of the anchorage
su is the undrained cohesion of the soil.
In the case of an anchorage in cohesive soil, the top metre of soil
should be ignored if tension cracks are likely to develop parallel to
the tie rods.
The maximum resistance that can be developed in the soil is that
resulting from adoption of a continuous anchorage so it is essential
that a check is made to ensure that the resistance provided by a
series of discrete anchorages does not exceed this figure.
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6.5.4 Cantilever anchorages
Cantilever anchorages may be considered where good soil is
overlain by a layer of poor material. This type of anchorage can be
designed in the same manner as a cantilever wall where the piles
must be driven to sufficient depth in a competent stratum to
achieve fixity of the pile toes. The earth pressures can be
assessed using conventional methods, but an additional load is
introduced to represent the tie rod load and the whole system is
then analysed to determine the pile length required to give
rotational stability about the pile toe under the applied loads. An
additional length of pile is then added to ensure that toe fixity is
achieved. A check must be made to ensure that horizontal
equilibrium of the forces acting on the anchorage is achieved.
The bending moments induced in this type of anchorage are
generally large and wherever possible this type of anchorage
should be avoided. Raking piles can often be an economic
alternative to this type of anchorage.

6.5.5 Grouted anchors

An alternative to a deadman anchorage is to use grouted soil or rock
anchors. These consist of a tendon, either bar or strand, which is
grouted over the anchor bond length, to transfer the tension load
into the soil. The part of the tendon between the wall and the anchor
bond length is left ungrouted to ensure the load transfer occurs
beyond the potentially unstable soil mass adjacent to the wall. The
installation of these anchors is usually carried out by specialist
contractors from whom further information may be obtained.

6.6 Walings Walings usually comprise two rolled steel channel sections placed
back to back and spaced to allow the tie rods to pass between the
channels. This spacing must allow for the diameter of the tie rod
and the thickness of any protective material applied to the rod and
take into account any additional space required if the tie rods are
inclined and will need to pass between the walings at an angle.
It is generally convenient to use at least 100mm deep channel
section diaphragms to create the necessary space positioned at
approximately 2.4m centres – although this dimension will
generally be determined by the width of the sheet piles and the
position of tie bolts and splices.
The walings may be fixed either at the back or front of the
retaining wall. The first arrangement is usually adopted for the
sake of appearances and, in the case of a wall in tidal or
fluctuating water level conditions, to prevent damage to the waling
by floating craft or vice versa.

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Fig 6.6 Typical anchoring arrangements

When the waling is placed behind the wall, it is necessary to use

short anchor bolts and plates at every point of contact between
the piles and the waling to connect them together. Placing the
waling in front of the wall eliminates the need for connection bolts
and this arrangement is therefore more economical.
Splices should be located at a distance of 0.2775 of the tie rod
spacing from a tie rod location as this will be close to the position
of minimum bending moment in the waling. The walings should
be ordered 100mm longer than the theoretical dimensions to
allow for any creep which may develop in the wall as the piles are
driven, one end only of each length being drilled for splicing (if the
splice is to be achieved by bolting). The other end should be plain
for cutting and drilling on site, after the actual length required has
been determined by measurement of the driven piles.
Where inclined ties are used, the vertical component of the
anchor load must not be overlooked and provision must be made
to support the waling, usually in the form of brackets or welded
connections.
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In order to prevent the build up of water on top of the waling after
backfilling, holes should be provided at any low spots and
generally at 3m centres in the webs of the walings.
Where sheet pile anchorages are used, similar walings to those at
the retaining wall are required. These are always placed behind the
anchor piles and consequently no anchor bolts are required.
Where walings form part of the permanent structure they can be
supplied with a protective coating applied before dispatch, a
further coat being applied at site after completion of the works.

6.6.1 Design of walings

For design purposes, the waling may be considered to be simply
supported between the tie rods (which will result in a conservative
bending moment) with point loads applied by the anchor bolts.
The magnitude of the tie bolt load is a function of the bolt spacing
and the design support load per metre run of wall. Alternatively,
the waling can be considered as continuous with allowance being
made for end spans. Although the waling is then statically
indeterminate, it is usual to adopt a simplified approach where the
bending moment is assumed to be wL2/10, w being the calculated
load to be supplied by the anchorage system acting as a uniformly
distributed load and L is the span between tie rods.
When checking the anchorage system for the loss of a tie rod, the
load in the anchorage system is assessed on the basis of the
requirements for a serviceability limit state analysis with no
allowance being made for overdig at excavation level. The
resulting bending moments and tie forces are considered to be
ultimate values and are applied over a length of waling of 2L.
In this extreme condition, it can be demonstrated that, with the
exception of the ties at either end of the external spans, the
bending moment in a continuous waling resulting from the loss of
any tie rod will not exceed 0.3wL2 where w is the support load
calculated for this condition expressed as a UDL and, for
simplicity, L is the original span between tie rods. It is intended
that this estimation is used for an initial assessment of the effect
that loss of a tie rod will have on the structural requirements.
This simplification will enable a check to be made with minimum
effort to ascertain whether the normal design conditions are the
more critical design situations. If the anchorage design proves to
be governed by this extreme case, it may be advantageous to
carry out a more rigorous analysis of the waling arrangement with
a view towards optimising the design.

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6.6.2 Ultimate bending capacity of parallel flange channel walings
Table 6.6.2 gives information on the theoretical ultimate bending
capacity of walings formed from ‘back to back’ channels in the
most commonly used steel grades.
It must not be overlooked that the calculated ultimate bending
capacity of the waling will need to be reduced to take into
account torsion, high shear loads and axial loading. The values
are included as an aid to initial section sizing.

Table 6.6.2 Back-to-back channel walings

Yield moment capacity
Dimensions Weight CS Area Section modulus Elastic Plastic
Designation h b tw tf A Wy Wpl,y S235JR S275JR S355JR S235JR S275JR S355JR
2 3 3
mm mm mm mm kg/m cm cm cm kNm kNm kNm kNm kNm kNm
UPN 180 180 70 8 11 44 56.0 300 358 70.5 82.5 106.5 98.5 84.1 127.1
UPN 200 200 75 8.5 11.5 51 64.4 382 456 89.8 105.1 135.6 125.4 125.4 161.9
UPN 220 220 80 9 12.5 59 74.8 490 584 115.2 134.8 174.0 160.6 160.6 207.3
UPN 240 240 85 9.5 13 66 84.6 600 716 141.0 165.0 213.0 196.9 196.9 254.2
UPN 260 260 90 10 14 76 96.6 742 884 174.4 204.1 263.4 243.1 243.1 313.8
UPN 280 280 95 10 15 84 106.6 896 1064 210.6 246.4 318.1 292.6 292.6 377.7
UPN 300 300 100 10 16 92 117.6 1070 1264 251.5 294.3 379.9 347.6 347.6 448.7
UPN 320 320 100 14 17.5 119 151.6 1358 1652 319.1 373.5 482.1 454.3 454.3 586.5
UPN 350 350 100 14 16 121 154.6 1468 1836 345.0 403.7 521.1 504.9 504.9 651.8
UPN 380 380 102 13.5 16 126 160.8 1658 2028 389.6 456.0 588.6 557.7 557.7 719.9
UPN 400 400 110 14 18 144 183.0 2040 2480 479.4 561.0 724.2 682.0 682.0 880.4

The table shows the basic Yield Moment capacity of the walings calculated
as Mel = Ys . Wy and Mpl = Ys . Wpl,y.
Appropriate standards should be used to assess whether the moment
capacity needs to be reduced to take into account:
lateral torsional buckling
high shear loading
axial load
Webs should be checked for buckling and bearing.

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6.7 Tie rods Tie rods are readily available in weldable structural steel complying
with EN10025 grade S235J0 and S355JO but the economies to be
gained from specifying high tensile ties mean that steel with a yield
stress of 500N/mm2 is being specified more and more.
Tie rods may be manufactured from plain round bars with the
threads formed in the parent metal such that the minimum tensile
area will occur in the threaded portion of the bar. Alternatively, they
may be manufactured with upset ends which involves forging the
parent bar to create a larger diameter over the length to be
threaded. Using this process, a smaller diameter bar can be used to
create a given size of thread.
Threads may be produced by cold rolling or machining.
The ultimate resistance of a tie rod is calculated on the basis of the
lowest resistance from either the threaded part of the rod or the
shaft at any time during the life of the structure. It is common
practice to limit the stress in the threaded section of a tie rod to the
lesser of either the yield stress of the steel or a proportion of it’s
ultimate tensile strength - in many current design codes this
proportion is in the region of 70%. The cross section area
applicable to the threaded portion is the net area of the bar allowing
for the loss of area over the depth of the threads.
When calculating the shaft resistance, the stress is taken as the yield
stress of the steel and the tensile area as the gross area of the bar.
Hence the ultimate resistance of the tie rod is the lesser of
K . fu . A t
fy . A t
or fy . A g
where K is a reduction factor whose value is defined in local
standards;
f u is the ultimate tensile strength of the steel;
A t is the tensile stress area at the threads;
f y is the yield strength of the steel ;
A g is the gross area of the parent bar ;
Individual tie rod manufacturers offer different products and
designers should check manufacturers literature or websites to
ensure that they have the most up to date information.
The following table indicates the nominal steel areas for a range of
tie rods providing threads of a given size. As can be seen, a
smaller diameter parent bar can be used to create a tie rod with a
given thread size when the ends are upset.
Care must be exercised when assessing the ultimate resistance of
the tie rods offered by different manufacturers as the quoted
tensile area in the threaded section may not take into account
manufacturing tolerances for the threading process and
consequently may not be the lowest possible tensile area.
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Table 6.7
Upset bars Plain bars
Nominal Nominal Minimum Bar dia Area of Bar dia Area of
Thread Minimum area under Main bar main bar
size thread dia* threads
mm mm2 mm mm2 mm mm2

M36 32.253 817 30 707 36 1018

M42 37.763 1120 35 962 42 1385

M48 43.307 1473 40 1257 48 1810

M56 50.840 2030 47 1735 56 2463

M64 58.360 2675 54 2290 64 3217

M72 66.364 3459 61 2922 72 4072

M85 79.364 4947 73 4185 85 5675

M90 84.365 5590 77 4657 90 6362

M100 94.367 6994 87 5945 100 7854

M105 99.368 7755 90 6362 105 8659

M110 104.371 8556 95 7088 110 9503

M120 114.371 10274 105 8659 120 11310

M130 124.371 12149 115 10387 130 13273

M135 129.371 13139 120 11310 135 14313

M140 134.371 14181 123 11882 140 15394

M145 139.371 15249 127 12667 145 16513

M150 144.371 16370 130 13273 150 17671

Note: The optimum bar diameter is generally selected after

considering the actual working load, sacrificial corrosion
allowance and the effects of strain.
* Taking manufacturing tolerances into account when defining the
minimum thread diameter can reduce the tensile area (based on
nominal values) by up to 3% dependent upon the rod diameter.
The load in a tie rod can be difficult to determine with any great
degree of accuracy due to factors such as the variability of the
material retained and arching within the soil. The adoption of fairly
large factors of safety in traditional designs, for what is a safety
critical element, has reflected the uncertainty in this area. Under
the limit state design philosophy adopted in this Handbook, this
practice is continued and the ultimate anchor load is calculated
by the application of a 1.85 factor to the reaction force derived by
calculation based on limit equilibrium methods of analysis.
Reaction forces derived from soil structure interaction methods do
not need to have this factor applied as the effect of arching is
already built in to the analysis.
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Elongation of the tie rods under the design load should be
checked. Movement under imposed loads may be reduced in
many cases by pre-loading the tie rods at the time of installation
to develop the passive resistance of the ground.
The effect of sag of the tie rods and forced deflection due to
settlement of fill should also be considered. Bending stresses
induced at a fixed anchorage may significantly increase the tensile
stress in the tie rod locally. Shear stresses may also be induced if
a tie rod is displaced when the fill settles causing compound
stresses which must be allowed for in the detailed design. This
can often be overcome by provision of articulated joints or
settlement ducts.

6.7.1 Tie rod fittings Tie rod assemblies will normally comprise two lengths of tie rod, a
nut and a plate to suit the bearing conditions at each end, and
usually a turnbuckle to permit length adjustment and to take out
any sag. Individual tie rods are available in lengths up to
approximately 20 metres – actual maximum length is different for
different manufacturers - but if the length of the complete rod is
such that more than two elements of bar are required, couplers
with two right hand threads are also included.
Taper or special washers are used when the axis of a tie rod is not
perpendicular to its seating. In some instances it is desirable to
allow for rotation of the axis to a tie rod relative to the bearing
face, and "articulated" anchorages are available for this purpose.
Plates are needed to transmit the load imposed on sheet piling to
the tie rods and from the tie rods to the anchorages which may be
further sheet piles, a concrete wall or individual concrete blocks.
Washer plates are used when the tie rods are anchored within the
pans of sheet piles and bearing plates when the load is
transmitted through walings. When the load is taken to a concrete
wall or block, anchorage plates distribute the load to the concrete.
The waling loads are transmitted to the anchorages by means of
anchor bolts which also require bearing plates and washers of
sufficient size to provide adequate bearing onto the sheet piling,
walings, etc.

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6.7.2 Tie bar corrosion protection
Steel sheet piles are used in many aggressive environments and
consequently corrosion protection or factors influencing effective
life must be considered. Several options are available to the
designer.
1 Unprotected steel
In this situation, consideration should be given to the
probable corrosion rates and consequential loss of bar
diameter in a particular environment as outlined in Chapter 3.
2 Protective Coatings
Several options are available, such as painting, galvanising or
wrapping. The most commonly used method is to wrap tie
bars to give an appropriate level of corrosion protection. The
vulnerable anchor head should be protected, and Fig. 6.7.2
shows a suggested detail. Commonly adopted wrapping
systems are indicated in table 6.7.2.
3 Cathodic protection for tie rods underwater

Fig 6.7.2 Protection system for the anchor head

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Retaining walls
Table 6.7.2 Levels of protection using petrolatum fabric reinforced
tape and rubber/bitumen tape
Description Application Shop/Site application method

Paste, soft petrolatum Backfill, non tidal area or Shop and site application
reinforced tape, 15mm overlap debond through concrete Machine or hand application

As above, 55% overlap Backfilled marine environment Shop and site application
Machine or hand application

As above, 55% and pvc Backfilled marine environment Shop and site application
overwrap also ease of handling Machine or hand application

As above, 55% overlap, Aggressive environments, Shop application recommended.

Denso Therm overwrap marine environments Machine or hand application

Denso Pol 60 tape system, Aggressive environments, marine Shop application only,
55% overwrap environments, long life maritime Machine application only
structures.

6.7.3 Plates and washers

Dimensions of plates and washers can be obtained from suppliers
literature or from their websites.

6.7.4 Special fittings Any bending in a tie rod, especially in the threaded length
increases the stress locally with the possibility of yield or even
failure if the bending is severe. In order to eliminate the risk of
bending, several options are available which allow rotation of the
axis of a tie rod while maintaining its tensile capacity. These
include forged eye tension bars pinned to brackets on the sheet
pile. Other options are nuts and washers with spherical seatings
or pairs of taper washers which can be rotated to give any angle
between zero and a predetermined maximum. The last two
methods will cater for initial angularity but will not move to
accommodate rotation in service.

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6.7.5 Site assembly Tie rods are normally assembled with component bars supported
to the correct level. Any slack is then taken out by tightening
either a turnbuckle or the nut at one end. It is not possible to
apply more than a nominal tension by tightening the end nut.

Fig 6.7.5 Waling connections at anchorages

Tie bars perform best in pure tension, so it is good practice to

ensure that this is achieved. The following is a recommended
sequence of events to ensure that tie rods are installed and
tensioned correctly.
1 Backfill to approximately 150mm below the finished level for
the ties.
2 Place sand bags every 6m on either side of a
coupler/turnbuckle or articulated joint.
3 Fit settlement ducts over the ties. (check the possibility of
installing hinge joints or hinge turnbuckles)
4 Assemble with turnbuckles or couplers. The minimum screw
in length of bar thread is 1 x nominal thread diameter.
5 Tension from the anchorage outside of the wall to take up the
slack.
6 Tension turnbuckles.
7 Place sand fill over the settlement ducts.
8 Backfill to required level.
This procedure applies to a simple situation and additional
activities may be considered for example, applying pretensioning
to pull the piles in before final backfilling, stressing after backfilling
to prevent future movement due to subsequent loading.
Further information on stressing is available on request from tie
rod manufacturers.

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Retaining walls
6.8 Example calculations
This section contains sample calculations employing limit state
design for the following cases:
1 Cantilever retaining wall.
2 Tied wall with free earth support.
3 Tied wall with fixed earth support.
4 Balanced anchorage.
In all the following examples, the friction angles indicated are
moderately conservative and need to be factored to obtain design
values

6.8.1 Cantilever retaining wall

A wall is to be built to support a retained height of 3.6 m of sandy
soils. The effective wall height = 3.6m + 10% = 3.96m say 4.0m
(unplanned excavation allowance is 10% with 0.5m maximum)
Minimum surcharge loading = 10 kN/m2
Loose fine sand Ka = 0.317 Kp = 3.963
Compact fine sand Ka = 0.260 Kp = 5.329

Fig 6.8.1a

γ=14.7 kN/m3

γsat=19.1 kN/m3
φ=32°

γ=15.4 kN/m3

γsat=19.4 kN/m3
φ=37°

γw=9.81 kN/m3

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Active pressures
Pa at 0.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 0.317 x 10.00 + 0.00 = 3.17 kN/m2
Pa at 5.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 0.317 x 83.50 + 0.00 = 26.47 kN/m2
Pa at 5.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 0.260 x 83.50 + 0.00 = 21.71 kN/m2
Pa at 6.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 0.260 x 98.90 + 0.00 = 25.71 kN/m2
Pa at 10.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 0.260 x 137.26 + 39.24 = 74.93 kN/m2

Passive pressures
Pp at 4.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 3.963 x 0.00 + 0.00 = 0.00 kN/m2
Pp at 5.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 3.963 x 14.70 + 0.00 = 58.26 kN/m2
Pp at 5.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 5.329 x 14.70 + 0.00 = 78.34 kN/m2
Pp at 6.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 5.329 x 30.10 + 0.00 = 160.40 kN/m2
Pp at 10.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 5.329 x 68.46 + 39.24 = 404.06 kN/m2

Fig 6.8.1b

Since the pressure diagram is not uniform the depth of the toe is
best found by trial and error which results in a length of 7.022m.

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Take moments about the toe at 7.022m depth
Active force
Force Moment abt toe
kN/m kNm/m
3.17 x 5.000 x 1/2 = 7.93 x 5.355 = 42.44
26.47 x 5.000 x 1/2 = 66.17 x 3.689 = 244.12
21.71 x 1.000 x 1/2 = 10.86 x 1.689 = 18.33
25.71 x 1.000 x 1/2 = 12.86 x 1.355 = 17.42
25.71 x 1.022 x 1/2 = 13.14 x 0.681 = 8.95
38.29 x 1.022 x 1/2 = 19.57 x 0.341 = 6.67
130.53 337.93
Passive force
Force Moment abt toe
kN/m kNm/m
58.26 x 1.000 x 1/2 = 29.13 x 2.355 = 68.60
78.34 x 1.000 x 1/2 = 39.17 x 1.689 = 66.16
160.40x 1.000 x 1/2 = 80.20 x 1.355 = 108.67
160.40x 1.022 x 1/2 = 81.96 x 0.681 = 55.82
222.66x 1.022 x 1/2 = 113.78 x 0.341 = 38.80
344.24 338.05
Since the passive moment is marginally greater than the active
moment the length is OK
To correct the error caused by the use of the simplified method
the depth below the point of equal active and passive pressure is
increased by 20% to give the pile penetration.
Let the point of equal pressure be (4.00 + d) below ground level
Then 58.26 x d = 3.17 + 23.30 x (4.000 + d)
1.00 5.00

Therefore d = 21.81 = 0.407m

58.26 – 4.66

Hence the required pile length

= 4.000 + 0.407 + 1.2 x (3.022 – 0.407) = 7.545m say 7.55m
Zero shear occurs at 5.570m below ground level. (where the area
of the active pressure diagram above the level equals the area of
the passive pressure diagram above the level.)

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Take moments about and above the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
3.17 x 5.000 x 1/2 x 3.903 = 30.93
26.47 x 5.000 x 1/2 x 2.237 = 148.03
21.71 x 0.570 x 1/2 x 0.380 = 2.35
23.99 x 0.570 x 1/2 x 0.190 = 1.30
-58.26 x 1.000 x 1/2 x 0.903 = -26.30
-78.34 x 0.570 x 1/2 x 0.380 = -8.48
-125.11 x 0.570 x 1/2 x 0.190 = -6.77
141.06
Maximum bending moment = 141.1 kNm/m
Since the soil loadings determined in this example are based on
factored soil parameters a partial factor of 1.2 is applied to give
the ultimate design load.
Section modulus of pile required
= 1.2 x 141.1 x 10 3 / 270 = 627 cm 3/m
Hence use PU7(1) piles (z = 670 cm 3/m) not less than
7.55m long in S270GP
However the designer will need to check the suitability of the
section for driving and durability.

(1)
Section properties of the section: see Table 13.1.1

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6.8.2 Tied wall with free earth support
A wall is to be built to support a retained height of 7.00m
(including the unplanned excavation allowance with a low tide
level at 5.00m below the top of the wall.
Although the weep holes in the wall will allow the retained soil to
drain the ground water will lag behind the tide and hence the
ground water level on the retained side is assumed to be 1.00m
above the low tide level.
It will be necessary to anchor the top of the wall and the ties are
assumed to act at 1.00m below ground level.
Minimum surcharge loading = 10 kN/m2
Loose fine sand Ka = 0.317 Kp = 3.963
Compact fine sand Ka = 0.260 Kp = 5.329

Fig 6.8.2a

γ=14.7 kN/m3

γsat=19.1 kN/m3
φ'=32°

γ=15.4 kN/m3

γsat=19.4 kN/m3
φ'=37°

γw=9.81 kN/m3

Active pressures
Pa at 0.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 0.317 x 10.00 + 0.00 = 3.17 kN/m2
Pa at 4.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 0.317 x 68.80 + 0.00 = 21.81 kN/m2
Pa at 4.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 0.260 x 68.80 + 0.00 = 17.89 kN/m2
Pa at 10.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 0.260 x 126.34 + 58.86 = 91.71 kN/m2

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Passive pressures
Pp at 7.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 5.329 x 0.00 + 19.62 = 19.62 kN/m2
Pp at 10.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 5.329 x 28.77 + 49.05 = 202.37 kN/m2
Since the pressure diagram is not uniform the length of pile
required to provide stability (i.e. Active moment = Passive
moment) for rotation about the tie is found by trial and error to be
9.447m

Fig 6.8.2b

Taking moments of the active pressures about the top frame:

Active force Active moment
kN/m kNm/m
3.17 x 4.000 x 1/2 = 6.34 x 0.333 = 2.11
21.81 x 4.000 x 1/2 = 43.62 x 1.667 = 72.71
17.89 x 5.447 x 1/2 = 48.72 x 4.816 = 234.65
84.91 x 5.447 x 1/2 = 231.25 x 6.631 = 1533.43
329.93 1842.90

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Taking moments of the passive pressures about the top frame:
Passive force Active moment
kN/m kNm/m
19.62 x 2.000 x 1/2 = 19.62 x 5.333 = 104.63
19.62 x 2.447 x 1/2 = 24.00 x 6.816 = 163.62
168.68x 2.447 x 1/2 = 206.38 x 7.631 = 1574.89
250.00 1843.14
Passive moment is close enough to Active moment therefore OK
Tie load = 329.93 – 250.00 = 79.93 kN/m
Zero shear occurs at 5.195m below ground level. (where the area
of the active pressure diagram less the area of the passive
pressure diagram above the level equals the tie load.)
Take moments about and above the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
3.17 x 4.000x 1/2 x 3.862 = 24.49
21.81 x 4.000x 1/2 x 2.528 = 110.27
17.89 x 1.195x 1/2 x 0.797 = 8.52
32.59 x 1.195x 1/2 x 0.398 = 7.75
-1.91 x 0.195x 1/2 x 0.065 = -0.01
-79.93 x 4.195 = -335.31
-184.29
Maximum bending moment with free earth support
= 184.3 kNm/m
Since the soil loadings determined in this example are based on
factored soil parameters a partial factor of 1.2 is applied to give
the ultimate design load.
For piles in steel grade S270GP Ys = 270 N/mm2
Section modulus of pile required = 1.2 x 184.3 x 10 3 / 270
= 819 cm3/m
Hence use PU8 (1) piles (z = 830 cm3/m) not less than 9.50m long
in S270GP
However the designer will need to check the suitability of the
section for driving and durability.

(1)
Section properties of the section: see Table 13.1.1

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6.8.3 Tied wall with fixed earth support
The conditions adopted for the free earth support example are
used again to provide a comparison.
Minimum surcharge loading = 10 kN/m2
Loose fine sand Ka = 0.317 Kp = 3.963
Compact fine sand Ka = 0.260 Kp = 5.329

Fig 6.8.3a

γ = 14.7 kN/m2

γsat = 19.1 kN/m2

φ′ = 32°

γ = 15.4 kN/m
2

γsat = 19.4 kN/m2

φ′ = 37°

γw = 9.81 kN/m
2

Active pressures
Pa at 0.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 0.317 x 10.00 + 0.00 = 3.17 kN/m2
Pa at 4.00m below G.L. in loose sand
= 0.317 x 68.80 + 0.00 = 21.81 kN/m2
Pa at 4.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 0.260 x 68.80 + 0.00 = 17.89 kN/m2
Pa at 12.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 0.260 x 145.52 + 78.48 = 116.32 kN/m2
Passive pressures
Pp at 7.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 5.329 x 0.00 + 19.62 = 19.62 kN/m2
Pp at 12.00m below G.L. in compact sand
= 5.329 x 47.95 + 68.67 = 324.20 kN/m2

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Fig 6.8.3b

The simplified method for a fixed earth analysis assumes that the
point of contraflexure in the bending moment diagram occurs at
the level where the active pressure equals the passive pressure
and hence the frame load can be calculated by taking moments
about this level (Y-Y).
Let Y-Y be 7.00m + d below the retained ground level
where Pa = Pp
Then 17.89 + 98.43 x 3 + 98.43 x d = 19.62 + 304.58 x d
8.00 8.00 5.00

hence 54.80 + 12.304d = 19.62 + 60.916d

therefore d = 35.18 = 0.724m
48.612

Take moments about Y-Y

Force Moment abt Y-Y
kN/m kNm/m
3.17 x 4.000 x 1/2 = 6.34 x 6.391 = 40.52
21.81 x 4.000 x 1/2 = 43.62 x 5.057 = 220.59
17.89 x 3.724 x 1/2 = 33.31 x 2.483 = 82.71
63.71 x 3.724 x 1/2 = 118.63 x 1.241 = 147.22
-19.62 x 2.000 x 1/2 = -19.62 x 1.391 = -27.29
-19.62 x 0.724 x 1/2 = -7.10 x 0.483 = -3.43
-63.71 x 0.724 x 1/2 = -23.06 x 0.241 = -5.56
152.12 454.76

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454.76
Then frame load = 6.724 = 67.63 kN/m

The length of pile is found by taking moments about an assumed

toe level such that the moments of all the forces are in equilibrium.
Since the pressure diagram is not uniform, and the equation for a
direct solution will have cubic terms, the pile length is found by
trial and error to be 10.953m
Taking moments about the toe of the pile
kNm/m
3.17 x 4.000 x 1/2 x 9.620 = 60.99
21.81 x 4.000 x 1/2 x 8.286 = 361.44
17.89 x 6.953 x 1/2 x 4.635 = 288.27
103.44 x 6.953 x 1/2 x 2.318 = 833.57
-19.62 x 2.000 x 1/2 x 4.620 = -90.64
-19.62 x 3.953 x 1/2 x 2.635 = -102.18
-260.42 x 3.953 x 1/2 x 1.318 = -678.40
-67.63 x 9.953 = -673.12
-0.07
To correct the error caused by the use of the simplified method
the depth below the point of contraflexure is increased by 20% to
give the pile penetration.
Hence the required pile length
= 7.00 + 0.724 + 1.2 x (10.953 – 7.724) = 11.599m
Zero shear occurs at 4.779m below ground level. (where the area
of the active pressure diagram above the level equals the top
frame load.)
Take moments about and above the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
3.17 x 4.000 x 1/2 x 3.446 = 21.85
21.81 x 4.000 x 1/2 x 2.112 = 92.13
17.89 x 0.779 x 1/2 x 0.519 = 3.62
27.47 x 0.779 x 1/2 x 0.260 = 2.78
-67.63 x 3.779 = -255.57
-135.19
Maximum bending moment = 135.2 kNm/m

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Since the soil loadings determined in this example are based on
factored soil parameters a partial factor of 1.2 is applied to give
the ultimate design load.
For piles in steel grade S270GP Ys = 270 N/mm2
Section modulus of pile required
= 1.2 x 135.2 x 10 3 / 270 = 601 cm 3/m
Hence use PU6(1) piles (z = 600 cm 3/m) not less than 11.60m long
in S270GP
However the designer will need to check the suitability of the
section for driving and durability.

(1)
Section properties of the section: see Table 13.1.1

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6.8.4 Deadman anchorage example
The following example illustrates the method commonly used for
the design of balanced anchorages. The conditions adopted are
those used to design the retaining wall with fixed earth support
conditions assumed at the toe of the main wall.

Fig 6.8.4

γ = 15.4 kN/m3
γsat = 19.4 kN/m3
φ = 37°

Waling load calculated using factored soil parameters and a fixed

earth support = 68 kN/m
Since the design of the front wall used a Limit Equilibrium
approach
Ultimate load for anchorage design = 1.85 x 68 = 125.8 kN/m
As explained in section 6.5.2 it is usual to provide a robust design
for the anchorage and hence this example assumes a continuous
anchor wall with a suitable waling.
Passive pressure in front of anchorage = Kp γ d
Active pressure behind the anchorage = K a w + K a γ d, where w is
the surcharge loading which is applied, as a worst case, behind
the anchorage wall only
Hence T = (K p - K a) γ d - K a wd
2

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This force is assumed to act at 2/3 depth but this may need to be
checked, by taking moments about the toe of the pile for the
various components, where there is a large surcharge and/or a
high water table. If the toe of the pile is below the water table the
calculation should be split and passive and active pressures
calculated for each appropriate level in a manner similar to the
main wall.
Since there is a lack of restraint against upward movement of the
anchor wall skin friction is ignored and hence
Ka = 0.368 and Kp = 2.716
For a 2.85m deep anchorage
2
T = (2.716 - 0.368) x 14.7 x 2.85 - 0.368 x 10.00 x 2.85
2
= 129.7 kN/m > 125.8 kN/m ∴ OK

Average pressure on anchorage = 125.8 = 66.2 kN/m 2

1.90

Bending moment in piles = 0.125wL2 = 0.125 x 66.2 x 1.90 2

= 29.9 kNm/m
(L = actual length of piles = 2 x 2.85 = 1.90m)
3

Since the soil loadings determined in this example are based on

factored soil parameters a partial factor of 1.2 is applied to give
the ultimate design bending moment.
Hence minimum section modulus required
= 1.2 x 29.9 x 103 = 133 cm 3/m
270

Therefore use PU6(1) piles in steel grade S270GP by 1.9m long

Assume the tie rods are at 3.60m centres i.e. every sixth pile.
The tie rods are inclined downwards at an angle of
tan-1 0.9( )
= 4.85°
10.60

Then ultimate design load in tie rod

= 1.2 x 125.8 x 3.60 = 545.4 kN
cos 4.85°

Select a tie rod size from manufacturers literature to provide

an ultimate resistance in excess of 545.4kN
Ultimate design load on waling = 1.2 x 125.8 = 151.0 kN/m
Bending moment on waling = 0.1 x 151.0 x 3.60 2 = 195.7 kNm
Maximum shear load = 0.5 x 151.0 x 3.60 = 271.8 kN
(1)
Section properties of the section: see Table 13.1.1
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Subject to a check on torsion and shear, a waling formed from
back to back UPN 240 channel sections in grade S275JO steel
will provide the required moment capacity (Mpl = 196.9 kNm)
However it may be necessary to check the exceptional
circumstance of a tie failing, as outlined in Section 6.5.2.
For this condition a second pressure diagram should be
constructed using un-factored soil parameters and without the
unplanned excavation allowance. The depth to the point of equal
active and passive pressures is found, moments taken about and
above this level and the waling load calculated.
For this wall Ka for the loose sand is 0.262 and for the compact
sand 0.209; Kp for the compact sand is 7.549 and the depth of
excavation without the unplanned excavation allowance is 6.50m.
This gives a waling load of 47.33 kN/m.
Hence the ultimate load for waling design
= 1.85 x 47.33 = 87.6 kN/m
Load in the tierods either side of the failed tie
= 1.2 x 87.6 x 1.5 x 3.60 = 569.7 kN
cos 4.85°

The resistance of the chosen tie rod must be checked against this
revised value and the diameter increased if necessary.
Ultimate design load on waling
= 1.2 x 87.6 = 105.1 kN/m
Max bending moment in waling
= 0.3 x 105.1 x 3.60 2 = 408.6 kNm
Since this is greater than the capacity of the previously designed
waling the proposed section must be increased.
Maximum shear load = 0.5 x 105.1 x 2.0 x 3.60 = 378.4 kN
Subject to a check on torsion and shear, a waling formed from
back to back UPN 300 channel sections in grade S355JO steel
will provide the required moment capacity (Mpl = 448.7 kNm).

Chapter 6/33
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations 7
Cofferdams

13 Useful information
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Contents Page
7.1 Introduction 1
7.2 Requirements of a Cofferdam 1
7.3 Planning a Cofferdam 2
7.4 Causes of failure 3
7.5 Support arrangements 3
7.6 Design of Cofferdams 4
7.7 Single skin Cofferdams 4
7.8 Cofferdam arrangements 7
7.8.1 Cofferdams for river crossings 7
7.8.2 Cofferdams with unbalanced loading
(dock wall and riverside construction) 8
7.9 Single skin Cofferdam design example 9
7.10 Design of support system 21
7.11 Cofferdam support frames 22
7.12 Strength of waling and struts 23
7.13 Circular Cofferdams 26
7.14 Reinforced concrete walings for circular Cofferdams 28
7.15 Earth filled double-wall and cellular Cofferdams 29
7.16 Double skin / wall Cofferdams 29
7.17 Cellular Cofferdams 30
7.18 Effect of water pressure 30
7.19 Flow nets 33
7.20 Factor of safety against piping 35
7.21 Pump sumps 35
7.22 Sealants 36
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7.1 Introduction The purpose of a cofferdam is to exclude soil and/or water from
an area in which it is required to carry out construction work to a
depth below the surface. Total exclusion of water is often
unnecessary, and in some instances may not be possible, but the
effects of water ingress must always be taken into account in any
calculations.
For basement construction the designer should always consider
incorporating the cofferdam into the permanent works.
Considerable savings in both time and money can be achieved by
using the steel sheet piles as the primary permanent structural
wall. The wall can be designed to carry vertical loading, see
Chapter 10, and by the use of a suitable sealant system be made
watertight. Details of suitable sealant systems can be found in
Chapter 2.
Where control of ground movement is a specific concern the use
of top down construction should be considered. This will ensure
that movement of the top of the wall is restricted with the
introduction of support at ground level prior to excavation starting
and will also remove the possibility of secondary movement
occurring when the lateral soil loading is transferred from the
temporary supports, as they are removed, to the permanent
structure.
There are two principal approaches to cofferdam design. Single
skin structures are most commonly used but for very large or
deep excavations and marine works double wall or cellular gravity
structures may be preferred.

7.2 Requirements of a Cofferdam

The design of a cofferdam must satisfy the following criteria:-
• The structure must be able to withstand all the various loads
applied to it.
• The quantity of water entering the cofferdam must be
controllable by pumping.
• At every stage of construction the formation level must be stable
and not subject to uncontrolled heave, boiling or piping.
• Deflection of the cofferdam walls and bracing must not affect
the permanent structure or any existing structure adjacent to the
cofferdam.
• Overall stability must be shown to exist against out of balance
earth pressures due to sloping ground or potential slip failure
planes.
• The cofferdam must be of an appropriate size to suit the
construction work to be carried out inside it.

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• Temporary cofferdams must be built in such a way that the
maximum amount of construction materials can be recovered
for reuse.

7.3 Planning a Cofferdam

The designer of a cofferdam must have an established set of
objectives before commencing the design. The sequence of
construction activities must be defined in order that the design
can take into account all the load cases associated with the
construction and dismantling of the cofferdam. From this
sequence the designer can identify the critical design cases and
hence calculate the minimum penetrations, bending moments and
shear forces to determine the pile section and length required.
As part of the analysis of the construction activities the designer
should undertake a risk assessment of the effect of any deviation
from the planned sequence. Such deviations may be in the form
of over excavation at any stage, inability to achieve the required
pile penetration, installation of the support at the wrong level or
the imposition of a large surcharge loading from construction
plant or materials. If any stage in the cofferdam construction is
particularly vulnerable then contingency plans should be
developed to minimise any risk and the site management should
be informed to limit the possibility of critical conditions being
realised.
The majority of cofferdams are constructed as temporary works
and it may be uneconomic to design for all possible loading
cases. Decisions will have to be taken, normally involving the site
management, to determine the level of risk that is acceptable
when assessing the design cases; such a situation may occur
when assessing hydraulic loading on a cofferdam. Flood
conditions tend to be seasonal and provision of a cofferdam
which will exclude water at all times may involve a substantial
increase in pile size and strength as well as increased framing. In
an extreme flood condition the design philosophy may involve
evacuation of the cofferdam and allowing it to overtop and flood.
Under these conditions the designer must allow for the
overtopping, considering the effect of the sudden ingress of water
on the base of the cofferdam and the effect that any trapped
water may have on the stability when the flood subsides.
Prior to the commencement of construction the site area should
be cleared to permit plant and guide frames to be set up.
Excavation should not begin until all the plant and materials for
supporting the piles are readily available including pumping
equipment where necessary.
Once excavation is complete the cofferdam and support frames
should be monitored to ensure that they are performing as

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expected and to provide as early a warning as possible of any
safety critical problems. It is good practice to maintain a written
record of such monitoring - in the UK this is a legal requirement.
Some possible causes of failure are given below and it will be
seen that a number of them relate to problems that may well
occur after the cofferdam is finished.

7.4 Causes of failure There are many possible causes of cofferdam failure but in
practice it can generally be attributed to one or more of the
following:
• Lack of attention to detail in the design and installation of the
structure.
• Failure to take the possible range of water levels and conditions
into account.
• Failure to check design calculations with information discovered
during excavation.
• Over excavation at any stage in the construction process.
• Inadequate framing (both quantity and strength) provided to
support the loads.
• Loading on frame members not taken into account in the design
such as walings and struts being used to support walkways,
materials, pumps etc..
• Accidental damage to structural elements not being repaired.
• Insufficient penetration to prevent piping or heave. Failure to
allow for the effect on soil pressures of piping or heave.
• Lack of communication between temporary works and
permanent works designers; designers and site management or
site management and operatives.
In many cases failure may result from the simultaneous
occurrence of a number of the above factors, any one of which
might not have been sufficient, on its own, to cause the failure.

7.5 Support arrangements

The arrangement of supports to a cofferdam structure is the most
critical part of a cofferdam design. The level at which the support
is provided governs the bending moments in the sheet piles and
the plan layout governs the ease of working within the structure.
Whilst structural integrity is paramount, the support layout must
be related to the proposed permanent works construction
activities causing the minimum obstruction to plant and materials
access. As a general rule simplicity should always be favoured.

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Support frames should be located such that concrete lifts can be
completed and the support load transferred to the permanent
works before the frame is removed. Clearance to starter bars for
the next lift should be considered when positioning frames.
The clear space between frame members should be optimised to
provide the largest possible uninterrupted area without the need
for excessively large structural elements. Positioning of support
members is often a matter of experience.

7.6 Design of Cofferdams

The design of embedded retaining walls is covered in general
terms in chapter 5 but the following comments are of particular
relevance to the design and construction of cofferdams.
The life of the cofferdam structure must be assessed in order that
the appropriate geotechnical parameters for the soils, in which the
cofferdam is to be constructed, can be selected. In the majority
of cases total stress parameters can be used since the cofferdam
is a temporary structure. However the susceptibility of any clay to
the rapid attainment of a drained state must be assessed by the
designer and if there is any doubt a check should be made on the
final structure using effective stress parameters.
As a rule of thumb it is recommended that cofferdams which are
to be in service for three months or more should be designed
using effective stress strength parameters. However, the
presence of silt laminations or layers within clays can lead to very
rapid attainment of drained conditions and hence it may be
appropriate to use effective stress parameters for much shorter
periods.

7.7 Single skin Cofferdams

Single skin cofferdams are typically formed of sheet piles supported
either by means of internal props or external anchors. The
mechanics of single skin cofferdam design are those already
outlined in Chapters 5 and 6. The piles are considered to be simply
supported between frames and below the lowest frame and will
need to be driven to such a level, depending on the type of soil, as
to generate sufficient passive resistance. However, where there are
at least two frames, if the cut-off of the piles below the excavation is
insufficient to provide the necessary passive support the wall will still
be stable and the pile below the lowest frame can be considered as
a cantilever. This will, however, give rise to large loads in the lowest
frame and should be avoided whenever possible.
In all cases the penetration below formation level will need to be
sufficient to control the infiltration of water into the excavation.

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Records should be kept during driving for any indication of
declutching of the piles. In such a case it may be necessary to
grout behind the piles in order to control seepage. Cantilever pile
cofferdams can be formed but have the same limitations as
cantilever retaining walls particularly in terms of the achievable
retained height.
When the cofferdam has very large plan dimensions, but relatively
shallow depth, it is often more economical to incorporate inclined
struts or external anchorages similar to those described in
chapter 6. It should not however be forgotten that the installation
of external anchorages requires space which is outside the
cofferdam area and wayleaves may be required to install the
anchors under adjacent properties.
For a typical cofferdam with a depth exceeding 3m, a system of
internal frames in the form of steel sections or proprietary bracing
equipment is normally employed.
The design should be undertaken in stages to reflect accurately
the construction process. Typically the sequence of operations
would be to excavate and dewater to just below top frame level
then install the first frame; this procedure being repeated for each
successive frame. In the case of cofferdams in water it should be
noted that the stresses occurring during dewatering and frame
installation may be considerably in excess of those in the
completed cofferdam. For cofferdams in water it is advisable to
use a proprietary interlock sealant as described in Chapter 2.
When a cofferdam is to be used solely for the purpose of
excluding water and the depth of soil to be excavated is only
nominal it is often more efficient to install all the framing under
water before commencing dewatering.
Fig 7.7.1 shows the optimum spacing of frames for this method of
construction. The spacing results in approximately equal loading
on the second and successive frames. Figure 7.7.2 indicates the
maximum spacing between the top and second frames with
respect to section modulus of the pile wall.

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Fig 7.7.1 External top waling & tie rod
Water Level

h
Struts

1.5h

1.87h

2.18h

2.45h
Walings

Sea or river bed

D = depth of cut-off

The above is based on the approximate equation:-

h3 = 1.3 x Z x fy x 10 - 3
where Z = section modulus in cm 3/m
It should be noted that when depth (h) exceeds about 8m the
waling loads may become excessive.

Fig 7.7.2 Depth v Section Modulus

Section Modulus cm3/m
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
5.0
6.0
Depth h (metres)

7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
S270GP S355GP S390GP S430GP

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7.8 Cofferdam arrangements
7.8.1 Cofferdams for river crossings
When a pipeline has to be laid under a river bed and it is not
possible to close off the waterway the cofferdam may be
constructed in two or more stages using the arrangement shown
in fig 7.8.1.

Fig 7.8.1

C9 Junctions

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7.8.2 Cofferdams with unbalanced loading
(dock wall and riverside construction)
This type of cofferdam is usually subjected to greater loading on
the landward side due to soil pressure plus construction loads
hence special precautions may be needed to overcome the
resulting unbalanced loading. The method used will, of course,
depend upon the specific site conditions but the following
methods are suggested as general practice subject to approval by
the relevant supervising authority:-
• Method A – the removal of soil from the landward side
• Method B – the use of ‘fill’ on the water side of the cofferdam
• Method C – the use of external anchorages to the landward side
• Method D – the use of raking struts inside the cofferdam
These methods are illustrated in Fig 7.8.2.

Fig 7.8.2 Construction of cofferdams in river banks

River bank
excavated to
natural slope

Fill deposited
outside cofferdam

METHOD A METHOD B

Tie rods and

anchorages Raking
struts

METHOD C METHOD D

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7.9 Single skin Cofferdam design example
The following example is based upon the soil conditions used for
the earth pressure calculation example, at a nominal excavation
depth of 7.90m, included in Chapter 4. A number of issues in the
design of cofferdams are illustrated in this example. The iterative
nature of cofferdam design, particularly for the positioning of
frames, lends itself to computer calculation methods but this
example has been manually prepared to illustrate the steps to be
followed in the calculation process.
The diagram below indicates the soil stratification and relevant
properties, the water levels on each side of the wall and the
proposed final excavation level. The active earth pressures are
those calculated previously, in the example in Chapter 4 for the
short term total stress condition. This is considered to be
appropriate for a temporary works construction that will only be
open for a limited period of time. The passive pressures are
calculated for the short term total stress condition, for the
appropriate excavation level at each stage.

Fig 7.9.1 SURCHARGE 10 kN/m3

3.17
1.2m
γ=14.7 kN/m2 φ=32°
Loose Fine Sand
GWL. -1.20m
γsat=19.1 kN/m2
8.76

γw=9.81 kN/m2
1.2m
24.07 -2.40m
9.73
Soft Clay
γ=17.2 kN/m2
3.70m Su=25 kN/m2 7.90m

73.37 -6.10m
63.21
Sand and Gravel
γsat=20.6 kN/m2
φ=40°
4.90m

0.20m
123.39 231.62 -11.00m Unplanned
108.97 165.91 Firm Clay
γ=18.6 kN/m2
Su=65 kN/m2

201.97 258.91
TOTAL STRESS (SHORT TERM) TYPICAL SECTION
PRESSURE DIAGRAM kN/m2

The proposed construction sequence has been assumed to be:

1 Install sheet piles and excavate, including dewatering, for
top frame
2 Install top frame and excavate, including dewatering, for
bottom frame
3 Install bottom frame and excavate to the final level
In this example, the analysis of the sheet piles assumes the
presence of a hinge at the lower prop position to make the
problem statically determinate. The problem can, using this

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assumption, be treated as two single propped retaining walls. It is
also assumed that the control of excavation levels will be good and
therefore no allowance is made, in the intermediate construction
stages, for unplanned excavation. For the final construction stage
an allowance of 0.20m of over excavation will be included.
Stage 1 : Excavate for Top Frame
Before placing the top frame the piles will act in cantilever. The
pressure diagram for this case, assuming excavation to 1.5m, is
given in the figure below. Clearly, in this example, the pile length
and bending strength required for later stages will be much
greater than required at this initial stage and hence no
calculations have been carried out.

Fig 7.9.2 3.17

8.76

24.07 41.97
9.73 58.01

73.37 121.65
63.21

PRESSURE DIAGRAM Stage 1 kN/m2

Stage 2 : Excavate for Bottom Frame

The top frame is assumed to be 1m below the ground surface. We
will assume in this example that the lower frame is positioned
5.5m below the ground surface. This assumption is based on
experience to provide clearance for construction of the base slab
and wall kicker.
The excavation depth required to install the lower frame, providing
sufficient working space, is therefore 6.1m.
Pp at 6.1m below ground level in sand and gravel
= 6.493 x 0.00 = 0 kN/m2
Pp at 11m below ground level in sand and gravel
= (6.493 x 52.87) + 48.07 = 391.35 kN/m2
Pp at 11m below ground level in firm clay
= 1.00 x 100.94 + (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 207.11 kN/m2
Pp at 16m below ground level in firm clay
= 1.00 x 193.94 + (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 300.11 kN/m2

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The pressure diagram for this condition is given below:

Fig 7.9.3 3.17

1.20m 1.00m
8.76
1.20m
24.07
9.73 4.523m
6.10m

3.70m 46.25 Zero Shear

0.935m
73.37
63.21
Y Y 74.68

4.252m

123.39 108.97 207.11 391.35

201.97 300.11
PRESSURE DIAGRAM
Fixed Earth Stage 2 kN/m2

Fixed Earth Support Option

At this stage it may be appropriate to consider a fixed earth support
condition as the pile length needed in the final stage may well be
long enough to provide fixity at the toe for this lesser excavation
depth. Since the simplified method assumes that the point of
contraflexure in the bending moment diagram occurs at the level
where the active pressure equals the passive pressure the frame
load can be calculated by taking moments about this level (Y-Y).
Let Y-Y be y below –6.10m level where Pa = Pp
Then 63.21 + 60.18 x y = 391.35 x y
4.9 4.9
hence y = 63.21 x 4.9/331.17 = 0.935m
Take moments about Y-Y
Force Moment abt Y-Y
kN/m kNm/m
3.17 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 1.90 x 6.635 = 12.62
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x 6.235 = 32.77
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x 5.435 = 28.57
24.07 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 14.44 x 5.035 = 72.72
9.73 x 3.700 x 1/2 = 18.00 x 3.402 = 61.24
73.37 x 3.700 x 1/2 = 135.73 x 2.168 = 294.27
63.21 x 0.935 x 1/2 = 29.55 x 0.623 = 18.41
74.68 x 0.935 x 1/2 = 34.91 x 0.312 = 10.89
-74.68 x 0.935 x 1/2 = -34.91 x 0.312 = -10.89
210.14 520.60

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Then frame load = 520.60 = 86.26 kN/m
6.035

The length of pile is found by taking moments about an assumed

toe level such that the moments of all the forces are in equilibrium
From the calculation above
total active force above –6.10m = 180.59 kN/m
total active moment above –6.10m = 502.19 kNm/m
This force acts at 502.19 = 2.781m above Y-Y
180.59
or 1.846m above –6.10m
Assume the pile penetration below –6.10m is d
Then taking moments about the toe
clockwise moments =
2
60.18xd) xd2
180.59 x (1.846+d) + 63.21 x 2d + (63.21+
2 3 4.9 6

3
anticlockwise moment = 391.35 x d + 86.26 x (5.10+d)
4.9 6

Equating clockwise moments to anticlockwise moments produces

a cubic equation which is solved by successive approximations
giving d= 4.252m.
To correct the error caused by the use of the simplified method
the depth below the point of contraflexure is increased by 20% to
give the pile penetration.
Hence the required pile length
= 6.10 + 0.935 + 1.2 x (4.252 – 0.935) = 11.015m say 11.02m
Zero shear occurs at 4.523m below ground level. (Where the area
of the active pressure diagram above the level equals the top
frame load).
Take moments about and above the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
3.17 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 4.123 = 7.84
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 3.723 = 19.57
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 2.923 = 15.36
24.07 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 2.523 = 36.44
9.73 x 2.123 x 1/2 x 1.415 = 14.61
46.25 x 2.123 x 1/2 x 0.708 = 34.76
-86.26 x 3.523 = -303.89
-175.31

Maximum bending moment with fixed earth support = 175.3 kNm/m

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Free Earth Support Option
However if the pile length for the final stage is shorter than
11.02m, the design for this intermediate stage should be
considered as free earth. The passive pressures are as before
and the pressure diagram is shown below:

Fig 7.9.4
3.17
1.20m 1.00m
8.76
1.20m
24.07
9.73 4.926m
6.10m

3.70m
53.18 Zero Shear

73.37
63.21

2.688m

96.22 214.68

123.39 108.97 207.11 391.35

201.97 300.11

PRESSURE DIAGRAM
Free Earth Stage 2 kN/m2

The length of pile required to provide stability (i.e. Active moment

= Passive moment) for rotation about the top frame is found by
trial and error to be 8.788m

Taking moments of the active pressures about the top frame:

Active Force Active Moment

kN/m kNm/m
3.17 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 1.90 x -0.600 = -1.14
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x -0.200 = -1.05
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x +0.600 = 3.15
24.07 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 14.44 x +1.000 = 14.44
9.73 x 3.700 x 1/2 = 18.00 x +2.633 = 47.40
73.37 x 3.700 x 1/2 = 135.73 x +3.867 = 524.89
63.21 x 2.688 x 1/2 = 84.95 x +5.996 = 509.39
96.22 x 2.688 x 1/2 = 129.32 x +6.892 = 891.27
394.86 1988.35

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Taking moments of the passive pressure about the top frame:
Passive force = 214.68 x 2.688 x 1/2 = 288.53 kN/m
Passive moment = 288.53 x 6.892 = 1988.55 kNm/m
[equal to Active Moment therefore OK]
Top frame load = 394.86 – 288.53 = 106.33 kN/m
Zero shear occurs at 4.926m below ground level. (Where the area
of the active pressure diagram above the level equals the top
frame load).
Take moments about and above the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
3.17 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 4.526 = 8.61
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 4.126 = 21.69
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 3.326 = 17.48
24.07 x 1.200 x 1/2 x 2.926 = 42.26
9.73 x 2.526 x 1/2 x 1.684 = 20.69
53.18 x 2.526 x 1/2 x 0.842 = 56.55
-106.33 x 3.926 = -417.45
-250.17

Maximum bending moment with free earth

support = 250.2 kNm/m

Final Stage : Excavate to Formation Level

With the lower frame installed at 5.5m below ground level
excavation is carried out to final level. The design is to include for
0.20m of unplanned excavation so the passive pressures are
calculated for an excavation depth of 8.10m
Pp at 8.1m below ground level in sand and gravel
= 6.493 x 0.00 = 0 kN/m2
Pp at 11m below ground level in sand and gravel
= (6.493 x 31.29) + 28.45 = 231.62 kN/m2
Pp at 11m below ground level in firm clay
= 1.00 x 59.74 + (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 165.91 kN/m2
Pp at 16m below ground level in firm clay
= 1.00 x 152.74 + (2.45 x 65/1.5) = 258.91 kN/m2

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The pressure diagram for this condition is given below:

Fig 7.9.5
3.17

1.20m 1.00m
8.76
1.20m 3.661m
24.07
9.73 5.50m

31.42 Zero Shear

7.743m
8.10m
3.70m

63.05
11.016m 73.37
63.21

83.39 Zero Shear

4.90m

123.39 108.97 165.91 231.62

109.27 166.21

201.97 258.91

PRESSURE DIAGRAM Final stage kN/m2

The depth of cut off is found by considering the piles to be simply

supported at the bottom frame position due to the assumption of
a hinge at the support position.
Consider first the lower span. The pile length for stability is found,
by trial and error, to be 11.016m.
Taking moments of the active pressures about the bottom frame:
Active Force Active Moment
kN/m kNm/m
63.05 x 0.600 x 1/2 = 18.92 x 0.200 = 3.78
73.37 x 0.600 x 1/2 = 22.01 x 0.400 = 8.80
63.21 x 4.900 x 1/2 = 154.86 x 2.233 = 345.81
123.39x 4.900 x 1/2 = 302.31 x 3.867 = 1169.02
108.97x 0.016 x 1/2 = 0.87 x 5.505 = 4.80
109.27x 0.016 x 1/2 = 0.87 x 5.511 = 4.82
499.84 1537.03

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Taking moments of the passive pressure about the bottom frame:
Passive Force Active Moment
kN/m kNm/m
231.62x 2.900 x 1/2 = 335.85 x 4.533 = 1522.40
165.91x 0.016 x 1/2 = 1.33 x 5.505 = 7.31
166.17x 0.016 x 1/2 = 1.33 x 5.511 = 7.33
338.51 1537.04

(Active Moment and Passive Moment are equal therefore OK)

For the lower span bottom frame load

= 499.84 – 338.51 = 161.33 kN/m
Zero shear occurs at 7.743m below ground level. (This is where
the area of the active pressure diagram below the bottom frame
and above the zero shear level equals the bottom frame load
calculated above).
Take moments about and above the level of zero shear
(for the lower span):
kNm/m
83.39 x 1.643 x 1/2 x 0.548 = 37.54
63.21 x 1.643 x 1/2 x 1.095 = 56.86
73.37 x 0.600 x 1/2 x 1.843 = 40.57
63.05 x 0.600 x 1/2 x 2.043 = 38.64
-161.33 x 2.243 = -361.86
-188.25

Now consider the upper span

Taking moments of the active pressures about the bottom frame:

Active Force Active Moment

kN/m kNm/m
3.17 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 1.90 x 5.100 = 9.70
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x 4.700 = 24.70
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x 3.900 = 20.50
24.07 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 14.44 x 3.500 = 50.55
9.73 x 3.100 x 1/2 = 15.08 x 2.067 = 31.17
63.05 x 3.100 x 1/2 = 97.73 x 1.033 = 100.95
139.67 237.57

Then top frame load = 237.57/4.500 = 52.79 kN/m

And hence total load in bottom frame
= (139.67 – 52.79) + 161.33 = 248.21 kN/m
Zero shear occurs at 3.661m below ground level.

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Take moments about and below the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
31.42 x 1.839 x 1/2 x 0.613 = 17.71
63.05 x 1.839 x 1/2 x 1.226 = 71.08
-86.88 x 1.839 = -159.77
-70.98

Table 7.9.1 Summary

Stage 2 Final Stage
Fixed Earth Free Earth
Required Pile Length m 11.02 8.79 11.02
Max. bending Moment KNm/m 175.3 250.2 188.3
Top Frame Load KN/m 86.26 106.33 52.79
Bottom Frame Load KN/m - - 248.21

Fixed earth support at stage 2 can be assumed since the pile

length required is not greater than the length required for the final
stage.
Since the soil loadings determined in this example are based on
factored soil parameters a partial factor of 1.2 is appropriate to
give the ultimate design load.
Section modulus of pile required for S270GP steel.
= 1.2 x 188.3 x 103 / 270 = 837 cm3/m
Section modulus of pile required for S355GP steel.
= 1.2 x 188.3 x 103 / 355 = 636 cm3/m
To provide control over the inflow of ground water it would be
sensible to ensure the piles are toed into the underlying clay by
not less then 0.3m which requires a pile of 11.3m long.
Hence use PU 9(1) piles (z = 915 cm3/m) in steel grade S270GP or
PU 7(1) (z = 670cm3/m) in steel grade S355GP not less than
11.3m long.
However the designer will need to check the suitability of the
section for driving. See chapter 11.
In accordance with the recommendation in Section 5.14 the
calculated propping loads should be increased by 85 per cent.
Also to provide the ultimate design load for structural design a
partial factor of 1.2 should be applied.
Hence the ultimate design loads are:-
Top Frame = 1.85 x 1.2 x 86.26 = 191.5 kN/m
Bottom Frame = 1.85 x 1.2 x 248.21 = 551.0 kN/m

(1)
Section properties of the section: see Table 13.1.1

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Check on Effective Stress Loading for the Final Stage
Since the clay strata are inter-bedded with free draining material
then it is possible that they may reach a drained state during the
period while the cofferdam is open and it may be appropriate to
check the final stage in the effective stress condition.
Effective stress active pressures are as the example in chapter 5,
so calculate the appropriate passive pressures.
Excavate to final level. The design has included for 0.20m of
unplanned excavation so the passive pressures are calculated for
an excavation depth of 8.10m.
Pp at 8.1m below ground level in sand and gravel
= 6.493 x 0.00 = 0 kN/m2
Pp at 11m below ground level in sand and gravel
= (6.493 x 31.29) +28.45 = 231.62 kN/m2
Pp at 11m below ground level in firm clay
= 2.512 x 31.29 +(3.170 x 2/1.2) +28.45 = 112.33 kN/m2
Pp at 16m below ground level in firm clay
= 2.512 x 75.24 +(3.170 x 2/1.2) +77.50 = 271.79 kN/m2
The pressure diagram for this condition is given below:

Fig 7.9.6
3.17

1.20m 1.00m
8.76

1.20m 3.550m
24.07
30.93 5.50m
46.41 Zero Shear
7.848m 8.10m
3.70m

72.66
80.74
63.21

14.529m
85.08 Zero Shear

4.90m

146.75 231.62
123.39 112.33

195.15 224.88

215.32 271.79

EFFECTIVE STRESS PRESSURE DIAGRAM

Final stage kN/m2

It can clearly be seen that in the clay strata the active pressures
have increased while the passive have decreased compared with the
total stress condition previously considered hence it is necessary to
calculate the stability and structural loads for this condition.
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As before the depth of cut off is found by considering the piles to
be simply supported at the bottom frame position due to the
assumption of a hinge at the support position.
Consider first the lower span. The pile length for stability is
found, by trial and error, to be 14.529m.

Taking moments of the active pressures about the bottom frame:

Active Force Active Moment
kN/m kNm/m
72.66 x 0.600 x 1/2 = 21.80 x 0.200 = 4.36
80.74 x 0.600 x 1/2 = 24.22 x 0.400 = 9.69
63.21 x 4.900 x 1/2 = 154.86 x 2.233 = 345.81
123.39 x 4.900 x 1/2 = 302.31 x 3.867 = 1169.02
146.75 x 3.529 x 1/2 = 258.94 x 6.676 = 1728.69
195.15 x 3.529 x 1/2 = 344.34 x 7.853 = 2704.12
1106.47 5961.69

Taking moments of the passive pressure about the bottom frame:

Passive Force Active Moment
kN/m kNm/m
231.62x 2.900 x 1/2 = 335.85 x 4.533 = 1522.40
112.33 x 3.529 x 1/2 = 198.21 x 6.676 = 1323.23
224.88 x 3.529 x 1/2 = 396.80 x 7.853 = 3116.08
930.86 5961.71

[Active Moment and Passive Moment are equal therefore OK]

For the lower span bottom frame load =
1106.47 – 930.86 = 175.61 kN/m
Zero shear occurs at 7.848m below ground level for the lower
span.
Take moments about and above the level of zero shear for the
lower span:
kNm/m
85.08 x 1.748 x 1/2 x 0.583 = 43.35
63.21 x 1.748 x 1/2 x 1.165 = 64.36
80.74 x 0.600 x 1/2 x 1.948 = 47.18
72.66 x 0.600 x 1/2 x 2.148 = 46.82
-175.61 x 2.348 = -412.33
-210.62

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Now consider the upper span
Taking moments of the active pressures about the bottom frame:
Active Force Active Moment
KN/m kNm/m
3.17 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 1.90 x 5.100 = 9.70
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x 4.700 = 24.70
8.76 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 5.26 x 3.900 = 20.50
24.07 x 1.200 x 1/2 = 14.44 x 3.500 = 50.55
30.93 x 3.100 x 1/2 = 47.94 x 2.067 = 99.10
72.66 x 3.100 x 1/2 = 112.62 x 1.033 = 116.34
187.42 320.89

Then top frame load = 320.89/4.500 = 71.31 kN/m

And hence total load in bottom frame
= (187.42 – 71.31) + 175.61 = 291.72 kN/m
Zero shear occurs at 3.550m below ground level.
Take moments about and below the level of zero shear:
kNm/m
46.41 x 1.950 x 1/2 x 0.650 = 29.41
72.66 x 1.950 x 1/2 x 1.300 = 92.10
-116.11 x 1.950 = -226.41
-104.90

Table 7.9.2 Summary

Short term design Long term design
All stages Final stages
Required pile length m 11.02 14.53
Max. bending moment KNm/m 188.3 210.6
Max. load in top frame KN/m 86.26 71.31
Max. load bottom frame KN/m 248.21 291.72

Hence for a long term effective stress design

Section modulus of pile required for S270GP steel
= 1.2 x 210.6 x 103 / 270 = 936 cm3/m
Section modulus of pile required for S355GP steel
= 1.2 x 210.6 x 103 / 355 = 712 cm3/m
Therefore the original pile specified, PU 9(1) in steel grade S270GP
or PU 7(1) in steel grade S355GP 11.3m long, will have to be
increased to
Either PU 11(1) (Z = 1095 cm3/m) by 14.6m in steel grade S270GP.
Or PU 8(1) (Z = 830 cm3/m) by 14.6m in steel grade S355GP.
In addition the bottom frame should be checked as the frame
loading is increased by some 18%.
(1)
Section properties of the section: see Table 13.1.1
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7.10 Design of support system
Traditionally cofferdam bracing was constructed in either timber or
steel, the choice being governed by the loads to be carried.
However over the past ten to fifteen years the increasing use of
proprietary equipment combined with the loss of skilled timbermen
means that it is now exceedingly rare for timber to be used and
virtually all framing is now in steel. The loads on the walings are
obtained from consideration of the same conditions used to obtain
the bending moments in the piles.
For the majority of small to medium sized cofferdams, which will only
be open for a relatively short period, it is probably more economic to
use a proprietary frame or frames on hire and possibly designed by
the supplier. These frames use hydraulic rams to apply a pre-load
and have been developed from the support systems used for
trenches for more than thirty years. At the time of writing props can
be obtained with capacities of up to 2500kN and walings to provide
spans of 20 m. However if large span walings are proposed the
deflections should be checked since these may well be large and will
permit significant movement of the wall and the ground behind.
As an alternative, and for larger cofferdams beyond the scope of the
proprietary equipment, purpose made frames utilising universal
beams and column sections and tubes will be necessary. These
members may require suitable stiffeners to prevent local buckling.
Information on the strength of typical members is given in the tables
below.
Traditionally steel frames have been designed using permissible
stress methods. The use of either serviceability or ultimate limit state
codes of practice is acceptable for determining the appropriate
design value from calculations for the pile wall. However there is a
move towards limit state methods and the load tables included in
this chapter show ultimate loads, based on the UK code BS5950.
The way the framing is detailed can make a significant difference to
the ease with which it is erected and dismantled. Waling beams
should be supported at regular intervals either with brackets welded
to the piles or with hangers, possibly chains, from the top of the
piles. Struts should be fitted with a hanger to support their weight
on the waling while being aligned and fixed in position. Prop design
must include for accidental impact by materials or machinery – the
tables below include an allowance of 10kN applied at mid-span –
and the designer should ensure, by discussion with the contractor’s
site management, that the allowance is adequate for the size of
machines being used. Various sources give guidance on this in the
range 10 – 50 kN. Where the walings do not bear directly on the
piles suitable packers will be required which may be of timber, either
softwood or hardwood, concrete filled bags or steel plates
depending on the loads to be transferred.

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7.11 Cofferdam support frames

Fig 7.11

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7.12 Strength of walings and struts
Table 7.12.1 Ultimate Capacity Table for Universal Beam Walings

Section Size Section Moment Capacity Shear Capacity

Classification Mcx Pv
kNm kN
254 x 146 x 31 kg/m Plastic 108 249
305 x 165 x 40 kg/m Plastic 171 300
356 x 171 x 45 kg/m Plastic 213 406
406 x 178 x 60 kg/m Plastic 330 530
457 x 152 x 67 kg/m Plastic 400 680
457 x 191 x 74 kg/m Plastic 455 679
533 x 210 x 92 kg/m Plastic 649 888
610 x 229 x 113 kg/m Plastic 869 1070
610 x 305 x 149 kg/m Plastic 1220 1150

Notes:
The table shows Ultimate Limit State (maximum applied) moment and shear
capacities based on BS5950-1:2000.
Waling capacities are based on S275 material to EN10025.
The moment capacity assumes the shear load to be low ( <60% of shear
capacity). Where the shear load is high the moment capacity will need to be
reduced (see BS5950 cl 4.2.5.3)
The waling will need to be checked for lateral torsional buckling which may
give a reduced bending capacity (see BS5950 cl 4.3.6.2)
Webs should also be checked for bearing and buckling.
When the waling is also subject to axial load the bending capacity will be
reduced and the section should be checked in accordance with
BS5950 cl 4.8.3.3

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Table 7.12.2 Ultimate Capacity Table for Horizontal Universal Column Struts

Universal Column Ultimate Limit State Axial Capacity (kN) Length (m)
Designation
D x B x wt(kg/m) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
152 x 152 x 30 602 417 259 146
203 x 203 x 46 1095 902 695 511 363 250 165
203 x 203 x 60 1444 1213 963 734 544 401 292 209
254 x 254 x 73 1875 1672 1431 1182 949 751 588 457 352
254 x 254 x 89 2205 1989 1719 1445 1178 948 758 606 481
305 x 305 x 97 2567 2368 2119 1849 1575 1318 1085 892 730 591 476 381 299
305 x 305 x 118 3030 2804 2533 2226 1922 1627 1363 1131 938 777 643 529 432
356 x 368 x 129 3345 3151 2942 2692 2417 2137 1859 1603 1378 1175 996 842 709
356 x 368 x 153 4040 3826 3578 3274 2956 2625 2296 1998 1723 1478 1271 1083 925

Notes:
The table shows Ultimate Limit State (maximum applied) axial load based on
BS5950-1:2000.
H sections are to be used with the web vertical.
Struts are assumed to be effectively pinned in plan and elevation
Allowance has been made for strut self weight and an accidental vertical
load of 10kN at the centre of the strut.
An allowance has been made for the axial load to act eccentrically at 10%
of the section depth.
Strut axial capacity is based on S275 material to EN10025.
For additional or alternate loading, or alternative material, calculations must
be made to establish the correct axial capacity.
Common Values
Sections must be class 1 or 2 with Low Shear
Gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
Accidental Load = 10kN
ULS Load Factors:
Steel self weight = 1.4
Live load = 1.6
Effective length factor = 1.0
Section type = H
Grade = S275

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Table 7.12.3 Ultimate Capacity Table for Circular Hollow Section Struts

Circular Hollow Ultimate Limit State Axial Capacity (kN)

Section Length (m)
Strut Size 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
CHS 273 x 10 1807 1645 1191 810 548 374 255
CHS 323.9 x 10 2294 2166 1825 1359 986 715 522 382
CHS 355.6 x 12.5 3242 3106 2742 2206 1657 1246 941 716 546
CHS 406.4 x 12.5 3829 3712 3401 3001 2401 1865 1454 1137 893 704 554
CHS 457 x 12.7 4473 4367 4097 3711 3245 2631 2099 1682 1350 1087 877
CHS 508 x 12.7 4783 4743 4653 4392 3940 3378 2807 2303 1885 1544 1268
CHS 559 x 14.3 5964 5923 5832 5666 5233 4662 4010 3376 2817 2347 1957
CHS 610 x 14.3 6554 6515 6428 6326 5990 5491 4876 4215 3587 3035 2563
CHS 660 x 15.9 7907 7867 7777 7672 7437 6952 6334 5616 4880 4195 3589
CHS 711 x 15.9 8559 8521 8434 8331 8212 7787 7237 6569 5831 5098 4419
CHS 762 x 17.5 9822 9783 9692 9584 9459 9180 8667 8035 7297 6508 5733
CHS 813 x 17.5 10518 10480 10391 10285 10162 10012 9547 8975 8292 7524 6728
CHS 864 x 20.6 13134 13093 12995 12877 12739 12581 12197 11585 10847 9993 9065
CHS 914 x 20.6 13935 13895 13799 13682 13546 13389 13159 12596 11919 11123 10229

Notes:
The table shows Ultimate Limit State (maximum applied) axial load based on
BS5950-1:2000.

Allowance has been made for strut self weight and an accidental load of
10kN at the centre of the strut.

An allowance has been made for the axial load to act eccentrically at 10%
of the section diameter.

Strut axial capacity is based on S355 material to EN10210.

For additional or alternate loading, or alternative material, calculations must
be made to establish the correct axial capacity.
Common Values
Sections must be class 1, 2 or 3 with Low Shear
Gravity = 9.81m/sec2
Accidental Load = 10 kN
ULS Load Factors:
Steel self weight = 1.4
Live load = 1.6
Effective length factor = 1.0
Section type = H
Grade = S355
Slenderness ratio limit for l = 180

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7.13 Circular Cofferdams
Tables 1.13.5 and 1.14.5 in chapter 1 give the approximate
minimum diameters of cofferdams constructed in AZ, AU, PU, GU
and PU-R sheet piling.
The tables are intended as a guide since the minimum diameter
will depend upon several other factors such as type of ground,
length of piles and penetration required.
Smaller diameters can be achieved by introducing individual bent
piles.
On site it may be advantageous to pitch the whole circle before
driving, to ensure the circle can be closed, the piles being driven
in stages as the hammer works its way several times around the
circumference. However for larger circles, or when using a leader
rig, this may be impractical but great care will be needed to
ensure that the final piles close the ring without departing too far
from the required line.
Earth pressures are calculated as for straight-sided cofferdams
and circular ring beams, instead of walings and struts, may
support the piles leaving the central area clear of obstructions.
The ring beams will work in hoop compression and are thus
normally subjected to axial loads only which are calculated as
follows:
Axial load (kN) = waling load (kN/m) x radius of cofferdam (m)

rings there are specialist fabricators that can roll large H and I
Ring beams can be made from either steel or concrete. For steel

sections to the required radius the design of which should take in

to account the stiffness of the ring, using Timoshenko’s formula
described below, and the possibility of local flange instability.
The following table gives an indication of suitable sizes of
reinforced concrete ring beams for various cofferdam diameters
and loadings.

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Table 7.13 Reinforced Concrete Walings for Circular Cofferdams

Diameter Ultimate Waling Load (kN per metre run)

of Size of Waling ‘d’ x ‘b’ in mm and number of reinforcing bars
Cofferdam 450 x 300 600 x 400 750 x 500 900 x 600 1050 x 700 1200 x 800 1350 x 900 1450 x 950
(metres) 6 no. 12ø 10 no. 12ø 8 no. 16ø 8 no. 20ø 10 no. 20ø 8 no. 25ø 10 no. 25ø 8 no. 32ø
bars bars bars bars bars bars bars bars
5 852 1504 2328
10 376 752 1164 1690
15 164 501 776 1127 1520 1977
20 292 582 845 1140 1483 1875
25 457 676 912 1186 1500 1725
30 563 760 989 1250 1437
35 652 847 1071 1232
40 742 937 1078
45 833 958
50 862

Note:
The number and size of reinforcing bars given in the table is based on the
minimum area of steel for column construction given by table 3.25 of
BS8110-1: 1997 and assumes the use of High Yield Steel (fy = 460 N/mm2)
reinforcing bars to BS4449:1988

Fig 7.13

Tension Stay to
prevent torsion
Circular reinforced in waling
concrete walings
Reinforced
concrete
x waling

x
d

Steel sheet piling Steel

sheet piling

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7.14 Reinforced concrete walings for circular Cofferdams
The tabulated ultimate waling loads are based on :
1. Ultimate load for concrete calculated in accordance with
BS8110-1:1997 clause 3.8.4.3 for C35 concrete and
reinforcement with fy = 460 N/mm2
2. W = 3EI
r 3109
where
W = waling load in kN/m
E = Young’s Modulus for concrete = 21000 N/mm2
I = Moment of Inertia about ‘x-x’ in mm4
r = Mean radius of ring beam in metres
3. The cofferdam diameter (D) divided by the width of the beam
(d) <35
The above formula is based on Timoshenko’s work wherein
the formula is given as:
Wu = kEI kN/m
r3109

Where Wu is the ultimate waling load and k is a factor, the value

of which is dependent on the stiffness of the retained medium
(3 is the value for water, eg in a marine cofferdam built to facilitate
construction on the sea bed). Progressively higher values are, in
theory, applicable for weak/medium/strong soils. However it is
common to use the value of 3 for all conditions. It is worth noting
that for the majority of the values in table 7.13 the load is
governed by the limiting column load from BS8110 and not by the
Timoshenko value which is higher. Increasing the reinforcement
may give increased loads up to the Timoshenko value.
The ring beam can tolerate very little distortion from a true circle
before the onset of catastrophic instability. Hence the empirical
rule:
D/d < 35
Where d is the width of the ring beam, ie the difference between
the inner and outer radii of the beam and D is the diameter of the
cofferdam (ie the diameter of the inner face of the piles). If the
sheet piles deflect to any great extent then the load in the walings
will be concentrated at the top or bottom of the waling and will
impart torsion into the beam. This condition should also be
checked in the design.

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7.15 Earth filled double-wall and cellular Cofferdams
Earth filled cofferdams are self supporting gravity structures,
either parallel-sided double-wall cofferdams or cellular
cofferdams. The stability of both types is dependent on the
properties of the fill and the soil at foundation level as well as on
the arrangement and type of the steel sheet piling. Typical uses
are as dams to temporarily seal off dock entrances so that work
below water level can be carried out in the dry and in the
construction of permanent walls for land reclamation, quays,
wharves and dolphins.

7.16 Double skin / wall Cofferdams

Double wall cofferdams comprise two parallel lines of sheet piles
connected together by a system of steel walings and tie rods at
one or more levels. The space between the walls is generally
filled with granular material such as sand, gravel, or broken rock.
The exposed or inner wall is designed as an anchored retaining
wall while the outer line of piles acts as the anchorage. U or Z
profile sheet piles are appropriate to this form of construction.
The wall as a whole should be analysed as a gravity structure
and, in order to achieve adequate factors of safety against
overturning and sliding, the width will generally be found to be not
less than 0.8 of the retained height of water or soil. It is
recommended that the overall stability of the structure is checked
using the logarithmic spiral method devised by Jelinek.
Transverse bulkheads should be provided to form strong points at
the ends and at intermediate positions to assist construction and
confine any damage that might occur. The strong points may
comprise a square or rectangular cell tied in both directions.
The water regime both inside and outside the structure is critical.
It is recommended that weepholes are provided on the inner side
of the structure near the bottom of the exposed portion of the
piles to permit free drainage of the fill material reducing the
pressures on the inner wall and preventing a decrease in the shear
strength of the fill with time. Weepholes are only effective for
small structures and complete drainage of the fill may not always
be practical. Wellpoints and pumping offer an alternative option
and will provide fast drainage if required. However the designer
should always make allowance for any water pressure acting on
the piles. It is essential that clay or silt is not used as fill material
and any material of this type, occurring above the main
foundation stratum, within the cofferdam must be removed prior
to fill being placed.

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The piles must be driven into the soil below excavation or dredge
level to a sufficient depth to generate the required passive
resistance. In this condition the structure will deflect towards the
excavated side and the lateral earth pressures on the retained
side may be taken as active. When cohesionless soils occur at or
below excavation level, the penetration of the piling must also be
sufficient to control the effects of seepage. The bearing capacity
of the founding stratum should be checked against the weight of
the structure and any superimposed loading.
The presence of rock at excavation level makes this type of
cofferdam unsuitable unless:
• The rock is of a type that will allow sheet piles to be driven into
it to an adequate penetration (see chapter 11).
• Tie rods can be installed at low level (probably underwater).
• A trench can be preformed in the rock into which the piles can
be placed and grouted.
• The pile toes can be pinned with dowels installed in sockets in
the rock.
If the piles are driven onto hard rock, or to a nominal depth below
dredged level, the resistance to overturning and sliding should be
developed by base friction and gravitational forces alone. In this
condition the lateral earth pressure on the retained side will be in
a condition between at rest and active, depending on the amount
of deflection.
The internal soil pressures acting on the outer walls are likely to
be greater than active due to the non uniform distribution of
vertical stresses within the cofferdam (due to the moment effects)
and hence the design should be based on pressures of 1.25 times
the active values.

7.17 Cellular Cofferdams

The design and construction of cellular cofferdams is discussed in
Chapter 9.

7.18 Effect of water pressure

The stability of a cofferdam can be adversely affected by the
action of water pressures on the soils at formation level to the
extent that collapse may occur. In granular soils excess water
pressure causes piping and in cohesive or very tightly packed
soils heave results.

Chapter 7/30
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Cofferdams
Piping occurs when the pressure on the soil grains due to the
upward flow of water is so large that the effective stress in the soil
approaches zero. In this situation the soil has no shear strength
and assumes a condition that can be considered as a quicksand,
which will not support any vertical load. This is obviously a very
dangerous situation for personnel operating in the cofferdam and
will also lead to a significant reduction in passive resistance
afforded to the cofferdam wall by the soil. In extreme cases this
can lead to a complete loss of stability of the wall and failure of
the cofferdam. The likelihood of piping for a given cross section
can be predicted by the construction of a flow net, which will
allow the engineer to calculate the exit hydraulic gradient.
Comparison of the calculated value to the critical hydraulic
gradient will indicate the factor of safety against piping; for clean
sands this should generally lie between 1.5 and 2.0. Care should
be taken when designing circular cofferdams and at the corners of
rectangular structures where the three dimensional nature of the
situation is more critical than in the case of a long wall.
The factor of safety against piping can be increased by installing
the piles to a greater depth thereby increasing the flow path length
and reducing the hydraulic gradient.
Table 7.18 Minimum cut-off depth
Width of Cofferdam Depth of cut-off
W D
2H or more 0.4H
H 0.5H
0.5H 0.7H

Fig 7.18 Minimum cut-off depth

GWL

Table 7.18 gives an approximate guide to the safe minimum cut-

off depth for a cofferdam constructed in medium uniform
cohesionless soil when the toes of the piles do not penetrate

Chapter 7/31
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Cofferdams
impermeable soils and excess water is pumped from sumps at
excavation level.
Base heave can occur in cohesive or very tightly packed granular
material if the force exerted by the water pressure acting on a
block of material inside the cofferdam exceeds the bulk weight of
the block. The likelihood of heave can be assessed using a flow
net to calculate the average water pressure acting on the line
drawn between the toes of the piles and converting this to an
uplift force on the soil plug within the cofferdam.
The flow of water into a cofferdam may also be reduced by
lowering the ground water level by means of well points outside
the cofferdam. Alternatively, flow into the cofferdam can be
reduced by pumping from well points located inside the cofferdam
at or below the pile toe level. It should however be remembered
that, when the stability or ease of operation of a cofferdam
involves pumping, reliability of the pumps is of paramount
importance and back-up capacity must be available to cope with
any emergencies.

Chapter 7/32
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Cofferdams
7.19 Flow nets The preparation of flow nets is a useful tool, as it not only allows
the engineer to calculate the water pressures in a particular
situation, but also provides a visual representation of the flow
regime in the soil.

Fig 7.19
C
B/2 B/2
Gravel Standpipe Piezometer
(very permeable) (water level at point A)

Water table
Gravel
sand
Sand
Flow lines

U/δw
10
H1
9
8 A H
7 2
H2 C B
6 3
Equipotential 5 Z
lines 4

Datum impermeable base stratum Head at

point A

The shape and complexity of a flow net is a function of the

homogeneity and permeability of the soil and the following notes
indicate how a net can be drawn for uniform soil conditions and
permeability.
• A scaled cross section drawing of the problem should be
produced.
• A datum level should be marked on the cross section either at
an impermeable boundary or at a suitable level below the
cofferdam.
• The flow criteria must be determined.
• External water level.
• Internal water level.
• Centre line of cofferdam (this is the axis of symmetry).
• Lines of flow must be parallel to the cofferdam walls and the
impervious datum.
Using the above as guidelines, the net is produced from flow lines
and equipotential lines (a stand pipe at any point on an
equipotential line would register the same height H above the
datum level). These are at right angles to each other and form

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Cofferdams
approximate squares. This process is very much trial and error
but practice will enable the flow net to be produced with a
reasonable degree of speed and accuracy.
To calculate the pore water pressure ‘u’ at any point (using the
example above)
• Calculate the potential head ‘H’ at the desired point (note that
the potential head drop is always the same between
successive equipotential lines once a square net has been
formed)
n
H = H1 -(H1 - H2) .
Nd

where
n = number of equipotential drops to the point being considered
Nd = total number of drops
Hence at point A,
2
H = H1 -(H1 - H2) .
10

• At any point H = u + z
γw
where
u = pore water pressure
γw = density of water
z = height of point above datum
As H, γw and z are known, u can be calculated,
u = (H - z) . γw
Flow nets can also be used to estimate the approximate volume
of water flowing around the toes of the piles into the cofferdam.
The flow volume ‘Q’ m3/s per metre run of wall is given by
N
Q = k (H1 - H2) . f
Nd

where
k = coefficient of permeability of the ground (m/s)
H1 - H2 = total head drop (m)
N f = number of flow channels (in half width of cofferdam)
Nd = number of potential drops

Chapter 7/34
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Cofferdams
7.20 Factor of safety against piping
The flow net allows the calculation of the ‘exit hydraulic gradient’
just below the formation level inside the cofferdam. Hydraulic
gradient ‘i’ is defined as loss of head per unit length in the
direction of flow, which is a dimensionless number. In the
example above, the exit gradient ie is given by
H - H2 ) . ( 2Nf )
ie = ( 1
Nd B
where
B/2Nf is the width of each exit flow net square
since
B/2 is the half width of the cofferdam
Nf is the number of flow channels in the half width of the
cofferdam
For ground with a saturated bulk weight of approximately 20
kN/m3 the critical hydraulic gradient at which the effective soil
stress reduces to zero and piping occurs will be ic = 1.0. The
factor of safety against piping is defined as
ic 1.0
FoS = , which approximates to
ie ie
A flow net such as the example is strictly a slice from a very long
cofferdam. For square or circular cofferdams, the 3-dimensional
nature of the flow has the effect of further concentrating the head
loss within the soil plug between the sheet pile walls. The
following correction factors should be applied to the head loss per
field on the inside face of the cofferdam:
Circular cofferdams parallel wall values x 1.3
In the corners of a square cofferdam parallel wall values x 1.7
1.0
For clean sands the factor of safety against piping
ie
should be between 1.5 and 2.0

7.21 Pump sumps Although a sheet pile wall can prevent the ingress of water into an
excavation, it is not possible to give any guarantee that a
cofferdam will be watertight. In order to deal with any water that
enters the excavation it is often desirable to install a drainage
system that can channel water to a sump from which water can
be pumped away.
As the hydraulic gradient adjacent to the corner of a cofferdam is
at its largest, it is advisable to place any sumps at excavation
level as far as possible from any corner and wall.

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Cofferdams
It should not be forgotten that pumps are able to remove soil as
well as water and a suction hose laid in the bottom of a cofferdam
can disturb the base of the excavation with subsequent
movement of the wall if the hose is badly located. Consideration
should be given to forming a sump using a perforated drum into
which the hose can be fixed to limit damage.

7.22 Sealants While cofferdams on land will generally have sufficient soil within
the interlocks to restrict the flow of water the use of sealants
should not be discounted. In open granular soils particularly a
suitable sealant in the interlock may restrict the volume of water
entering the cofferdam such that the reduction in pumping costs
will be significantly greater than the initial cost of the sealant. For
cofferdams in water the problem of sealing a cofferdam that is
leaking badly is such that it is advisable to use a sealant as a
matter of course. If it does prove necessary to attempt to seal a
cofferdam, post construction, then the traditional method is to use
a mixture of ashes and sawdust dropped in the water on the
outside where it, hopefully, will be sucked into the leaking
interlocks and form a seal. If access to the outside is not feasible,
for instance in a cofferdam on land, then the sealing has to be
carried out from the inside using either a mastic putty or some
other form of malleable caulking product. The main problem with
sealing on the inside will always be preventing the water pressure
from pushing the sealant out. It is essential, therefore, that to
obtain the best results, the sealing material is forced as far as
possible into the interlock and certainly beyond the corner radii.

Chapter 7/36
 8

retaining walls
Charts for
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
Chapter 8_'08:Chapter 8 jet2 28/10/08 09:53 Page 1

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Charts for retaining walls

Contents Page
8.1 Typical retaining walls 1
Cantilever Water condition A φ = 40° 5
φ = 30° 6
φ = 20° 7
Cantilever Water condition B φ = 40° 8
φ = 30° 9
φ = 20° 10
Cantilever Water condition C φ = 40° 11
φ = 30° 12
φ = 20° 13
Tied Water condition A φ = 40° 14
φ = 30° 15
φ = 20° 16
Tied Water condition B φ = 40° 17
φ = 30° 18
φ = 20° 19
Tied Water condition C φ = 40° 20
φ = 30° 21
φ = 20° 22
Cantilever Water condition C Su = 75kN/m2 23
2
Su = 40kN/m 24
Cantilever Water condition D Su = 75kN/m2 25
2
Su = 40kN/m 26
Tied Water condition C Su = 75kN/m2 27
2
Su = 40kN/m 28
Tied Water condition D Su = 75kN/m2 29
2
Su = 40kN/m 30
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Charts for retaining walls

8.1 Typical retaining walls
The following charts indicate the structural requirements for a
retaining wall operating in the conditions specified. As the range of
possible design conditions is vast, a simplified set of parameters
has been chosen which illustrate the effect of change of soil
strength, water regime and support conditions. While it is not
intended that these charts should be used as a substitute for
actual design for a set of circumstances they may be useful when
assessing the likely requirements for a project at project appraisal
stage.
The soil parameters referenced in these examples are assumed to
be the representative values for the soil which are then factored
before carrying out the design calculations.
The user should select the conditions which represent the case in
question and then read off the minimum section modulus by steel
grade, the support force if appropriate and minimum pile length
from the charts. The values thus obtained should be regarded as
ultimate loads and equated to the ultimate capacity of the walings
etc.
The charts are based on the assumption that weep holes are
provided where necessary and the retained soil is capable of
allowing the design water regime to be realised. In the case of
cohesive soils, the charts allow for the accumulation of ground
water in any tension cracks which may develop.
The length of pile below excavation level has not been checked to
ensure that there is sufficient penetration to prevent piping or
heave. This must be considered separately.
Note:
Cantilever walls in excess of about 4.5m to 5m high are not
generally recommended as the section required to resist bending
moments and the length required for stability mean that
uneconomic designs may result. In circumstances where the
retained height exceeds 4.5m, a cantilever wall may be
considered, but the deflection of the wall is likely to be large and
this should be checked to ensure that serviceability criteria are not
exceeded. This caveat should not be seen as a limitation on the
use of steel sheet piling as much of the deflection on a cantilever
wall results from soil movements and is therefore applicable to
walls formed in any material.
It is further recommended that cantilever walls in soft clays are
considered with extreme care and that they should not be
designed for permanent construction using total stress soil
parameters.
When U profile sheet piles are selected for the construction of
cantilever retaining walls, the designer must satisfy himself that the
section is capable of developing the required section modulus.
Guidance on the selection of pile sections is given in Chapter 1.
Chapter 8/1
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Charts for retaining walls

The parameters below have been adopted in the following typical
examples:
Table: 8.1
Unfactored soil γ γ' δ Sw/Su Ka Kac Kp Kpc
strength (kN/m3) (kN/m3) (Both
parameter sides)
φ' = 40° 20.5 18.1 2/3 φ - 0.229 - 6.493 -
φ' = 30° 19.1 14.7 2/3 φ - 0.343 - 3.554 -
φ' = 20° 18.6 18.6 2/3 φ - 0.494 - 2.193 -
Su = 75 kN/m2 19.6 19.6 - 0.5 1 2.449 1 2.449
Su = 40 kN/m2 18.6 18.6 - 0.5 1 2.449 1 2.449
γ w= 9.81kN/m3
The following water conditions have been adopted.
Water condition A:
Ground water at the top of the piles on the active side and at
excavation level on the passive side.

Fig 8.1 Cantilever - water condition A Fig 8.2 Tied - water condition A
Surcharge = 10 kN/m 2 Surcharge = 10 kN/m
2

GWL. GWL.

H H

L L
GWL. GWL.

Water condition B:
Ground water at excavation level on the both sides of the wall.

Fig 8.3 Cantilever -water condition B Fig 8.4 Tied - water condition B
2 2
Surcharge = 10 kN/m Surcharge = 10 kN/m

H H

L L
GWL. GWL. GWL. GWL.

Chapter 8/2
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Charts for retaining walls

Water condition C:
No ground water is assumed in this case

Fig 8.5 Cantilever - water condition C Fig 8.6 Tied - water condition C
Surcharge = 10 kN/m2
Surcharge = 10 kN/m2

H
H

L L

Water condition D:
Active water to the top of the piles and passive water at
excavation level. Soil is at the passive water level on both sides.

Fig 8.7 Cantilever - water condition D Fig 8.8 Supported - water condition D
WL. WL.
d

H
H

L
L
GWL.
GWL.

Details of sheet pile products and steel grades are given in

chapter 1.

Chapter 8/3
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Charts for retaining walls

Using the plots. (refer to Fig. 8.9 example plot)
1 Select the plot appropriate to the particular conditions under review.
2 For a given retained height, excluding any allowance for overdig, draw a vertical line to
intersect with the lines on both the upper and lower plots.
3 Draw a horizontal line from the intersection point with the solid line on the lower plot to the
right hand vertical axis to obtain the overall pile length.
4 Draw a horizontal line from the intersection point with one of the dashed lines (dependant
on selected steel grade) to the left hand vertical axis to obtain the minimum section
modulus.
5 Draw a horizontal line from the intersection point with the line on the upper plot to the left
hand vertical axis to obtain the support load.
6 Tie load and Section modulus values obtained from these charts include the factors
recommended in chapters 5 and 6.

φ = 40°
Fig. 8.9 Example plot
Fig. 8.19 Tied - Water condition A (d=1.5m)
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

1200
1000

T=410kN/m
800

< < < < < <

600
400
< < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < <

200
0
16000 20.0

14000 17.5

12000 15.0
The charts indicate the
section modulus required
for steel grades S270GP,
Section modulus (cm3/m)

L=11m
10000 12.5
S355GP and S430GP.
Wall length (m)

< < < < < < < < < < <
The requirements for
alternative steel grades 8000 10.0

can be determined by
looking up the modulus
6000 7.5
needed for a given set of
conditions, multiplying the
number by either 270, 355 4000 5.0
or 430 depending on
Z=1850 cm3/m
which plot has been used
and dividing the result by 2000
< < < < < < 2.5
the yield strength of the
proposed steel.
0 0.0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/4
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.10 Cantilever - Water condition A φ = 40°
4000 16

3500 14

3000 12
Section modulus (cm3/m)

2500 10

Wall length (m)

2000 8

1500 6

1000 4

500 2

0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/5
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.11 Cantilever - Water condition A φ = 30°
8000 20

7000 17.5

6000 15
Section modulus (cm3/m)

5000 12.5

Wall length (m)

4000 10

3000 7.5

2000 5

1000 2.5

0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/6
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.12 Cantilever - Water condition A φ = 20°
18000 30

15000 25

12000 20
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

9000 15

6000 10

3000 5

0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/7
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.13 Cantilever - Water condition B φ = 40°
1000 10.0

900 9.00

800 8.00

700 7.00
Section modulus (cm3/m)

600 6.00

Wall length (m)

500 5.00

400 4.00

300 3.00

200 2.00

100 1.00

0 0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/8
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.14 Cantilever - Water condition B φ = 30°
2000 15.00

1800 13.50

1600 12.00

1400 10.50
Section modulus (cm3/m)

1200 9.00

Wall length (m)

1000 7.50

800 6.00

600 4.50

400 3.00

200 1.50

0 0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/9
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.15 Cantilever - Water condition B φ = 20°
8000 24.0

7000 21.0

6000 18.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

5000 15.0

Wall length (m)

4000 12.0

3000 9.00

2000 6.00

1000 3.00

0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/10
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.16 Cantilever - Water condition C φ = 40°
900 9.00

800 8.00

700 7.00

600 6.00
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

500 5.00

400 4.00

300 3.00

200 2.00

100 1.00

0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/11
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.17 Cantilever - Water condition C φ = 30°
1800 12.00

1500 10.00

1200 8.00
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

900 6.00

600 4.00

300 2.00

0 0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/12
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.18 Cantilever - Water condition C φ = 20°
4500 18.00

4000 16.00

3500 14.00

3000 12.00
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

2500 10.00

2000 8.00

1500 6.00

1000 4.00

500 2.00

0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/13
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.19 Tied - Water condition A (d=1.5m) φ = 40°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
16000 20.0

14000 17.5

12000 15.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

10000 12.5

Wall length (m)

8000 10.0

6000 7.5

4000 5.0

2000 2.5

0 0.0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/14
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.20 Tied - Water condition A (d=1.5m) φ = 30°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
30000 30.0

25000 25.0

20000 20.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

15000 15.0

10000 10.0

5000 5.0

0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0

Retained height (m)

S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/15
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.21 Tied - Water condition A (d=1.5m) φ = 20°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
60,000 36.0

34.0

50,000 32.0

30.0

40,000 28.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

26.0

Wall length (m)

30,000 24.0

22.0

20,000 20.0

18.0

10,000 16.0

14.0

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0 12.0

Retained height (m)

S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/16
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Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.22 Tied - Water condition B (d=1.5m) φ = 40°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

400

300

200

100

0
4000 20

3600 18

3200 16

2800 14
Section modulus (cm3/m)

2400 12

Wall length (m)

2000 10

1600 8

1200 6

800 4

400 2

0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/17
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.23 Tied - Water condition B (d=1.5m) φ = 30°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
7000 28.0

6000 24.0

5000 20.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

4000 16.0

3000 12.0

2000 8.0

1000 4.0

0.0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0

Retained height (m)

S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/18
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.24 Tied - Water condition B (d=1.5m) φ = 20°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
30000 30.0

25000 25.0

20000 20.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

15000 15.0

10000 10.0

5000 5.0

0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0

Retained height (m)

S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/19
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.25 Tied - Water condition C (d=1.5m) φ = 40°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

400

300

200

100

0
3500 17.5

3000 15.0

2500 12.5
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

2000 10.0

1500 7.5

1000 5.0

500 2.5

0.0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0

Retained height (m)

S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/20
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.26 Tied - Water condition C (d=1.5m) φ = 30°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
6000 24.0

5000 20.0

4000 16.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

3000 12.0

2000 8.0

1000 4.0

0.0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0

Retained height (m)

S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/21
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.27 Tied - Water condition C (d=1.5m) φ = 20°
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
16000 22.0

14000 20.0

12000 18.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

10000 16.0

Wall length (m)

8000 14.0

6000 12.0

4000 10.0

2000 8.0

0 6.0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/22
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.28 Cantilever - Water condition C Su = 75kN/m2
1400 14.0

1200 12.0

1000 10.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Pile length (m)

800 8.00

600 6.00

400 4.00

200 2.00

0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
0

Retained height (m)

S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/23
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.29 Cantilever - Water condition C Su = 40kN/m2
2500 25.0

2000 20.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

1500 15.0

Pile length (m)

1000 10.0

500 5.00

0 0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/24
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.30 Cantilever - Water condition D Su = 75kN/m2
1200 12.00

1000 10.00

800 8.00
Section modulus (cm3/m)

Wall length (m)

600 6.00

400 4.00

200 2.00

0 0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/25
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.31 Cantilever - Water condition D Su = 40kN/m2
1600 16.0

1400 14.0

1200 12.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

1000 10.0

Wall length (m)

800 8.00

600 6.00

400 4.00

200 2.00

0 0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/26
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.32 Tied - Water condition C (d=1.2m) Su = 75kN/m2
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Factored tie load (kN/m)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
8000 40.0

7000 35.0

6000 30.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

5000 25.0

Pile length (m)

4000 20.0

3000 15.0

2000 10.0

1000 5.00

0 0.00
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/27
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.33 Tied - Water condition C (d = 1.2m) Su = 40kN/m2
Retained height (m)
4 4.5 5.0 5.5 6
Factored tie load (kN/m)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2000 40.0

1800 36.0

1600 32.0

1400 28.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

1200 24.0

Pile length (m)

1000 20.0

800 16.0

600 12.0

400 8.00

200 4.00

0 0.00
4 4.5 5.0 5.5 6
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/28
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.34 Tied - Water condition D (d=1.2m) Su = 75kN/m2
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
8000 40.0

7000 35.0

6000 30.0
Section modulus (cm3/m)

5000 25.0

Pile length (m)

4000 20.0

3000 15.0

2000 10.0

1000 5.00

0 0.00
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/29
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Charts for retaining walls

Fig. 8.35 Tied - Water condition D (d=1.2m) Su = 40kN/m2
Retained height (m)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Factored tie load (kN/m)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
20000 40.00

18000 36.00

16000 32.00

14000 28.00
Section modulus (cm3/m)

12000 24.00

Pile length (m)

10000 20.00

8000 16.00

6000 12.00

4000 8.00

2000 4.00

0 0.00
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Retained height (m)
S270GP S355GP S430GP Length

Chapter 8/30
 9

construction
Circular cell
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
Chapter 9_'08:Chapter 9 jet2 28/10/08 10:04 Page 1

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

Contents Page
9.1 Introduction 1
9.2 Straight web piling 1
9.2.1 Dimensions and properties for AS 500
straight web piles 1
9.3 Interlock strength 2
9.4 Junction piles 3
9.5 Types of cell 3
9.6 Bent piles 3
9.7 Equivalent width and ratio 4
9.8 Geometry 5
9.8.1 Circular cells 5
9.8.2 Diaphragm cells 6
9.9 Handling straight web piles 7
Chapter 9_'08:Chapter 9 jet2 28/10/08 10:04 Page 2

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

Chapter 9_'08:Chapter 9 jet2 28/10/08 10:04 Page 3

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

9.1 Introduction Cellular cofferdams are self-supporting gravity structures constructed
using straight web sheet piles to form various shapes. The piles are
interlocked and driven to form closed cells which are then filled with
cohesionless material. To achieve continuity of the wall, the circular
cells are connected together using fabricated junction piles and short
arcs.
Provided that the material on which they are to be founded is solid
they require only nominal penetration to be stable. Pile penetration
will assist in the resistance of any lateral loads occurring during the
construction phase in the vulnerable period before the fill has been
placed and the cell has become inherently stable.
Cellular cofferdam structures are used to retain considerable depths
of water or subsequently placed fill. They are commonly used as
dock closure cofferdams, or to form quay walls and breakwaters. The
straight web pile section and particularly the interlocks have been
designed to resist the circumferential tension which is developed in
the cells due to the radial pressure of the contained fill and at the
same time permit sufficient angular deflection to enable cells of a
practical diameter to be formed. In cellular construction no bending
moments are developed in the sheet piles which enables the steel to
be disposed in such a manner that the maximum tensile resistance is
developed across the profile. The sections have therefore very little
resistance to bending and are not suitable for normal straight sheet
pile wall construction. Walings and tie rods are not required.
The design and construction of cellular cofferdams is very complex
and further information is available from our Technical Department.

Chapter 9/1
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

9.2 Straight web piling
Table 9.2 Tolerances for straight web piles to EN 10248 Part 2
Tolerances AS 500
Mass ±5%
Length ±200mm
Height -
Thickness t, s > 8.5mm: ±6%
Width single pile ±2%
Width double pile ±3%
Straightness 0.2% of the length
Ends out of square 2% of pile width

9.2.1 Dimensions and properties for AS 500 Straight Web piles

Fig 9.2.1 finger
t

δ
thumb
~ 92mm b

Table 9.2.1
Section Nominal Web Deviation Peri- Steel Mass per Mass Moment Section Coating
width* thickness angle meter of section m of a per m2 of inertia modulus area***
a single of a single of wall of a single pile
b t δ pile single pile pile
mm mm ° cm cm2 kg/m kg/m2 cm4 cm3 m2/m
AS 500-9,5 500 9.5 4.5** 138 81.3 63.8 128 168 46 0.58
AS 500-11,0 500 11.0 4.5** 139 90.0 70.6 141 186 49 0.58
AS 500-12,0 500 12.0 4.5** 139 94.6 74.3 149 196 51 0.58
AS 500-12,5 500 12.5 4.5** 139 97.2 76.3 153 201 51 0.58
AS 500-12,7 500 12.7 4.5** 139 98.2 77.1 154 204 51 0.58
Note: all straight web sections interlock with each other.
* The effective width to be taken into account for design purposes (lay-out) is 503 mm for all AS 500 sheet piles.
** Max. deviation angle 4.0° for pile length > 20 m.
*** On both sides, excluding inside of interlocks.

9.3 Interlock strength

The interlock complies with EN 10248. Following interlock strength
Fmax can be achieved with a steel grade S 355 GP. However,
higher steel grades are available.
Sheet pile Fmax [kN/m]
AS 500 - 9.5 3,000
AS 500 - 11.0 3,500
AS 500 - 12.0 5,000
AS 500 - 12.5 5,500
AS 500 - 12.7 5,500

For verification of the strength of piles, both yielding of the web and failure
of the interlock should be considered. The allowable tension force T in the
pile may be obtained by applying a safety factor, for example:
1__
T = ___ η R.

Chapter 9/2
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

The magnitude of the safety factor depends on the calculation method
and assumptions, the installation method and the function of the
structure. When two different sections are used in the same section of

value of η = 2.0 is currently used.

wall, the lowest allowable tension force is to be taken into account. The

9.4 Junction piles In general junction piles are assembled by welding in accordance
with EN 12063.

Fig 9.4
b_ b_
2 2

120°
θ θ

150mm
b_ b_ b
_ b_
2 2 2 2

BI BP Y

The connecting angle θ should be in the range from 30° to 45°.

9.5 Types of cell

Fig 9.5

Circular cells with 35° junction piles and Diaphragm cells with 120° junction piles.
one or two connecting arcs.

9.6 Bent piles If deviation angles exceeding the values given in table 9.2.2 have
to be attained, piles pre-bent in the mill may be used.

Fig 9.6

β β

CI CP

Chapter 9/3
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

9.7 Equivalent width and ratio

Fig 9.7
The
Theequivalent
equivalentwidth
widthwwe ewhich
whichisisrequired
requiredfor
forstability
stabilityverification,
verification,determines
determinesthe
thegeometry
geometryofof
the
thechosen
chosencellular
cellularconstruction.
construction.
Circular cell with 2 arcs Development
• for circular cells
• for circular cells
The equivalent width is defined as:

Equivalent
width we
Area within 1 cell + Area within 2 (or 1) arc(s)
w =
wee =
System length
System length xx

The ratio shown on tables indicates how economical System length x

the chosen circular cell will be. Area
The ratio shown on tables indicates how economical Circular cell with 1 arc
the
It ischosen
definedcircular cell will be.
as follows:
Development 1 cell + Development 2 (or 1) arc(s)
Equivalent
width we
Ratio =
Development 1 cellSystem length x 2 (or 1) arc(s)
+ Development
Ratio =
System length x
System length x

c
• for diaphragm cells r
• for diaphragm cells 60°
The equivalent width we is defined as:

we
dl
we = diaphragm wall length (dl) + 2 · c
we = diaphragm wall length (dl) + 2 . c 120°
x=r

120° c

Chapter 9/4
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

9.8 Geometry
9.8.1 Circular cells Once the equivalent width has been determined, the geometry of
the cells is to be defined. This can be done with the help of tables
or with computer programs. Several solutions are possible for
both circular and diaphragm cells with a given equivalent width.

Fig 9.8.1 b/
2
dy θ
L
N θ = 35˚
ra
rm
S S b/2 b/2
α Standard Solution
we M M Description:
α rm = radius of the main cell
S S
ra = radius of the connecting arcs
θ = angle between the main cell and
β the connecting arc
L x = system length
dy = positive or negative offset between
A the connecting arcs and the tangent
planes of the main cells
x we = equivalent width

Junction piles with angles θ between 30° and 45°, as well as θ = 90°, are
possible on request. The following table shows a short selection of solutions
for circular cells with 2 arcs and standard junction piles with θ = 35°.
Table 9.8.1
Number of piles per Geometrical values Interlock Design values
deviation
Cell Arc System cell arc 2 arcs 2 arcs

L M S N d=2·rm ra x dy α β δm δa we ratio
pcs. pcs. pcs. pcs. pcs. pcs. m m m m ° ° ° ° m

100 33 15 4 25 150 16.01 4.47 22.92 0.16 28.80 167.60 3.60 6.45 13.69 3.34
104 35 15 4 27 158 16.65 4.88 24.42 0.20 27.69 165.38 3.46 5.91 14.14 3.30
108 37 15 4 27 162 17.29 4.94 25.23 0.54 26.67 163.33 3.33 5.83 14.41 3.27
112 37 17 4 27 166 17.93 4.81 25.25 0.33 28.93 167.86 3.21 6.00 15.25 3.35
116 37 19 4 27 170 18.57 4.69 25.27 0.13 31.03 172.07 3.10 6.15 16.08 3.42
120 39 19 4 29 178 19.21 5.08 26.77 0.16 30.00 170.00 3.00 5.67 16.54 3.38
124 41 19 4 29 182 19.85 5.14 27.59 0.50 29.03 168.06 2.90 5.60 16.82 3.35
128 43 19 4 31 190 20.49 5.55 29.09 0.53 28.13 166.25 2.81 5.20 17.27 3.32
132 43 21 4 31 194 21.13 5.42 29.11 0.33 30.00 170.00 2.73 5.31 18.10 3.39
136 45 21 4 33 202 21.77 5.82 30.61 0.36 29.12 168.24 2.65 4.95 18.56 3.35
140 45 23 4 33 206 22.42 5.71 30.62 0.17 30.86 171.71 2.57 5.05 19.39 3.42
144 47 23 4 33 210 23.06 5.76 31.45 0.50 30.00 170.00 2.50 5.00 19.67 3.39
148 47 25 4 35 218 23.70 5.99 32.13 0.00 31.62 173.24 2.43 4.81 20.67 3.44
152 49 25 4 35 222 24.34 6.05 32.97 0.34 30.79 171.58 2.37 4.77 20.95 3.42
156 49 27 4 35 226 24.98 5.94 32.98 0.15 32.31 174.62 2.31 4.85 21.76 3.48
160 51 27 4 37 234 25.62 6.33 34.48 0.17 31.50 173.00 2.25 4.55 22.23 3.44
164 53 27 4 39 242 26.26 6.72 35.98 0.20 30.73 171.46 2.20 4.29 22.69 3.41
168 55 27 4 41 250 26.90 7.12 37.48 0.23 30.00 170.00 2.14 4.05 23.15 3.38
172 55 29 4 41 254 27.54 7.00 37.49 0.03 31.40 172.79 2.09 4.11 23.98 3.43
176 57 29 4 41 258 28.18 7.06 38.32 0.37 30.68 171.36 2.05 4.08 24.26 3.41
180 59 29 4 43 266 28.82 7.46 39.82 0.40 30.00 170.00 2.00 3.86 24.72 3.39
184 59 31 4 43 270 29.46 7.35 39.83 0.20 31.30 172.61 1.96 3.92 25.54 3.43
188 61 31 4 45 278 30.10 7.74 41.33 0.23 30.64 171.28 1.91 3.72 26.00 3.41
Chapter 9/5
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

9.8.2 Diaphragm cells

Fig 9.8.2 Standard Solution

dy
c
M
θ
θ = 120°

150
60°
r
we N dl

Description:
r = radius
θ = angle between the arc and
c the diaphragm
we = equivalent width, with we = dl+2 · c
dy = arc height
x=r dl = diaphragm wall length
x = system length

The two parts of the following table should be used separately

depending on the required number of piles for the diaphragm wall
and the arcs.
Table 9.8.2
Geometry of the diaphragms Geometry of the arcs
Number of Number of Interlock
piles Wall length piles System length Arc height deviation arc
N dl M x dy c δa
m m m m °

11 5.83 11 5.57 0.75 0.51 5.17

13 6.84 13 6.53 0.87 0.59 4.41
15 7.85 15 7.49 1.00 0.68 3.85
17 8.85 17 8.45 1.13 0.77 3.41
19 9.86 19 9.41 1.26 0.86 3.06
21 10.86 21 10.37 1.39 0.94 2.78
23 11.87 23 11.33 1.52 1.03 2.54
25 12.88 25 12.29 1.65 1.12 2.34
27 13.88 27 13.26 1.78 1.20 2.17
29 14.89 29 14.22 1.90 1.29 2.03
31 15.89 31 15.18 2.03 1.38 1.90
33 16.90 33 16.14 2.16 1.46 1.79
35 17.91 35 17.10 2.29 1.55 1.69
37 18.91 37 18.06 2.42 1.64 1.60
39 19.92 39 19.02 2.55 1.73 1.52
41 20.92 41 19.98 2.68 1.81 1.44
43 21.93 43 20.94 2.81 1.90 1.38
45 22.94 45 21.90 2.93 1.99 1.32
47 23.94 47 22.86 3.06 2.07 1.26
49 24.95 49 23.82 3.19 2.16 1.21
51 25.95 51 24.78 3.32 2.25 1.16
53 26.96 53 25.74 3.45 2.33 1.12
55 27.97 55 26.70 3.58 2.42 1.08

Chapter 9/6
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

9.9 Handling straight web piles
Unlike piles designed to resist bending moments, straight-web
sheet piles have low flexural stiffness, which means that care must
be taken over their handling.
Incorrect storage could cause permanent deformation, making
interlock threading difficult if not impossible. It is therefore vital to
have a sufficient number of wooden packing pieces between each
bundle of stacked sheet piles, and to position these pieces above
each other to limit the risk of deformation.
g g p
Fig 9.9a Storage of straight-web sheet piles
Wood packing h=70mm c

a b b a

max. bundle weight: 7.5 tonnes

Overhang "a" less than 1.5 m
Spacing of packings "b" less than 4.0 m
Offset of bundle "c" not less than 0.15 m
Wood packings to be aligned in the vertical plane

Fig 9.9b Storage and handling

of straight-web sheet piles

Chapter 9/7
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Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Circular cell construction design & installation

When sheet piles have to be moved from the horizontal storage
position to another storage location, lifting beams or brackets
made from pile sections threaded into the interlocks prior to lifting
should be used.
When pitching piles up to 15 m long into the vertical position, only
one point of support near the top (the handling hole) is necessary.

Lifting of
twolong straight web steel sheet piles
Straight-web sheet piles more than 15 m long should be lifted at
or even three points, in order to avoid plastic distortion.

Fig 9.9c Lifting of long straight-web sheet piles

a b
a

0.15 L 0.40 L 0.45 L

a = points of support
b
b = fastening in the handling hole

lifting operation

Chapter 9/8
1 Product information
10
2 Sealants

loaded sheet piles

Bearing & axially
3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
Chapter 10_'08:Chapter 10 jet2 28/10/08 10:07 Page 1

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Bearing piles and axially loaded sheet piles

Contents Page
10.1 Introduction 1
10.2 Types of load bearing piles 2
10.3 Design 3
10.3.1 General 3
10.3.2 Determination of effective length 4
10.3.3 Vertical load capacity 4
10.3.4 Piles subjected to tensile forces 9
10.3.5 Lateral load 10
10.3.6 Pile groups 10
10.3.7 Negative skin friction 10
10.3.8 Set up 10
10.4 Testing the load capacity of steel bearing piles 11
10.5 Welding of steel piles 12
10.6 Installation of bearing piles 13
10.7 Driving shoes 13
10.8 Axially loaded sheet piles 13
10.9 Steel sheet piling in bridge abutments 13
10.10 Integral bridge abutments 14
10.11 Steel sheet piles in basements 14
10.12 Load bearing sheet piles 15
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Bearing piles and axially loaded sheet piles

Chapter 10_'08:Chapter 10 jet2 28/10/08 10:07 Page 3

Piling Handbook, 8th edition (revised 2008)

Bearing piles and axially loaded sheet piles

10.1 Introduction Steel sections can be used as bearing piles where soil and ground
conditions preclude the use of shallow foundations. They transmit
vertical loads from the structure through the upper soft layers to
ground of adequate strength for support. Steel sheet piles can be
used as simple bearing piles and have the added advantage that
they can be designed as a retaining wall that carries vertical loads.
The main advantages that steel piles have over alternative systems
are as follows:
• They are available in a wide range of profiles and section weights to
allow the most economical choice of section for any particular
loading condition or soil profile.
• They are well suited to use in cases where very soft clays or loose
sands and gravels are present in the soil profile or when piles are
being installed below the water table - conditions which can pose
problems for cast in-situ systems.
• Steel piles have a very high load-carrying capacity which can be
further enhanced, given suitable ground conditions, by the use of
high yield strength steel. The option of using a higher grade steel is
also useful when hard-driving conditions are anticipated.
• Because they are comparatively light in weight, but very robust,
they require no special handling equipment for transport and they
can be supplied in long lengths (up to 33m for some sections).
• The ease with which steel piles can be extended, increasing their
load carrying capacity, is of great value to the designer working with
a material as variable as soil. The inherent uncertainty of a
calculated pile capacity is less of a problem to the designer and the
effect of unforeseen ground conditions on the construction process
can be reduced. For example, to maintain load capacity if weak
soils are encountered, it is a simple welding operation to extend the
pile or where a pile achieves the required ‘set’ earlier than predicted
it can be shortened, with the advantage that off-cuts from piles on
one part of the site can be used as extension pieces for other piles.
• Steel bearing piles are extractable at the end of the life of the
structure and therefore the opportunity for either re-use or recycling
exists, resulting in an economic and environmental bonus. The
resulting site is enhanced in value since there are no old
foundations that can obstruct or hinder future development.
• Steel bearing piles are of the low-displacement type and therefore
there is no spoil to dispose of, which is of particular benefit when
piles are being installed into contaminated ground.
• Steel bearing piles can be readily used as raking members in order
to accommodate horizontal loads on structures such as bridge
abutments.
This chapter is designed to give an overview of bearing piles and
axially loaded sheet piles. Deep foundations using driven steel piles is
a subject in its own right. The ArcelorMittal document ‘Deep
Foundations on HP piles’ and the SCI publication ‘Steel Bearing Piles
Guide’ provide in-depth guidance on the subject.
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Table 10.2 HP piles - characteristics
Section Mass Dimensions Steel Total Peri- Moment Section

HISTAR 4)
area area meter of inertia modulus
h b tw tf A A tot P Axis Axis Axis Axis
=hxb Y Z Y Z
kg/m mm mm mm mm cm2 cm2 m cm4 cm4 cm3 cm3
HP 200 x 43 42.5 200 205 9 9 54.14 410 1.180 3888 1294 388.8 126.2
HP 200 x 53 53.5 204 207 11.3 11.3 68.4 422.3 1.200 4977 1673 488 161.7

HP 220 x 57 ) 3
57.2 210 224.5 11 11 72.9 471.5 1.265 5729 2079 545.6 185.2

HP 260 x 75 3) 75 249 265 12 12 95.5 659.9 1.493 10650 3733 855.1 281.7
HP 260 x 87 1) 3) 87.3 253 267 14 14 111 675.5 1.505 12590 4455 994.9 333.7

HP 305 x 79 3) 78.4 299.3 306.4 11 11 99.9 917.1 1.780 16331 5278 1091 344.5
HP 305 x 88 1) 3) 88 301.7 307.2 12.3 12.3 112 926.8 1.782 18420 5984 1221 388.9
HP 305 x 95 1) 3) 94.9 303.7 308.7 13.3 13.3 121 936.6 1.788 20040 6529 1320 423
HP 305 x 110 1) 2) 110 307.9 310.7 15.3 15.4 140 955.4 1.800 23560 7709 1531 496.2 Hi
HP 305 x 126 1) 2) 126 312.3 312.9 17.5 17.6 161 976.2 1.813 27410 9002 1755 575.4 Hi
HP 305 x 149 1) 149 318.5 316 20.6 20.7 190 1005 1.832 33070 10910 2076 690.5 Hi
HP 305 x 180 180 326.7 319.7 24.8 24.8 229 1044 1.857 40970 13550 2508 847.4 Hi
HP 305 x 186 1) 186 328.3 320.9 25.5 25.6 237 1052 1.861 42610 14140 2596 881.5 Hi
HP 305 x 223 1) 223 337.9 325.7 30.3 30.4 284 1100 1.891 52700 17580 3119 1079 Hi

HP 320 x 88 3) 88.5 303 304 12 12 113 921.1 1.752 18740 5634 1237 370.6
HP 320 x 103 103 307 306 14 14 131 939.4 1.764 22050 6704 1437 438.2 Hi
HP 320 x 117 117 311 308 16 16 150 957.9 1.776 25480 7815 1638 507.5 Hi
HP 320 x 147 147 319 312 20 20 187 995.3 1.800 32670 10160 2048 651.3 Hi
HP 320 x 184 184 329 317 25 25 235 1043 1.830 42340 13330 2574 841.2 Hi

HP 360 x 84 3) 84.3 340 367 10 10 107 1248 2.102 23210 8243 1365 449.2
HP 360 x 109 1) 2) 3) 109 346.4 371 12.8 12.9 139 1283 2.123 30630 10990 1769 592.3
HP 360 x 133 1) 2) 133 352 373.8 15.6 15.7 169 1314 2.140 37980 13680 2158 731.9 Hi
HP 360 x 152 1) 2) 152 356.4 376 17.8 17.9 194 1338 2.153 43970 15880 2468 844.5 Hi
HP 360 x 174 1) 2) 174 361.5 378.5 20.3 20.4 222 1367 2.169 51010 18460 2823 975.6 Hi
HP 360 x 180 180 362.9 378.8 21.1 21.1 230 1375 2.173 53040 19140 2923 1011 Hi

HP 400 x 122 ) 3
122 348 390 14 14 156 1357 2.202 34770 13850 1998 710.3
HP 400 x 140 140 352 392 16 16 179 1380 2.214 40270 16080 2288 820.2 Hi
HP 400 x 158 158 356 394 18 18 201 1403 2.226 45940 18370 2581 932.4 Hi
HP 400 x 176 176 360 396 20 20 224 1426 2.238 51770 20720 2876 1047 Hi
HP 400 x 194 194 364 398 22 22 248 1449 2.250 57760 23150 3174 1163 Hi
HP 400 x 213 213 368 400 24 24 271 1472 2.262 63920 25640 3474 1282 Hi
HP 400 x 231 231 372 402 26 26 294 1495 2.274 70260 28200 3777 1403 Hi
1
) Section conforming to BS4: Part1: 1993.
2
) Sections also available according to ASTM A6-2000
3
) Sections are also available in steel grade S460
4
) Sections marked Hi are available in HISTAR 355 and HISTAR 460 grades
(see special HP catalogue for details).

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Bearing piles and axially loaded sheet piles

10.2 Types of load bearing piles
Four basic types of steel bearing piles are available:-
1 H Piles – columns and bearing pile sections
(see Table 10.2 for details)
2 Box Piles. These are formed by welding together two or more
units to form a single section and are sub-divided into the
following types:
1 CAZ Piles
2 CAU, CU, CPU-R, and CGU box piles
(see 1.16.2 for details)
3 Tubular Piles.
4 Sheet Piles. It should be noted that as well as being widely
specified for the construction of purely earth-retaining
structures, sheet piling also has a capacity to carry axial load in
addition to earth and water pressures and can be used to form
structures such as bridge abutments or basement walls without
modification. (see Chapter 1 for sizes)
Where piles are fully embedded, ie the whole length of the pile is
below ground level, an H-section pile is most suitable. This situation
usually occurs when piles are used to support land-sited structures
such as road and railway bridges and industrial buildings.
Box piles and tubular piles are most useful when part of the pile is
exposed above ground level, as in pier and jetty construction, or
when hard-driving conditions are anticipated. They can also be
incorporated into a plain sheet pile wall to increase its bending
strength and/or its ability to support axial loads. These sections
possess a comparatively uniform radius of gyration about each
axis, and hence provide excellent column properties, which is a
particular advantage in these situations.

10.3 Design
10.3.1 General The basis of design for any bearing pile is its ultimate axial
capacity in the particular soil layers in which it is founded. This
can be determined by testing the pile after it has been installed or,
more usually by using empirical formula at the design stage to
predict the capacity from the soil properties determined during the
site investigation. From this it can be seen that a good site
investigation is of paramount importance to the design process.
The structural capacity of the pile itself must also be determined
to ensure that it is adequate to transmit the foundation loads from
the structure to be supported into the founding soil. Provided the
soil is not of a very soft consistency, steel bearing piles can
generally be considered as fully laterally restrained by the soil over
the length of embedment. This means that, in most cases, the
maximum structural capacity of the bearing pile can be used in
the calculations.
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10.3.2 Determination of effective length
The structural capacity must be checked when a pile projects
above the soil level for a jetty or mooring dolphin. In this case the
above ground section must be designed as a free-standing column.
The effective length of the column (L) for the determination of its
slenderness ratio is dependent on the type of ground at the
surface. Where soft soils are encountered ‘L’ should be taken as
the distance between the point of connection with the deck (or
bracing) and a point at half the depth of the soft strata or 3m below
ground, whichever is the lesser. Where firm soils occur immediately
below bed level, ‘L’ is the distance between the point of connection
with the deck (or bracing) and a point located at bed level.
Hence, if the top of the pile is fixed in position in the orientation
being considered but is not effectively fixed in direction, the
effective length is ‘L’. If however, the pile is also fixed in direction
the effective length should be taken as 0.75 x L.
For partial fixity in this situation the effective length should be taken
as 1.5 x L.
When the top of the pile is neither fixed in position nor in direction
in the orientation being examined, the effective length is 2 x L.
Very soft strata such as liquid mud should be treated as water for
design purposes.

10.3.3 Vertical Load Capacity

The ultimate load carrying capacity of a pile in the ground can be
assessed by calculation using a variety of different methods.
Possibly the most suitable for driven piles in general is that based
on CPT (Cone Penetration Test) results but it is less reliable in
compact gravels, marls and other hard soils.
The designer is aiming to use the available soil test data to
establish acceptable values for the skin friction and end bearing
resistances that can be generated.
The following method of analysis, based on SPT test results, has
been in use for many years
Granular soil (SPT Method from Meyerhof)
The ultimate capacity of a bearing pile in granular soil can be
determined from the SPT values obtained from site investigation
boreholes using the following formulae
Ultimate Capacity QUlt = Qs + Qb.
Ultimate Shaft Resistance Qs = 2NsAs (kN)
Ultimate Base Resistance Qb = 400NbAb (kN)
Where Ns is the average dynamic SPT resistance over the
embedded length of the pile (blows/300mm)
As is the embedded area of the shaft of the pile in contact with
the soil (m2).
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N b is the dynamic SPT resistance at the predicted base of the pile
which is calculated using the following equation
N b = 0.5(N1 +N2)
where N1 is the smallest of the N values over two
effective diameters below toe level
and N2 is the average N value over 10 effective diameters
below the pile toe.
Ab is the area of the base of the pile (m 2).
For submerged sands, the N value needs to be reduced ( N red )
using the following relationship
N red = 15 + 0.5 (N – 15) for values of N which exceed 15.
Cohesive Soils
The ultimate capacity of a bearing pile in cohesive soils is a
function of the undrained shear strength of the soil and its area in
contact with the pile.
Ultimate Capacity Q Ult = Q s + Q b
Ultimate Shaft Resistance Q s = α Su As (kN)
Ultimate Base Resistance Q b = 9 Su Ab (kN)
Where
α is the pile wall adhesion factor (or soil shear strength
modification factor) for each soil layer
S u is the average undrained shear strength of the layer being
considered.
Values used for α under static load will diminish with increasing
undrained cohesion but generally lie between 0.5 and 1.0. This is
shown in Fig 10.3.3.1.
When calculating the values for A s and A b the possibility that
‘plugging’ may occur must be considered. This is the situation
where the soil does not shear at the pile/soil interface but away
from the pile and a plug of soil forms at the base which is drawn
down with the pile as it is driven. The various conditions are
shown in Fig 10.3.3.2.
It is recommended that the shaft friction area (A s) is calculated
assuming that no plug forms but when assessing the end bearing
area (A b), full plugging is assumed but a reduction factor of 0.5 for
clay soils and 0.75 for sands is then introduced.

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Fig 10.3.3.1

API RP2A - 20th edition (1992)

1
α =fs/Su

0.1
0.1 1 10
Su /σ′vo

Fig 10.3.3.2 H pile end bearing and skin friction ares

End Bearing areas

No plug Partial plug Full plug

Corresponding skin friction area

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Pile capacity from end bearing
When rock or another suitably competent layer exists, steel piles
can transmit the loads from the structure to the foundation in end
bearing alone.
The table below gives the ultimate axial load capacity for the
common bearing pile sizes based on the yield stress applicable to
a given steel thickness.
The values are applicable to piles founded in:
1 Hard and medium rock or equivalent, strata such as extremely
dense or partially cemented sands or gravels.
2 Soft rocks, dense sands and gravels or extremely hard clays,
hardpan and similar soils.
In the second case, the piles will act in a combination of end
bearing and friction in the founding stratum and the required
penetration will be greater than that for the first case where
penetration is dependent on the hardness of the rock and on the
degree of weathering of its upper surface.
It should however be noted that traditional load capacity tables
were based on a working stress of 30% of the yield strength of
the steel to give a factor of safety of 2 on the load and some
additional capacity to prevent damage should the driving stresses
increase. When driving piles through relatively soft soils onto rock,
a working stress of 50% of the yield strength of the steel could be
adopted giving a factor of safety of 2 on the applied loading. The
tabulated values below need to be factored to give comparable
load capacities for the various pile sections.
The ability of the rock on which the pile is founded to withstand
the foundation loads must be determined by establishing the
compressive strength of the strata (MPa) from site investigation.

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Table 10.3.3a H piles ultimate load capacity
Serial size Mass Section area Ultimate load capacity
Steel grade
S235 S275 S355
kg/m cm2 kN kN kN
HP200 43 54.1 1272 1489 1922
HP200 53 68.4 1607 1881 2428
HP220 57.2 72.9 1712 2003 2586
HP260 75 95.5 2245 2627 3392
HP260 87.3 111 2609 3053 3941
HP305 79 99.9 2348 2747 3546
HP305 88 112 2632 3080 3976
HP305 95 121 2844 3328 4296
HP305 110 140 3290 3850 4970
HP305 126 161 3623 4267 5555
HP305 149 190 4275 5035 6555
HP305 180 229 5153 6069 7901
HP305 186 237 5333 6281 8177
HP305 223 284 6390 7526 9798
HP320 88.5 113 2656 3108 4012
HP320 103 131 3079 3603 4651
HP320 117 150 3525 4125 5325
HP320 147 187 4208 4956 6452
HP320 184 235 5288 6228 8108
HP360 84.3 107 2515 2943 3799
HP360 109 139 3267 3823 4935
HP360 133 169 3972 4648 6000
HP360 152 194 4365 5141 6693
HP360 174 222 4995 5883 7659
HP360 180 230 5175 6095 7935
HP400 122 156 3666 4290 5538
HP400 140 179 4207 4923 6355
HP400 158 201 4523 5327 6935
HP400 176 224 5040 5936 7728
HP400 194 248 5580 6572 8556
HP400 213 271 6098 7182 9350
HP400 231 294 6615 7791 10143

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The following table give examples of the compressive strength of
rocks found close to the Earth’s surface in which piles may be
founded.

Table 10.3.3b Compressive strength

Rock type Compression strength MPa
100 200 300 400
Leptite
Diabase
Basalt
Granite
Hard

Syenite
Quartz porphyry
Diorite, gabbro
Quartzite
Quartzitic phyllite

Metamorphic phyllite
Layered phyllite
Hornblende
Chalkstone
Weak

Marble
Dolerite
Oil shale
Mica shist
Sandstone
Lava

Variation about mean

Cylinder sample H = D
Cylinder sample H = 2D
Cube test

10.3.4 Piles subjected to tensile forces

Bearing Piles manufactured in steel have the advantage of being
able to withstand high tensile loadings, which makes them ideal
for resisting uplift forces. This tensile capacity also makes them
extractable without the need for special and expensive
techniques.
Table 10.3.3a gives the ultimate tensile capacity for each pile
section.
The tensile resistance of the soil/pile interface is calculated from
the skin friction on the pile shaft only.
Testing of tension piles to establish the tension load is a relatively
simple process of applying a load using a hydraulic ram founded
on the ground.

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10.3.5 Lateral loads Lateral loads on piles vary in their importance from the major load
in such structures as transmission towers or mooring dolphins to
the relatively insignificant loads on low rise buildings.
For further information refer to SCI document ‘Steel Bearing Piles
Guide, Chapter 5 Lateral Load resistance.’

10.3.6 Pile groups Where piles are installed in groups to support a structure, the
performance of the group is dependant upon the layout of the
piles and may not equate to the sum of the theoretical
performance of individual piles in the group.
A general rule is that the centre to centre spacing of the pile
should not be less than 4 times the maximum lateral dimension of
the pile section. However a check of the settlement of the overall
group should be made.
See SCI document ‘ Steel Bearing Piles Guide chapter 6 Pile
group effect’.

10.3.7 Negative skin friction

This phenomenon can occur when piles are driven through soft
compressible soils which are subjected to an external load such
as a surcharge. Squashing a compressible layer will apply a
downward force to the pile through skin friction, which
counteracts the load bearing capacity of the layer in question.
If this phenomenon is likely to occur it should be included in the
design calculations. The load bearing capacity of the pile can be
reduced to take into account the negative skin friction or a slip
coating can be applied to the length of the pile in the soft zone to
prevent the negative load affecting the pile.

10.3.8 Set up The properties of the soil immediately adjacent to a driven pile are
changed by the process of forcing the pile into the ground, giving
rise to a phenomenon called set up.
Set up is the time interval during which the soil recovers its
properties after the driving process has ceased. In other words
the load capacity of an individual pile will increase with time after
the pile has been driven. In granular soils this can be almost
immediate but in clays this can take days, or months for some
high plasticity clays.
In granular soils this change can be in the form of liquefaction
caused by a local increase in pore water pressure due to the
displacement by the pile. In clays it can be due to the remoulding
of the clay in association with changes in pore water pressures.

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The load capacity of the piles should be verified by testing and if
sufficient time for set up to occur is not available before the pile is
loaded then its effects should be taken into account in the design.
The important point to remember is that in clay soils the capacity
of the piles will tend to improve over time.

10.4 Testing the load capacity of steel bearing piles

There are four categories of tests that are commonly used to
determine the load capacity of steel bearing piles.
1 Maintained Load Test and 2 Constant Rate of penetration test
Both these tests use similar apparatus and in both cases the
test load is applied by hydraulic jack(s) with kentledge or
tension piles/soil anchors providing a reaction.
Modern Pile pressing systems provide this information as part
of the installation process. The amount of force required to
install the pile can be used to gauge the likely capacity of the
pile.
In the Maintained Load Test, the load is increased
incrementally, and is held at each level of loading until all
settlement has either ceased or does not exceed a specified
amount in a stated period of time. In the Constant Rate of
Penetration Test, the load is increased continuously at a rate
such that the settlement of the pile head occurs at a constant
rate. A rate of 0.75mm/min is suitable for friction piles in clay,
whilst for end-bearing piles in sand or gravel a penetration rate
of 1.5mm/min may be used. The amount of kentledge or
tension resistance should always be in excess of the estimated
pile resistance and if kentledge is used, its support system and
‘foundations’ should be carefully considered well in advance of
the test.
It is desirable to carry out test loading of steel bearing piles to
failure/ultimate load to determine whether the factor of safety
or penetration is approximately correct and this can generally
be done without affecting the subsequent load carrying
capacity of the pile.
The ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is commonly defined
as the load at which the total head settlement is 10% of the
pile width or the load at which the net residual head
settlement, after removal of all load, is equal to a specified
amount eg 8mm

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3 Dynamic Testing
The test pile is instrumented with strain transducers and
accelerometers and is struck with the piling hammer. The force
and velocity data are recorded and analysed. Using this data,
methods are available that give an on-site estimate of the pile
bearing capacity, although more rigorous and detailed analysis
of the recorded data can be performed using a computer
program such as the Case Pile Wave Analysis Program
(CAPWAP). Using the program, an engineer can determine the
pile bearing capacity, in terms of shaft resistance and toe
resistance and the distribution of resistance over the pile shaft.
A load-settlement curve is calculated and is similar in form to
traditional static load tests. It is advisable to correlate the
results of dynamic pile tests with those of at least one
maintained load test.
4 Pile Driving Formulae
This approach, eg the Hiley formula, relates the measured
permanent displacement of the pile at each blow of the
hammer to the dynamic capacity of the pile, from which the
static capacity can be obtained by the application of a factor of
safety, normally 2.0. It should be noted that a dynamic formula
should be applied only to piles founded in hard or soft rocks,
sands and gravels or extremely hard clays and that it is then
applicable only if a satisfactory re-drive check is obtained, ie
the immediate set per blow on re-driving the pile after an
interval of several hours should be either equal to, or less than,
the previous final set per blow.

10.5 Welding of steel piles

Two main types of weld are used in steel piling:
1 Primary welds, used to form tubular or box piles and fabricate
corners, junctions etc in sheet piles.
2 Splice Welds to connect an extra length to a pile, either before
or after an initial installation to increase the overall pile length.
Until relatively recently there has been no generally agreed
Standard or Code of Practice stipulating the weld quality level to
be used for this type of work which has resulted in specifications
being written to an excessively high standard. Over specification
leads to higher labour and welding consumable costs, increased
Non-Destructive Testing costs, high rectification costs and
consequent delays to the overall construction programme.

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10.6 Installation of bearing piles
Until recent times the installation of bearing piles was limited to
Impact and Vibro driving methods (see Installation Chapter). The
recent development of a hydraulic pile press for bearing applications
has meant that there is now a very low noise and vibration free
method for installing bearing piles in urban areas. Large capacity
bearing piles can be created using sheet piles and Omega sections
to form a circle involving 4 to 8 piles. Installation of a bearing pile
formed in this way is most easily achieved by leader rig. Driving may
therefore be by vibrodriver or pile press. The leader rig mounted pile
press system has a number of hydraulic rams which clamp to each
pile in the group. The piles are installed by pressing one pile while
reacting against the others in the group to advance the piles in a
series of increments (see Section 11.3.25 for more information).

10.7 Driving shoes Where piles are end bearing onto rock and the rock surface is not
horizontal a rock shoe can be used to seat the pile on the rock.
Other types of shoe can be used to strengthen the tip of the pile to
allow the pile to break through debris, scree, boulders and
weathered rock surfaces without damage.
It is also possible to profile the end of the section prior to driving.

10.8 Axially loaded sheet piles

The use of sheet piles in this handbook has focused, up to now on
purely retaining structures. However, the ability of sheet piles to
carry vertical loads in addition to predominantly horizontal loads
from the retained soil has been known about since their
introduction at the start of the 20th century. Over that time, this
ability has been put to good use in maritime structures where quay
walls need to support cranes on the sheet piles in addition to the
surcharges imposed on the ground behind the wall.
This ability to carry these combined loads is particularly relevant to
land sited structures such as bridge abutments and basements
below multi-storey buildings.
Point loads from columns can be transferred into the sheet piles
by use of a suitably designed capping beam.

10.9 Steel sheet piling in bridge abutments.

Steel sheet piles can be used to form the abutments of bridges in
one of two ways.
1 By using a line of sheet piles as the bearing structure and
landing the bridge beams directly onto the sheet pile capping
beam. In this situation the length of the bridge deck is
minimised. In this instance, the term sheet piles includes
standard rolled sections, box piles and high modulus piles.

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2 By forming a box using driven sheet piles which have an
upstand equal to the required height of the abutment. The
upstand is filled with a suitable fill material onto which the
landing for the bridge beams is formed. This method not only
uses the bearing capacity of the sheet piles, but mobilises the
contained soil as a foundation support, distributing the load
over a much larger plan area, reducing the soil stresses and
hence settlement.

10.10 Integral bridge abutments

Steel piles, either in the form of sheet piles in an abutment wall or
as a group of bearing piles supporting a conventional abutment,
are of particular use in integral bridge abutments. The flexible
nature of steel allows the abutments to move in response to the
lateral loads which are transmitted to the abutment from the
bridge beams due to thermal expansion, but remain robust
enough to cope with the vertical loads and such lateral loads as
braking forces and impacts.

10.11 Steel sheet piles in basements

Sheet piles are useful for the construction of basement walls in
buildings on restricted redevelopment sites. The narrow profile of
the finished wall together with equipment that allows installation
right up to the site boundary means that the usable space in the
basement is maximised.
The foundation loads from the perimeter of the building frame can
be applied directly to the sheet piling. The point loads from the
building frame can be distributed to the entire sheet pile wall by
means of a capping beam and these loads are then shed to the
founding soil over the entire length of the basement perimeter. If a

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steel frame is being used for the building the anchor bolts for the
columns can be cast into the R/C capping beam in readiness for
the frame erection. A major advantage from this form of
construction is the potential for saving time on site as, once
installed, the steel piles can be loaded immediately.
This method reduces construction time when compared to more
traditional ones. The installed piles, when painted, give an
appropriate finish for basement car parks and various cost
effective cladding systems are available for habitable basements.
For further details the SCI publish a design Guide ‘Steel Intensive
Basements’.

10.12 Load bearing sheet piles

As the sheet piles will be designed for ultimate conditions and will
use all the friction available in the resistance of horizontal forces,
axial loads in sheet piles will have to be carried by an additional
length of pile beneath that needed for horizontal stability.
In addition to ascertaining the length of pile needed to support
the applied loads using one of the empirical methods mentioned
earlier in this chapter, it will be necessary to check that the
combination of bending and axial loads does not overstress the
pile section. This structural check should be carried out using the
appropriate national standard.

Chapter 10/15
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

11
5 Design of sheet pile

Installation of
structures

sheet piles
6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
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Installation of sheet piles

Contents Page
11.1 Introduction 1
11.2 Driving methods 1
11.3 Driving systems & types of hammer 5
11.4 The soil 19
11.5 Choice of sheet pile section for driving 23
11.6 Resistance to driving 28
11.7 Guiding the piles & controlling alignment 37
11.8 Handling, sorting & lifting piles on site 40
11.9 Pitching 43
11.10 Threading devices 43
11.11 Driving assistance 44
11.12 Blasting 46
11.13 Driving corrections 47
11.14 Special aspects of installation 50
11.15 Extracting 51
11.16 Installing combined HZ or high modulus walls 52
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11.1 Introduction This chapter provides an introduction to the modern methods of
installing sheet piling taking into account the equipment available for
safe working practice.
A knowledge of the characteristics of the steel and the section are
not enough to guarantee good results prior to installation and this
chapter briefly describes the practical information to be considered
to ensure proper product installation. It also indicates how pile
driveability can be predicted following a thorough evaluation of the
ground conditions.
This chapter also contains information on pile driving equipment
which is current at the time of writing and includes impact hammers,
vibratory pile drivers, hydraulic pressing and special systems. Brief
descriptions of driving methods, ancillary equipment and guideline
procedures to assist in the adoption of good practice when installing
sheet piles are also included.
Finally some common installation problems are illustrated and
special aspects of driving briefly outlined.

11.2 Driving methods

11.2.1 General Whilst it is recognised that, in common with most civil engineering
projects, a measure of flexibility is desirable to meet site conditions,
every precaution must be taken to maintain the necessary standards
of safety whilst giving the required alignment and verticality of the
installed piles.
Therefore principal consideration must be given to access of plant
and labour and working positions for handling the piles and
threading the sheets together. The length of the piles and height
from which they can be pitched and driven safely and accurately is
also important
Whenever possible sheet piles should be driven in pairs. The first
sheet piles in a wall must be installed with great care and attention
to ensure verticality in both planes of the wall. Control of the sheet
pile installation must be maintained during both the pitching and
driving phases of the installation process.
There are two principal pile driving methods available to installers,
pitch and drive and panel driving. The features, advantages and
disadvantages of each method are described below.

11.2.2 Pitch and drive method

This method requires equipment to control the verticality of the pile
during installation so that piles can be pitched and driven one by
one. The pitching operation can be carried out close to ground level
meaning that operatives are potentially at less risk and downtime in
windy conditions can be reduced.
Piles can be installed to final level by this method (necessary when
using the Japanese presses with single piles) or left at a higher level

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to backdrive using panel driving techniques with other, generally
heavier, hammers to speed up production or drive accurately in
deeper more difficult strata.
This method is the simplest way of driving piles but is only really
suited to loose soils and short piles. For dense sands and stiff
cohesive soils or in the case of possible obstructions, pitch and
drive is not recommended.
In recent years, the method has become more favoured by installers
as purpose built equipment is now available to adequately control
the pile during installation. In the right conditions, productivity is
maximised.

Fig 11.2.2

Driving
Direction

It is more difficult to control forward lean using the pitch and drive
method because the leading lock has less resistance than the
trailing or connected lock as a result of soil and interlock friction.
Although the piling may commence from a true vertical position,
the top of the piles will have a natural tendency to lean in the
direction of driving. This will get progressively worse if not
countered. When driving long straight sections of wall with a
planned pitch & drive method it may be advisable, with the
Engineers consent, to allow for supplying pre-fabricated tapered
correction piles for use at approximately fifty metre intervals. This
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is important to consider when using the Japanese pressing
machines because it may not be possible to revert to a panel
backdriving system to avoid or correct the forward lean problem.
With pitch and drive, the free leading interlock is constantly in
danger of rotation in plan which increases the deeper the free end
penetrates the ground as it is unsupported during the driving
operation. When a pile rotates during installation, friction develops
in the connected locks making driving progressively more difficult.

11.2.3 Panel driving Piles may be threaded together above the ground in a support
frame to form a panel prior to driving. In this situation, both
interlocks are engaged before any driving takes place and this
balancing of the friction forces ensures maximum control and
accuracy. The piles are then driven in stages and in sequence into
the ground. Sequential driving enables verticality to be
maintained.
Sheet piles should be installed using the panel-driving technique
to ensure that good verticality and alignment is achieved and to
minimise the risk of driving difficulties or declutching problems.
This technique is important for maintaining accuracy when driving
long piles or driving into difficult ground
As a whole panel of piles has been pitched there is no need to
drive all piles fully to maintain progress of the piling operations.
During driving, the tops of adjacent piles can be kept close
together meaning that the stiffness of the piles is maintained
across both connected locks allowing the pile toe to be driven
through soil of greater resistance without undue deviation.
If obstructions are encountered, individual piles can be left high
without fear of disruption to the overall efficiency of the
installation process. Engineering decisions can then be taken to
attempt to remove the obstruction or drive piles carefully either
side of the obstruction before trying once more to drive or punch
through it if further penetration is necessary.
Panel driving is the best method for driving sheet piles in difficult
ground or for penetrating rock - which is unlikely to be possible
with the pitch and drive method. Piles are usually paired up or
neighbouring sheets levelled up at the head before commencing
the hard driving operation with a heavier hammer. Care should be
taken when piles are firstly pitched and installed in singles and
driven in the first stage with a vibrohammer. It is easier to execute
two stage driving in pairs if the piles are pre-ordered and installed
in crimped pairs. Difficulty of pairing up in the panel is avoided in
this way and safer more efficient operation of impact hammers
can be ensured.

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Fig 11.2.3

1. Pitch, align and 2. Drive 1st pair carefully

plumb 1st pair. & accurately pitch rest
of panel.

3. Ensure last pair are 4. Drive remainder of

accurately positioned panel - working back
& plumbed, drive last towards 1st pair.
pair.

6. 2nd panel pitched.

Last pair of 1st panel
5. 1st panel part driven. become 1st pair of 2nd
panel. Gates supported
by through bolting to
last driven pair.

8. 1st panel completed.

2nd panel part driven.
7. 1st panel driven to final 3rd panel pitched.
level in stages. Last pair Last pair of 2nd panel
of 2nd panel plumbed & becomes 1st pair of 3rd
driven accurately. panel.

The lower frame is usually left in position after removal of the upper
frame until driving is sufficiently progressed for it to be removed.

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11.2.4 Staggered driving
It is essential that the heads of adjacent piles or pairs are kept
close together to maximise the pile performance when driving in
hard conditions. This means that the installer should keep moving
the hammer from one pile to another in sequence to advance the
toe of the piling with less risk of damage or refusal. This technique
is known as staggered driving. It is not recommended that piles
are advanced more than 2 metres beyond neighbouring piles
unless driving conditions are relatively easy for the pile section
and equipment used.

11.2.5 Cofferdam and closure installation techniques

When installing cofferdams or high modulus walls, accuracy is
essential – particularly where it is necessary to pitch a pile of
significant length into both adjacent pile interlocks to close a gap.
If the gap tapers it will be very difficult to interlock and drive the
closure pile successfully. Therefore the panel driving method is the
favoured method for installing structures of this type.
CIRIA SP95 gives sound guidance on what needs to be
considered when installing sheet piles for cofferdams and dealing
with the issues that need to be addressed to be able to carry out
other operations in the dry. With any sheet pile project, the risk of
declutching should be minimised especially when men are
required to work in dewatered cofferdams.
When joining walls or closing to fixed positions, panel installation
methods are obligatory to maintain safe working conditions. It is
necessary to avoid the risks and potential disaster caused by de-
clutched or damaged piles when planning, designing and
executing the works.
The panel driving technique is also best for the control of wall
length and creep by using appropriate guide walings. This may be
important when dimensions are critical. Curved walls can also be
set out using this method with curved walings to suit.

11.3 Driving systems and types of hammer

The choice of a suitable driving system is of fundamental
importance to ensure successful pile installation with due regard
to the safety of operatives and environmental disturbance.
The three basic driving methods are:

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Impact driving
This is the best method for driving piles into difficult ground or
final driving of piles to level in panel form. With a correctly
selected and sized hammer it is the most effective way of
completing deep penetration into hard soils in most conditions.
The downside is that it can be noisy and not suitable for sensitive
or restricted sites
Vibrodriving
This is usually the fastest and most economical method of pile
installation but usually needs loose or cohesionless soil conditions
for best results. Vibration and noise occurs but this can be kept to
a minimum provided the right equipment is used and the site is
not too sensitive
Pressing
Otherwise known as silent vibrationless hydraulic jacking.
Machines of various types are now widely used. This method is
very effective in clay soils but less so in dense cohesionless
ground unless pre-augering or jetting techniques are used.
This is the most effective method to use when installing sheet
piles in sensitive locations where piling would have not been
considered in the past.

11.3.1 Mixed driving methods

Specialist plant and equipment is now available that may combine
methods such as pressing and vibrodriving by use of a telescopic
leader rig fitted with a high frequency vibrodriver. The pressing,
which in this case is carried out by lowering the mast of the rig
using hydraulic rams, is known as ‘crowding’ and is normally
limited to a force of 15 to 30 tonnes

11.3.2 Impact hammers

There are several types of impact hammer available to suit the
particular requirements of a site. Most impact hammers will
involve a piston or ram and an anvil block with a driving cap
which spreads the blow to the pile head. The machines are
usually supported by a heavy frame or chassis and normally need
leg guides set up to fit snugly to the pile section being driven to
maintain a vertical position during operation. Alternatively the
hammers can be set up to be supported and aligned by a leader
rig. It is very important that, because of the height and
slenderness of these types of hammer, the hammer is prevented
from rocking or swaying when delivering powerful blows to the
piles.

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The principle differences between hammers are the size and
mechanism for delivering the blow from the ram. Some hammers
deliver the blow freely under gravity, others are able to accelerate
the fall of the ram and are described as double acting. In all cases
the effectiveness of driving will depend on the power and
efficiency of the blow.
Modern hammers are in widespread supply and, provided they
are adequately maintained, can be expected to totally outperform
the older types of pile hammer. Therefore the impact hammer
types described below are those that are most commonly in use.
Descriptions and detail of older types such as diesel hammers
can be found in previously published installation guides. Hydraulic
hammers totally outperform diesel hammers in terms of efficiency,
are more environmentally acceptable, and are less likely to
damage the head of the pile when transmitting the driving force.

11.3.3 Transmitting the blow to the pile

Any pile section can be set up to be driven with a suitable impact
hammer. However it is not only important to size the hammer
correctly but it is imperative that the driving cap and / or anvil plate
fits well and is correctly sized to suit the pile section being driven -
especially on wide piles or pairs of piles. The hammers should not
be used to drive piles of different widths without changing the
fittings. The central axis of the ram should always align with the
centre of the driven pile section in plan and the blow spread evenly
over the full cross sectional area of the pile.

11.3.4 Refusal criteria – hard driving

It is crucial to set refusal criteria for hard driving with impact
hammers. A penetration of 25 mm per 10 blows should be
considered as the limit for the use of all impact hammers in
accordance with the hammer manufacturer's recommendations.
Under certain circumstances a penetration of 1 mm per blow
could be allowed for a few minutes. Longer periods of time at this
blow rate will cause damage to the hammer and ancillary
equipment and may also result in damage to the pile head.

11.3.5 Hydraulic single acting hammers

These hammers are suitable for driving pairs of Z or U-piles in all
ground conditions. They are usually too wide to fit on single piles.
As the hammers can be adapted with heavy block ram weights they
are particularly suitable for prolonged driving into thick clay strata.
This type of hammer consists of a segmental ram guided by two
external supports; the ram is lifted by hydraulic pressure to a pre-

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set height and allowed to free-fall onto the anvil or driving cap.
The weight and the height of drop of the ram can be varied to suit
the pile section and the site conditions
Ram weights are usually set up in 3, 5, 7 or 9 tonne modes
although some up to 14 tonnes are available to suit driving of HZ,
high modulus and box pile sections. The drop height is variable
up to approximately 1.2 metres. At maximum ram weight and
stroke height a blow rate of 40 blows/minute can be achieved
when used in automatic sequence.
For driving in stiff clays it is always preferable to use a heavy ram,
with short stroke to minimise pile head damage and noise
emission levels.
The hammer controls are precise, and used correctly this type of
hammer can achieve 75-90% of rated output energy.

11.3.6 Hydraulic double-acting hammers

These hammers can be used on single or pairs of piles. They are
particularly suited to drive U-piles or heavy Z piles with reinforced
shoulders in hard driving situations and with rapid blow action can
be used effectively to penetrate very dense sands gravels and rock
This type of hammer consists of an enclosed ram which is lifted
by hydraulic pressure. On the downward stroke, additional energy
is delivered to the ram, producing acceleration above that from
gravity alone and powerful blows to strike the anvil or driving cap
which is purpose built to fit the pile section.
When set up for use with sheet piles, these hammers
will deliver a maximum energy/blow of 15 kNm to
90kNm with a blow rate up to 150 per minute. The
electronic control system ensures optimum control of
the piling process.
The ram weight of the machines suitable for standard
sheet pile sections range from 1.2t to 6.5t
Bigger machines are available for driving large non-
standard pile sections and HZ piles for high modulus
systems and offshore projects. The total weight of the
hammer ranges from approximately 2.5t to 20t.
The machines are usually rope suspended from a crane
and because even the lighter machines are very
powerful, effective driving systems are available at
significant reach using large crawler cranes.
Under normal site conditions it is usual to select a ram
weight that is in the range 0.75 to 2 times the weight of
the pile plus the driving cap.

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11.3.7 Control and settings
These hammers can usually be operated on different settings to
suit the pile and ground conditions. For instance a heavy ram
weight ratio hammer on wide piles can be used with a low setting
to suit driving in clay and smaller hammers on a rapid blow setting
can be used to drive single piles in dense sandy soils. Equipment
to provide digital readout of energy and blow count, for driving
records and control, is available to be fitted to most machines.

11.3.8 Impact hammers and driving stresses

The driving stresses in the pile, when using impact hammers, are

peak head stress value (σp). The mean driving stress (σm) is
likely to be greatest at the head of the pile. This is known as the

estimated by dividing the driving resistance (soil resistance +

friction) by the cross-sectional area of the pile.
The peak driving stress can be estimated using the following
formula:-

σp = σm . [ ( ) -1 ]

where ξ represents the efficiency of the blow from the piling

hammer (e.g. 1 = 100% efficiency, 0.75 = 75% efficiency, etc).
Where the impact hammer has a low efficiency (for instance, diesel
hammers may rate at 30%-40% efficiency) then the yield stress of
the steel section may be exceeded by the peak driving stress
causing buckling at the pile head.
Also note that for highly efficient hydraulic hammers which usually
operate at 85 to 95% efficiency, the hammer energy may be
transmitted effectively to the toe of the pile. It is therefore
important that the pile continues to penetrate the ground when
driving for a sustained period because toe damage can occur
when the penetration rate is low or refusal sets are exceeded.

11.3.9 Vibratory pile drivers

These hammers are usually the quickest and most effective
equipment for driving piles in loose to medium dense cohesionless
soils. They are particularly useful for extracting piles or withdrawing
the pile being driven in order to take corrective action.

11.3.10 Mechanism and use

Vibratory driving works by reducing the friction between the pile
and the soil. The vibrations imparted to the pile temporarily disturb
the surrounding soil causing minor liquefaction, which results in a

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noticeable decrease in resistance to movement of the pile through
the soil. This enables the pile to be driven into the ground with
very little added load, ie. its own weight plus the weight of the
driver or additional crowd force if the vibrodriver is used with a
leader rig.
For rope suspended operations, crawler cranes are usually used.
Telescopic mobile cranes are not recommended for use with
vibratory pile drivers.

The typical vibratory driver generates oscillations inside a

vibration case in which eccentric weights are gear-driven by one
or more motors. The weights turn at the same speed but in
opposite directions resulting in purely vertical oscillations as the
horizontal components of the forces cancel each other out.
Vibratory drivers can be powered by electric or hydraulic motors
- or a combination of both - , the input energy being provided by
a silenced power pack.
Hydraulically operated clamps mounted under the vibration case
ensure a secure attachment and transmit the oscillating
movements to the pile. The crane or leader rig suspending the
vibratory driver must be isolated from the vibration case by rubber
cushions or spring elements. The variable speed features of
hydraulic vibrators enable the frequency of the system to be
matched to varying soil conditions.

11.3.12 Use as an extractor

The vibratory pile driver is also a very efficient pile extractor if the
weights are rotated in the reverse direction. The extraction force
applied to the sheet pile will depend on the size of the vibrator
and the pulling force that can be applied to the pile from a safe
stable position. This force will be a function of the capacity of the
crane or rig and the distance it is located from the pile line.
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11.3.13 Types of vibratory hammer
Vibratory hammers are available in a wide range of sizes and also
operate in different frequency modes. The standard machines
usually operate at a frequency between 800 to 1800 RPM. The
power available is described by the centrifugal force of the
hammer which ranges from 400 to 1400 kN for telescopic rig
mounted units up to 5360 kN for fixed leader or rope suspended
models.
Higher frequency drivers are also available extending the range up
to 3000 RPM. The high vibrations developed attenuate very
rapidly limiting any problems to adjacent properties. The Variable
(Resonance free) High frequency machines allow the frequency
and power to be adjusted at start up and shut down to eliminate
resonance and the generation of unwanted vibrations through the
upper strata on sensitive sites and close to buildings.

11.3.14 Ground conditions and use of vibrodrivers

The soils best suited to vibration work are non-cohesive soils,
gravel or sand, especially when they are water-saturated and
provided the soil is not too dense. If SPT’s over 50 prevail then
driving will be difficult. Machines operating at higher amplitudes
are normally more effective in difficult soils. With mixed or
cohesive soils, vibro-drivers can also be very effective where there
is a high water content and the ground is loose or soft.
Clay soils have a damping effect and reduce the energy available
for driving the pile. Vibratory driving is difficult where firm or stiff
clay soils are encountered but once again a high amplitude is
likely to give the best results.

11.3.15 Gripping the pile

All pile sections can be driven with vibrohammers but attention
should be given to the area where the machine jaws grip the top
of the pile. For example, the thick part of the pan on U type piles
is most suited for this when driving or extracting piles singly. If the
jaws need to be attached to the web of a pile section – for
instance on Z-piles – care should be taken to avoid ripping the
steel especially during extraction. Tearing can be a particular
problem with wide piles if the vibrodriver is equipped with small
size grips and attaches to the pile at handling hole level. Multiple
clamps are available and it is recommended that they are used on
paired sections especially when driving wide piles. A correctly
fitting clamp should have grips in good condition – particularly
when it is being used for extraction - and recesses to
accommodate the pile interlock if used in the centre of paired
units.
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11.3.16 Refusal criteria, limitations and hard driving
Formulae to determine the size of vibratory driver needed for a
given set of conditions vary from manufacturer to manufacturer
and readers should obtain guidance from their plant hire company
on this topic if in doubt. Vibrators are also used for installing
bearing piles and high modulus or HZ king piles. Note that
performance on sheet piles and isolated piles is different and care
should be taken not to undersize the hammer or overdrive the
pile.
It is essential that movement is maintained when driving or
extracting piles with vibratory hammers and it is generally
recognised that a penetration rate of approximately 50 cm per
minute be used as a limit. This not only acts as a control on
possible vibration nuisance but also as a precaution against the
detrimental effects of overdriving.
When refusal occurs and the pile ceases to move, the energy
being input by the vibrodriver will be converted into heat through
friction in the interlocks of the pile being driven. The steel can
sometimes melt and damage the interlocks themselves, any
sealants being used and also the hammer if prolonged driving in
refusal conditions takes place.
Performance may be improved by using water jetting (see 11.11)
and/or by adding extra weights to the vibrohammer.

11.3.17 Setting up the hammer and driving methods

The driving method to be adopted needs to be taken into account
when choosing the type and model of hammer. Rope suspended
machines are best if heavy extraction or pitching in panels are
used. Small rope suspended vibrators are sometimes used as
starter hammers for long piles or when the hammer needs to
operate at distance from the crane.
Vibrohammers can also be mounted on tall masted leader rigs.
Double clamps can be used to centralise the driving action on
long paired piles and the equipment is specially suited for use
with pitch and drive methods.
Telescopic leader rigs (picture (a) below) generally use high
frequency vibrators and can apply a crowding force from the
telescopic pistons which adjust the height of the mast to deliver
additional driving or withdrawal force. These machines can
therefore press and vibrate the piles simultaneously. The length of
the mast, size of the rig and hammer will determine the capability
of the installation when using pitch and drive methods.

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(a) (b)

11.3.18 Excavator mounted vibrodrivers

Excavator mounted, small, high frequency hammers (picture b
above) can also be used for installing very short piles. Care should
be taken when handling piles because excavators are not built for
this process and it is not as safe as using purpose built lifting
equipment when threading the piles together. This is an inferior
means of installing sheet piles and is less capable of driving piles
successfully and accurately. It should only be used when installing
short, light piles in loose soils when accuracy is not of paramount
importance.

11.3.19 Vibrationless sheet pile pressing

There are several forms that these machines can take but the
principle of operation remains the same. They represent a means
by which sheet piles can be installed without noise and vibration
often called pressing or silent, vibration free hydraulic jacking.
Pressing is the best system for avoiding noise and vibration
problems when driving sheet piles on sensitive sites. Especially
suited to the installation of piles next to buildings and party walls it
eliminates the need for expensive property surveys and minimises
the risk of disturbance.

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As the sheet piles can be installed permanently close to buildings
and boundaries more space is available for basements and
property development. This yields a major commercial benefit
which can be of more value than the cost of the wall itself.

11.3.20 The ‘Japanese’ Silent Pressing machine

The Japanese silent presses have been available now for over 15
years and are widely available across Europe. Many different
models (ie Giken, Tosa etc) have been developed providing
improved operational features which are suited to particular
installation situations. The machines and controls have been
developed to enable the plant to “walk” over the tops of the
driven piles. A system is available to work independently and
remotely from access roads and also over water.
The most readily available machines are used to drive single piles,
usually 600mm wide U-piles, although sometimes Z-piles may be
driven in singles in suitable conditions. Presses have been built
that can drive pairs of piles but it is important to note that
different machines are used to drive different pile sections so if
the pile sections to be driven are not 600mm wide U-piles then
the availability of an appropriate machine should be checked.
The machines, which are especially suited for use in cohesive
soils, are hydraulically operated and derive most of their reaction
force from the friction between the soil and previously driven
piles.

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11.3.21 Procedure and control
The most widely used machine is the Japanese silent press which
jacks one pile after another to full depth, using a pitch and drive
procedure, while walking on the previously set piles. These
machines work independently from a crane which is used to
handle the piles.
The sheet piles are fed by a crane into the enclosed chuck or
pressing jaws of the machine which acts as a guide to align the
piles without the need for guide walings. Setting out control is
executed by using a laser light beam focused on the leading
interlock of the pile being driven. The operator adjusts the
verticality and position of the leading lock by remote control and a
push pull action on the pile during driving.
The press is able to move itself forwards (‘walk’) automatically
using remote control. The machine raises its body and travels
forward to the next position without crane support.

11.3.22 Starting off

A reaction stand weighted down with kentledge or delivered sheet
piles is used to commence the pile line using a few temporary
piles to precede the first working pile to be driven. A crane is
used to initially lift the machine on to the reaction stand but there
is usually no need to lift it off again until completion of the pile
line. Ancillary equipment is also available that has been designed
to ‘walk’ along the top of the installed piles, including a crane, to
enable the whole piling operation to be carried out on the top of
the sheet piles without any other means of access.

11.3.23 Operational issues and suitability

These presses can also be used for withdrawing temporary sheet
piles using this silent, vibrationless method.
The machines work best in clayey, cohesive or very fine grained
soils and are usually supplied with jetting equipment for low to
high pressure water jetting. This is necessary to loosen fines in
cohesionless strata and is also used to lubricate dry soils to make
driving easier. For difficult or dense cohesionless strata or gravely
soils pre-augering is usually required to loosen the soil. Pre-
augering can also be used to probe for and deal with obstructions
prior to commencement of the piling. Superficial obstructions are
dealt with by digging a lead trench and either backfilling with
suitable material or using the trench to control surplus water and
arisings when jetting.

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Japanese pressing machines are not capable of driving piles that
have already been installed by other means and therefore cannot
be used with panel driving techniques except for initial setting of
the panel.

11.3.24 Panel type silent pressing machines

These pressing machines can drive the sheet piles after they have
been installed in a panel but need to be set on the panel using a
crane or attached to a driving rig.
The Pilemaster has been in service for many years and uses panel
driving techniques. It has 8 rams (delivering up to 200t pressing
force per ram) which clamp to plates which, in turn, are bolted to
the heads of the piles to be driven. This can be a tedious
operation but good silent pressing results are obtainable in stiff
clay. Z-piles are preferred with this equipment because the plates
can be attached to the web of the piles on the ground before
pitching and preliminary driving with a vibro hammer. If U-piles are
used the plates would need to be fixed to the pile heads after the
vibro driving is completed.

The Pilemaster is still available and is used for hard pressing in

London clay and other heavy clay soils when jetting and pitch &
drive methods are unsuitable. It needs to be handled by a heavy
crane.
The Hydropress, shown below, is smaller than the Pilemaster but
can deliver up to 80t pressing force on 4 rams which clamp
directly to the pile pans.
This machine is usually mounted on a leader rig or heavy
excavator.

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It should be noted that panel type pressing machines are not

suitable for medium dense cohesionless strata and are not
compatible with water jetting equipment.
These machines are usually considered for driving in clayey soils
only or for completion of a drive into clay after the piles have been
driven firstly through cohesionless strata usually by high frequency
vibrators. It is therefore important to level the pile tops before
application of the panel press
The rams (hydraulic cylinders) are connected to the piles in such a
manner that both tensile and compressive forces can be applied.
Pressurising the rams in sequence while the others are locked
enables the piles to be pushed into the ground, one or two at a
time, to the full extent of the rams. The cycle is then repeated to
completion.

11.3.25 Silent pressing and high frequency (HF) vibrating combined –

the DCP power push
Recently developed, this innovative system combines the power
of the silent panel drive system with the versatility of the
telescopic leader rig. This machine can be set up to drive AZ, AU,
PU and PU-R piles in pairs but they must be supplied in
uncrimped form. The HF vibratory method may be combined with
the crowding force available from the rig to commence the driving
operation in order to develop sufficient reaction force for the press
to operate. In this way the commencement of the drive causes
very little noise and vibration before the heavy duty pressing
mechanism is used for the final stages of driving.

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The rig is capable of being used for both pitch and drive and
panel driving techniques. Rams or cylinders can be arranged in
multiples of paired units to deliver push-pull forces to the piles for
either driving or withdrawal. It can also be used to finish piles that
have been previously installed using other methods, particularly
for ground conditions such as sands or gravels overlying clays.

Each double acting cylinder can generate 200t pressing force.

Reaction is derived from the weight of the press, the crowd force
from the piling rig and by gripping adjacent piles to mobilise static
skin friction.
The cylinder and hydraulic jaws can be reconfigured to suit
different pile types and layouts including box piles formed from
sheet piles (see diagram below and 1.16.5). Up to 4 cylinders can
be used on a leader rig and 8 cylinders in line can be used when
crane mounted.

Drive sequence for a 4 pile box

5
4
3
2
1

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11.3.26 Silent pressing and augering combined – silent driving into rock
For soil conditions where water jetting and conventional augering
techniques would be ineffective, pile driving is now made possible
by use of the Super Crush Piling System. A development of the
Japanese silent pressing machine, this system uses an integral
rock auger inside a casing to penetrate hard ground. The
pressing-in action is carried out while simultaneously extracting
the auger. As for all situations where augering is involved, care has
to be taken not to remove the soil.

This technique enables silent piling into rock and allows sheet
piles to be designed to take significant vertical loads in end
bearing. Piles may also be extended by butt welding on site to
build deep sheet pile walls that otherwise would not be
considered feasible using traditional installation methods. (48m
long piles have been installed in Tokyo using this type of machine)
Consideration should be given to the integrity of the seating of the
pile and the effectiveness of the water cut-off provided when
using this technique. Injection grouting or re-seating of the pile
using vibratory or impact driving may be necessary to repair holes
or voids in the soil strata caused by the augering process.
The advantage of using these machines in city centres for deep
basement construction can be very commercially important for
sustainable solutions.

11.4 The Soil

11.4.1 Site conditions
For the successful driving of sheet piles, it is essential that a good
knowledge of the site conditions is available to enable an accurate
assessment to be made of environmental and geological
conditions.
The local environment of the site will influence working restrictions
such as noise and vibration. Each site will be subject to its own
unique set of restrictions which varies according to the proximity
and nature of neighbouring buildings, road category, underground
services, power supplies, material storage areas etc.

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Geological conditions refer to the vertical characteristics of the
soil strata. In order to achieve the required penetration of the
sheet piles, site investigation of the soils together with field and
laboratory tests can aid installation assessment by providing
information on:
a) stratification of the subsoil
b) particle size, shape distribution & uniformity
c) inclusions
d) porosity and void ratio
e) density
f) level of the groundwater table
g) water permeability and moisture content of the soil
h) shear parameters, cohesion
i) dynamic and static penetrometer test results and results of
standard penetration or pressuremeter tests.

11.4.2 Soil characteristics

The following table shows the density in relation to penetrometer
and pressuremeter-test results for non-cohesive soils:
Table 11.4.2a
Standard Cone Pressuremeter Test Density
penetration penetration
test - dynamic test - static
SPT CPT
N30 qs pl EM
MN/m2 MN/m2

<4 2.5 < 0.2 1.5 very loose

4 to 10 2.5 to 7.5 0.2 to 0.5 1.5 to 5.0 loose

10 to 30 7.5 to 15 0.5 to 1.5 5.0 to 15 medium dense

30 to 50 15 to 25 1.5 to 2.5 15 to 25 dense

> 50 > 25 > 2.5 > 25 very dense

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The consistency of cohesive soils in relation to SPT, CPT and
pressuremeter-test results is as follows:
Table 11.4.2b
SPT # CPT Pressuremeter Test Consistency Undrained
shear strength
N30 qs pl EM
MN/m2 MN/m2 kN/m2

<2 < 0.25 < 0.15 1.5 very soft < 20

2 to 4 0.25 to 0.5 0.15 to 0.35 1.50 to 5.25 soft 20 to 40

soft to firm 40 to 50

4 to 8 0.5 to 1.0 0.35 to 0.55 5.25 to 8.25 firm 50 to 75

firm to stiff 75 to 100

8 to 15 1.0 to 2.0 0.55 to 1.0 8.25 to 20 stiff 100 to 150

15 to 30 2.0 to 4.0 1.0 to 2.0 20 to 40 very stiff 150 to 200

> 30 > 4.0 > 2.0 > 40 hard >200

The correlations between the different methods of soil tests are

not based on any standards.
Each method gives its own specific classification of the subsoil.
The tables serve only as an aid to the user to complement his or
her own experience.
# SPT values are not normally used for evaluating clay layers.
NOTE: 1 MN/m2 = 10 bar.

11.4.3 Driving system characteristics of various soils

Different types of soil present varying driving characteristics
dependant upon the driving system to be adopted. Brief notes on
each system are given below.
Impact driving
Easy driving may be anticipated in soft soils such as silts and
peats, in loosely deposited medium and coarse sands and gravels
provided the soil is free from cobbles, boulders or obstructions
Difficult driving may be expected in densely deposited fine,
medium and coarse sands and gravels, stiff and hard clays,
(depending on the thickness of the strata) and soft-to-medium
rock strata.

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Vibratory driving
Round-grain sand and gravel and soft soils are especially suited
to vibratory driving. Easy driving should be expected when soils
are described as loose. Dense angular-grain material or cohesive
soils with firm consistency are much less suited. Difficult driving
may be experienced when dominant SPT values are greater than
50 or significant thicknesses of cohesive strata are encountered
It is also found that dry soils give greater penetration resistance
than those which are moist, submerged or fully saturated.
If the granular subsoil is compacted by prolonged vibrations, then
penetration resistance will increase sharply leading to refusal.
For difficult soil layers it may be necessary to pre-auger or loosen
the soil before installation. Jetting may also be necessary. For
penetrating rock, pre-blasting or use of specialised installation
equipment may be needed.
Pressing
This method is especially suited to soils comprising cohesive
and fine material. Easy driving is usually experienced in soft
clays and loose soils. This technique usually employs jetting
assistance to loosen silt and sand particles in cohesionless
strata to be able to advance the piles by pressing. Successful
installation will also depend on the soil providing cohesive
adhesion to the reaction piles.
Difficult soil conditions are found when dense sands and gravels
or soil containing cobbles or any large particles - which would
make jetting ineffective - are encountered. When boulders or rock
are encountered, reaction failure or refusal may occur. Lead
trenches may be of assistance for the removal of obstructions
encountered near the surface.
In these circumstances pre-augering is usually necessary to be
able to adopt the pressing technique; otherwise piles will have to
be driven to final level by percussive means.
Wet soil conditions are also favourable for pressing. In dry, stiff
clay strata, it is normal practice to use low pressure jetting to
lubricate the soil to pile interface and make driving easier.

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11.5 Choice of sheet pile section for driving
11.5.1 Influence of pile section properties.
Effective construction with sheet piling will depend on the
selection of an adequate pile section for the chosen method of
installation taking into account any environmental restrictions and
ground conditions over the full driven length of the pile. The pile
section selected must at least be able to accommodate the
structural requirements but this in itself may not prove to be
suitable for driving through the various strata to the required
penetration depth.
The driveability of a pile section is a function of its cross-section
properties, stiffness, length, steel grade, quality, preparation and
the method employed for installation. The piles also need to be
driven within acceptable tolerances to retain their driveability
characteristics.
The driving force required to achieve the necessary penetration is
affected by the soil properties and the resistance to driving that
develops on the pile profile. Resistance to driving will develop
through friction on the pile surfaces that are in contact with the soil
and as an end bearing resistance. Normally, the greater the
surface or cross section area of the piling profile, the greater the
driving force required but changes to the corner geometry of the
AU piles has resulted in a reduction in soil compaction and hence
resistance during driving. Friction in the interlocks will also
influence the driving force together with the physical nature of the
soil resisting movement at the toe of the pile. If the tip of the pile
meets an immovable object the pile will not drive.

11.5.2 Influence of driving resistance

Whatever force is required to drive the pile, it is necessary to
overcome the total resistance and move the pile without damaging
it. While the pile is moving, the hammer energy is expended in
overcoming the driving resistance but when the pile ceases to
move, the energy from the piling hammer will have to be absorbed
by the pile section. This situation increases the stress level in the
steel immediately under the hammer and at the point of maximum
resistance which will result in deformation of the pile, usually at the
head or toe - often both locations - when the driving stresses
exceed the yield stress in the steel. The driving stress will also
increase with inefficiency of the hammer blow or if the force is not
applied properly and spread uniformly across the whole of the pile
section being driven. Although it sounds illogical, it is also possible
to damage the pile head by using a hammer that is too light and
therefore unable to generate sufficient momentum to overcome the
resistances and drive the pile.

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11.5.3 Influence of steel grade and shape
There is a definite limit to the driveability of a given pile profile and
the steel grade being used. As the steel grade increases, the stress
that the piles can withstand also increases and so, logically, the
higher-yield steel piles are more resistant to head or toe deformation
than the same section in a lower steel grade.
In a similar manner, it can be seen that the larger the area of steel in
a profile, the higher the load it can carry and hence the heavier pile
sections will have increased driveability when compared to light,
thin sections. However, it must not be forgotten that under certain
driving conditions, a large cross section area may result in an end
bearing resistance that exceeds the increase in driveability.
Consideration of the soil layers and appropriate parameters will
enable the expected driving resistance to be assessed and hence a
suitable section to be selected.

11.5.4 Influence of method of installation

It is also very important to consider the installation technique to be
used. Pitch and drive (P&D) methods will reduce the driveability of
the section as discussed in section 11.6.8. When silent pressing
using Japanese hydraulic jacking machines, the stiffness of the pile
is of paramount importance to maximise driveability as the machine
operates on pure P&D methods.
Experience of driving sheet piles enabled relationships to be
developed to assess the driveability of particular profiles. One such
relationship used the section modulus of the pile profile as the key
factor. However, it is not possible to derive the most suitable choice
of pile section by consideration of section modulus alone. The
section required to be commercially effective and successfully
installed depends on consideration of a number of factors and the
following selection procedure is recommended:-

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Figure 11.5.4 Summary diagram showing influences on choice of
section

Soil characteristics
- driveability

Structural design Thickness of strata

requirements dominant SPT’s or
soil type

Length of pile and

stiffness Pile Section

U-piles or Z piles Environmental

considerations

Suitable Technique
for driving
Singles or pairs

Hammer selection or
Minimum steel grade Risk of pile damage force necessary to
drive the pile

11.5.5 Influence of soil type

To assess the prevailing soil characteristics and driveability the
following tables may assist in the identification of suitable ranges
of sections for driving. The two distinct methods of installation,
panel driving or pitch & drive and three methods of driving are
taken into account. The choice of section and suitability of the
driving method will also depend on whether the piles are driven in
singles or pairs.
Please note that the following tables do not take into account
thicknesses of strata or the length of pile driven into the ground.
This will be considered in subsequent tables

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Table 11.5.5.1 Driving in cohesionless or principally cohesionless
ground
Driving method
SPT value Vibrodrive Impact drive Pressing in singles
(with Jetting)
0 -10 Very easy Runaway problem Stability problem &
–use vibro method insufficient reaction
to grip pile
10 - 20 Easy Easy Suitable
21 - 30 Suitable Suitable Suitable
31 - 40 Suitable Suitable Consider pre-auger
41 - 50 Very difficult Suitable –consider Pre-auger
high yield steel
50+ Not recommended Suitable –consider Very difficult
high yield steel

The selection of a suitable pile section for driving into cohesive

strata is a complex process and the section choice is usually
based on previous experience. However it is possible to assess
the driving resistance using the surface area of the piling profile
and the characteristics of the cohesive strata. The following table
may be used for preliminary assessment.
Table 11.5.5.2 – Driving in cohesive strata
Driving method
Su value Vibrodrive Impact drive Pressing in singles
0 - 15 Easy Runaway problem Possible stability
–use vibro method to problem &
grip pile insufficient reaction
16 - 25 Suitable Easy Easy
26 - 50 Suitable – Suitable Easy
becoming less
effective with depth
51 - 75 Very difficult Suitable Suitable
76 - 100 Not Recommended Suitable Suitable
100+ Not Recommended Suitable Difficult

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Table 11.5.5.3 - Consideration of driveability characteristics relative
to cohesive strata thickness
Driveability of pairs
Su value 0-2m penetration 2-5m penetration >5m penetration
0 - 15 Not recommended Easy Easy
16 - 25 Easy Normal Normal
26 - 50 Easy Normal Normal
51 - 75 Normal Normal Hard – consider
high yield steel
76 - 100 Normal Hard – consider Hard – consider
high yield steel high yield steel
100+ Hard – consider Hard – consider Very hard – high
high yield steel high yield steel yield steel

Table 11.5.5.4 – Maximum recommended driving lengths for Silent

Japanese pressing rigs (Giken and Tosa type)
Section Pressing force Pressing force Pressing force
(<60t) (60t-100t) (>100t)

Single PU 8R unsuitable unsuitable unsuitable

Single PU12 8m 6m Not recommended

Single PU18 * 10m 9m 8m

Single PU22 * 13m 12m 11m

Single PU25 14m 13m 12m

Single PU32 16m 15m 14m

* Section with reinforced shoulders

11.5.6 Driving dynamics and driving characteristics for impact driving

sheet piles
Whichever method is adopted it is important that an acceptable
rate of penetration is maintained. The size as well as the type of
hammer must be suitable for the length and weight of the pile
being driven and it is assumed that the ground is penetrable.
For impact driving the rate of penetration, or blow count, is the

driving stress, σm, in the pile section will also be a function of the
most recognisable indicator of the driving conditions. The mean

resistance and section properties of the pile.

σm = Rapp / Aact
where Rapp is the total apparent resistance and Aact is the actual
cross section area of the pile being driven.

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The driving stress in the pile section can be used as an indication
of the expected driving difficulty; an approximate guide is given in
table 11.5.6.
Table 11.5.6
Driving condition Easy Normal Hard

Driving stress < 25% fy 25 – 50% fy 50 –75% fy

Rate of penetration <2 2-8 >8
( blows per 25mm )

11.6 Resistance to driving

In penetrable ground, sheet piles are regarded as minimal
displacement piles. The driving resistance of a sheet pile (single or
pair) is simplified by the following relationship:
R app = Soil Resistance + Interlock Resistance
The apparent resistance depends on both the soil conditions and
the length of embedment. Unlike tubes, H piles and other
relatively closed sections, up to the onset of refusal, plugging of
sheet piles is unlikely and skin friction will dominate.
The frictional resistance will depend on the type of interlocks,
method of driving, whether the interlocks have lubricating sealants
or whether soil particles enter the locks and most important of all
the joint resistance will depend on the straightness and verticality
of the installation of adjacent piles relative to each other. Damage
to piles and poor condition will also increase resistance
significantly.
For a pile to drive effectively the total resistance has to be
overcome by such a margin that the pile progresses into the soil
at a high enough rate so that damage to the pile or the hammer is
unlikely to occur. In order to achieve this when impact driving, the
momentum of the hammer (namely the product of the ram mass
and the velocity at impact) must be sufficient. The delivered
kinetic or potential energy are often used as criteria for selecting
an appropriate size of impact hammer.

11.6.1 Impact hammer efficiency (ξ)

The delivered energy =
Hammer operating rated energy x efficiency of the blow.
(Please note that some hammers have adjustable output).
The efficiency takes into account losses of energy at impact, in
the pile driving cap and the effect of absorption into the pile.
Hammers of different types with different caps, plates and guides
have various efficiency ratings. The poorer the fit to the pile the
lower the efficiency of the hammer and hence the amount of
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energy delivered. The following table indicates the potential
difference in efficiency of hammers when used on sheet piling.
Efficiency of diesel hammers on sheet piling can also be affected
by a tendency to rock and move position during the driving
process resulting in inaccurate alignment of the central axis of the
hammer and the sheet pile section being driven.
Table 11.6.1
Impact Hammer type Efficiency rating Efficiency rating
(Hammers and fittings varying (Hammers and fittings in very
condition conservative good condition)
expectation)
Hydraulic 75-85% 85-95%
Diesel 20%-40% 30%-60%

The efficiency of the blow is also affected by absorption of energy

into the pile and the ratio of the impact hammer’s ram weight (W)
to the weight of the pile and driving cap (P).
Fig 11.6.1 demonstrates the effect on efficiency by comparing pile
to ram weight ratios on different types of hammer.

Fig 11.6.1
100

80

60

40

20

0
0.33 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2 3
P/W ratio
Hydraulic hammer - pairs sheet piles
Hydraulic hammer - single sheet piles
Diesel hammer (good condition) - pairs sheet piles
Diesel hammer typical

Note that driving in pairs doubles the mass of the piles to be

driven. Larger hammers with heavier rams can be used on pairs
but it may not be possible to fit such a hammer on single piles.

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11.6.2 Delivered energy
For impact hammers the delivered energy is either of the following:
a) For impact hammers where the ram weight delivers the blow
by free fall under gravity
E = Whξ where W = weight of the ram, h = drop height, ξ =
overall efficiency of the blow
b) For double acting or accelerated hammer
E = Eop ξ where Eop = Hammer operational delivered energy
set by the operator
The maximum deliverable energy
E max = ER ξ where ER = Hammer manufacturers maximum
energy rating
ER = 0.5 m v2 where m is the ram weight and v is the velocity
at impact

11.6.3 Measuring the delivered energy

a) By means of the hammer operation and control equipment:
For a drop hammer, the free fall distance is measured or set by
the operator – if the control equipment provides the facility, a
digital readout may be obtained for hydraulic drop hammers.
Diesel hammers are usually difficult to assess. Although different
settings are available on the controls, the usual method of
assessing the energy is by recording the blow rate and referring to
graphs provided by the hammer manufacturer.
For double acting hammers, timing the blow rate may also be
necessary but by far the best way is to have the controls
calibrated and fitted with digital readout equipment. Some
hammers can be controlled by pre-setting the required delivered
energy in this way. The readouts can also be connected to a
portable laptop to store and monitor the readout for driving record
purposes.
b) By means of dynamic monitoring:
Pile Driving Analyser (PDA) equipment is obtainable from
specialist firms and transducers can be fitted to the sheet piles so
that measurements can be taken for the following:-
Hammer efficiency, internal driving stresses and pile capacity.
The blow count and hammer stroke can be measured by using a
Saximeter or similar equipment
A software program for analysing measured force such as the
Case Pile Wave Analysis Program Continuous Model (CAPWAPC)
can be used to determine site specific soil parameters.

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11.6.4 Sizing the impact hammer
Studies have shown that modern hydraulic hammers which
operate at impact velocities in the order of 5m/sec are able to
overcome approximately 100 tonnes of apparent resistance per
tonne of ram mass at maximum performance. On the basis that
these hammers operate at 80 to 95% efficiency, it is possible to
relate the required delivered energy to the apparent driving
resistance at a rate of penetration approaching refusal as
illustrated in Fig 11.6.4. The line on this graph represents the
boundary between acceptable performance and effective refusal
(defined here as 10 blows per 25mm penetration); the chosen
hammer should operate on or below the line.
Fig 11.6.4 Relationship between required delivered energy and
apparent driving resistance near refusal
800
Total apparent resistance (T)

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Required energy (kgm/blow)

The total apparent resistance may be estimated on the following

basis:
Rapp = Rs x Fd where Rs is the sum of the skin friction resistance
over the embedded length of the driven pile.
The end bearing resistance is ignored for the purposes of sizing
the hammer, as the pile is assumed to be driven at a rate less
than 10 blows per inch and end bearing usually only becomes
significant as refusal is approached.
Skin friction = Area of pile in contact with the soil x unit frictional
resistance (See 10.3.3 for suggested method of assessing unit
friction resistances in cohesive and granular soils).
Fd is a dynamic resistance factor for sheet pile driving which
depends on the velocity at impact, damping effects and interlock
friction. Damping effects and interlock friction will also depend on
soil characteristics and length of embedment of the pile.

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The following table serves as an empirical guide to estimate Fd.
Table 11.6.4
Depth of pile embedment Hammer ram velocity at impact Hammer ram velocity at impact
Less than 4m/sec More than 4m/sec

Up to 5m 1.2 1.2

5 to 15m 1.2 to 1.5 1.2 to 2.0

Over 15m Not recommended > 2.0

Using the above procedure a suitable pile hammer can be selected.

Please note that the selection of appropriate driving equipment is
an iterative process as the apparent driving resistance is a
function of the pile size and depth of embedment.

11.6.5 Driving dynamics and selection of suitable pile section and grade
of steel for impact driving
Taking into account the above tables, criteria for selection of the
pile section can now be established for impact driving in
penetrable ground.
When identifying a suitable pile section it is recommended that the
peak driving stress should generally not exceed 75% of the yield
stress.
Fig 11.6.5 Minimum steel area to be driven for a given apparent
driving resistance
S430GP S390GP S355GP
800
S270GP

700 Note:
Apparent driving resistance (T)

S460AP steel is
600 also available but
not shown here.

500

400

300

200 Stay to the right

of the lines to
100 keep stresses low.

0
25 75 125 175 225 275 325 375
Driven Steel area (cm2)

Figure 11.6.5 may be used to estimate the minimum area of steel

pile to be driven before selecting a pile section and steel grade.
To further reduce the risk of head damage, the area of steel
provided should be assessed on the basis of the area actually
covered by the hammer anvil not the cross section area of the pile.
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After selecting a section, the mean driving stress can be estimated
by dividing the apparent resistance by the section area.
Please note that for Rapp > 8000kN, high yield steel grades or
HZ/AZ systems may be appropriate. We recommend contacting
our Technical Advisory Service for further guidance when selecting
appropriate products and installation methods for anticipated
resistance of this magnitude or for hard driving where toe
resistance is significant for example when driving into rock.

11.6.6 Relationship between peak stress and hammer efficiency

For hammers with low efficiency it is possible that peak stresses
will be significantly higher than mean stresses.
Table 11.6.6 below is based on the equation

σp = σm . [ ( ) -1 ]

(introduced in Section 11.3.8) and shows the magnification factors

to be applied for different hammer efficiencies.
Table 11.6.6 Factor for peak stresses in the pile section
ξ 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
Factor σp / σ m 1.108 1.236 1.390 1.582 1.828 2.16 2.65

The effect of reduced hammer efficiency can thus be taken into

account by multiplying the calculated apparent mean driving stress
by the factor from Table 11.6.6 to obtain the estimated peak
driving stress. If this is greater than 0.75fy then a larger section or
higher steel grade should be tried and the mean and peak stress
re-calculated.

11.6.7 General comments on driveability and use of tables

The method indicated above for the selection of pile section and
hammer does not take into account driving method.
Generally, a heavier section will drive better than a lighter section
and panel driving, provided the lead on the pile being driven is not
too great, will yield better results - in line with forecasts - than
pitch & drive techniques. In this respect there is a limit to the
suitability of any particular pile section in respect of a pure pitch &
drive technique.

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11.6.8 Influence of stiffness of pile and driving method
The pile length and its stiffness and the distance driven into the
ground ahead of its neighbour will principally govern driveability.
Panel driving methods should limit the distance any pile is driven
ahead of its neighbour. Recommendations are as follows.

Table 11.6.8
Easy Normal Hard Driving into rock
Panel driving – by 8m - At contractors risk 4m 2m 0.5 m
impact driving in pairs above this
Pitch & drive – by Singles possible Pairs better than singles Not to be recommended Totally unsuitable
vibro-driving methods Maximum usually - length of advancement
(refer to table 11.5.5.4 about 14m -accuracy depends on section and Methods of altering the
for pressing methods) difficult beyond this. ability to control ground such as pre-
alignment augering sometimes
possible

11.6.9 Sizing vibro-drivers

Although there is less risk of damage to the pile section where
conditions allow the use of vibrohammers, where driving becomes
more difficult the selection process for these hammers is different.
When using a vibrohammer it is imperative that the pile continues
to penetrate the soil at an appropriate rate. This will ensure that
the energy being input is expended in overcoming the soil
resistance and not in the generation of heat in the interlocks
which may be sufficiently high to weld interlocked sections
together.
Usually environmental considerations are a main concern but the
effectiveness of a vibrohammer in tough ground conditions is not
easy to predict. If pitch and drive techniques are used the
recommendations in the above table should be followed. If control
of alignment and good rates of penetration cannot be achieved
then panel driving techniques possibly using other types of
hammer should be considered. Generally vibrohammers with
greater power and self weight and higher amplitude will perform
better in harder and deeper strata. If it is necessary to complete
driving with a vibrohammer the following figure may assist in
identifying the size of machine required. Leader rigs may add an
additional crowding force of say up to 300kN but this may not be
sufficient to penetrate thick clay or dense soil strata. Also, it is
worth noting that for harder driving conditions associated with
trying to install long piles with up to 20m penetration using vibro
driving, the apparent resistance significantly increases and
hammers with much greater power are necessary unless impact
driving techniques are used.

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It is important to ensure that the vibrohammer is capable of
supplying the necessary centrifugal force to drive the piles and
that the power pack or carrier machine is capable of supplying
sufficient power for the vibrohammer to operate at its maximum
output.
Fig 11.6.9 Guidance for size of vibrohammer (rated by centrifugal
force) in terms of pile weight and driving conditions

3500

u 3000

u
2500

Vibro centrifugal force (kN)

u
s
2000
u
s
l
u s
l 1500
u s
l n
u s n
l
u s n
l 1000
s n
l
n
s l Easy n
n
l Normal l 500
n Hard s
n Very hard u

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Pile weight (tonnes)

Amplitude is also an important factor when sizing vibrodrivers.

2000 x Eccentric Moment (kgm)

Amplitude =
Dynamic weight (kg)
(where the dynamic weight includes the clamp and sheet pile)

Table 11.6.9 Minimum amplitude requirement

Easy driving Normal driving Hard driving
4mm 6mm 8mm

Note that the amplitude quoted in manufacturers literature does

not normally allow for the weight of the clamp and pile.

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11.6.10 Nomogram for checking minimum section size on the basis of pile
length and anticipated driving conditions
Step 1: Ascertain the driving conditions to be expected (ie. easy,
normal or hard)
Step 2: Check suitability of section against length taking into
account whether panel driving or P&D techniques are to be used.
Easy

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11.6.11 Other factors affecting choice of section
After identifying a suitable pile section for driveability, the
following factors should also be taken into consideration to adjust
the final choice of section and steel grade.

Table 11.6.11 Other factors influencing choice of section

Factors
Condition or Technique Influence on pile section choice
Increase steel grade Possible reduction in section size when impact driving
Increase length of pile at head or toe Increase pile section when using pressing or P&D method
Second hand piles, good condition Increase section size or assume mild steel if grade unknown
Cobbly ground, boulders, rock etc Increase section size and grade of steel, consider impact & panel drive
methods. May also consider reinforcing pile head and toe.
Pre-augering Possible reduction in section size but reconsider structural
design implications and risk of increased deflections.
Allowing rotation at interlocks (P&D) Increases friction - increase section size - not suitable for Z piles
Japanese standard pile pressing Single U-piles best - increase pile section or stiffness

11.7 Guiding the piles and controlling alignment

11.7.1 General It is recommended that a rigid guide waling system is employed
when driving steel sheet piles and purpose built steel pile driving
guides are available for this purpose. When using pitch and drive
methods it is often the case that the leader rig is assumed to
provide sufficient guidance to the piles and guide walings are not
used. While a string line will indicate the line that the piles should
follow, it can be easily moved and consequently will not prevent
misalignment. It is better to use guide walings to prevent rotation
of the interlocks and to limit the twist that can be induced in a pile
by the driving equipment - see also 11.7.4.
In the past, timber support systems were used but steel systems
are stronger and cheaper than timber and it is easier to make
temporary connections by tack welding steel guide walings to the
driven sheets and vice versa to control accuracy.
Walkways of the correct width, handrails and proper access
ladders must be provided to comply with H&S regulations.
Supporting trestles are quick to erect, strip and move, and can be
dismantled and neatly stacked for transportation. Safety features
are incorporated to provide safe access and working space when
assembly is either partially or fully complete. Walkway walings
provide safe access to the work area and a secure working space.
They are stiff box-girder beams and therefore will also serve as a
rigid guide and straight edge for accurate pile alignment.
Regular cleaning and the provision of drain holes is
recommended.

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11.7.2 Guide walings The functions of the guide walings are
1 To support piles in the vertical plane during pitching
operations;
2 To restrain the sheet piles during driving and prevent lateral
flexing;
3 To control parallelism of the pans or flanges of the piles;
4 To minimise rotation of the interlocks and thereby minimise
friction in the lock;
5 To act as setting out restraints and a physical check on the
correct alignment of the pile line;
6 To provide access for personnel to pitch the piles, carry out
welding and access the piles effectively, provided they are
wide enough to function as a walkway;
7 To facilitate fixing of permanent walings to structurally support
the sheet pile wall;
8 To act as a template when constructing walls with complex
and irregular shapes, setting out corner and junctions
accurately and construction of circular cofferdams.
It is particularly important that sheet piles are maintained in the
correct horizontal and vertical alignment during installation.
This is achieved by the use of effective temporary works and
guide frames which should provide support to the piles at two
levels. To be effective, the top and bottom guides must be rigid.
The temporary works may be pinned to the ground using
temporary H piles to prevent movement of the whole frame.
The effectiveness of the guides and accuracy of driving will be
improved by maximising the distance between the two support
levels. Very long sheet piles may need intermediate guides to
prevent flexing and other problems associated with the axial
loading of long, slender structural members. Pile installation may
exert large horizontal forces on the guides and it is essential that
the temporary works used to support the guide walings are
adequately designed and rigidly connected so that movement or
collapse does not occur during driving operations.
To prevent pile twist within the guide frame, the free flange of a Z
type sheet pile or free leg of a U type pile should be secured by a
guide block or strap connected across the waling beam during
driving.
When driving piles in water the lower frame can be attached
(above or below water) to temporary bearing piles.
When installing in marine conditions it is possible to use tube pile
sections as the horizontal walings to facilitate pitching if the lower
guide is expected to become submerged by the incoming tide.

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The curved upper surface of the tube will ensure that the pile being
pitched is guided into the correct location between the walings.
Ladder access must comply with H&S regulations and because of
the inherent danger, it is essential that sheet pile pitching is not
carried out from ladders. Access platforms must be positioned to
enable safe access throughout all operations.
Purpose built trestles and walkways are designed so that the top
guide waling can be removed at the appropriate time to allow the
pile to be driven with the bottom guide in place maintaining control
in the intermediate stages of driving.

11.7.3 Commencement of driving pitched panels with

rope-suspended hammers
It is recommended that two levels of guide walings are used. Rope
suspended hammers are usually used for the initial stages of panel
driving because they can be used at greatest reach with the crane
for withdrawing or lifting the pile if adjustments are necessary.
Alternatively, leader rigs may be used for initial driving if access is
available close to the pile line and the pile length does not exceed
the working height of the mast.
Temporary works provide support to the upper level guide waling
for the piles. To be effective it should be at least a third of the pile
length above the lower guide and preferably located as close to the
top of the pitched piles as possible.

11.7.4 Guiding the piles when installing with fixed or telescopic leaders
With this method it is usual for both the hammer and the pile to be
guided by the leader. As a result there is less need for upper guide
walings but it is nevertheless recommended that a rigid, ground
level guide waling is used to prevent excessive twisting of the
piles by the leader rig during the driving and correction process.

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It is important that the leader is always vertical and that the
hammer delivers its energy through the centroid of the pile profile.
Pile lines are found to be straight and true more often when
suitable guide walings have been used than when attempts have
been made to follow string lines between setting out pegs.
The spacing of the beams must be maintained by spacers to suit
the theoretical depth of the paired pile section + approximately
10mm. Therefore if PU22 piles are to be used the spacing of the
pile guide walings should be 450mm + 10mm = 460mm.
When pitching and driving a guide element consisting of spreader
and bracket should be located adjacent to the sheet piles being
driven to prevent frame bulging. The wider the guide walings are
set apart the more freedom for rotation occurs making the wall
untidy and more difficult to drive

11.8 Handling, sorting and lifting the piles on site

11.8.1 Stacking and handling
It is essential that the piles are stacked safely on firm level ground
before handling for installation. This is not only important to
prevent accidents caused by stacks toppling and trapping
personnel but also to minimise damage whilst piles are stockpiled
on site.

11.8.2 Bundles of piles

These should be lifted from the delivery lorry using a crane of
adequate size and lifting chains fitted by an experienced and
trained piling crew and banksmen. Bundles of piles can be heavy
so it is essential that adequate hard-standing is available for
unloading operations.
Unloading piles using telescopic leader rigs and excavators is not
recommended

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11.8.3 Splitting bundles and lifting individual piles
These operations need special ancillary equipment which is
designed specifically for this purpose.
Makeshift equipment and use of inappropriate plant such as
excavators should be avoided.
Simple cast-steel shoes have been designed to slide between
each pile in a stack enabling them to be easily separated and
moved horizontally. The shoes are usually attached to long steel
rope slings which allow them to be attached at both ends of the
pile. U-piles are easy to handle in this way because single bars
balance well in the horizontal position. When handling pairs of
piles the shoes have to be attached to the same individual bar to
prevent the two piles from sliding apart. Spreader beams are
sometimes needed for handling very long piles and straight web
sections.

11.8.4 Shackles A variety of special “quick” ground release shackles are available
and should be an essential part of the sheet pile installers
equipment.

These enable the crane connection to the pile top to be released,

when required, from ground level or walkway waling level. This is
fast, efficient and safe and eliminates the risk of personnel
climbing ladders to release the lifting device from a pitched pile.
The shackle uses a lifting hole in the head of the pile through
which a shear pin passes.

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Piles stacked in bundles should be carefully lifted with purpose
built shoes and suitable dunnage inserted to space out the piles
before connecting the quick release shackle (QRS). The slinging
holes in the piles should be ordered or cut to suit the QRS or
other lifting attachment to be used. It is necessary for personnel to
be trained to attach and check the QRS to ensure correct
insertion of the lifting pins in the pile head hole before the signal
to lift the pile is given.

11.8.5 Lifting chains

When telescopic leader rigs are used for pile installation the
process of lifting the pile off the ground is usually achieved by
attaching chains fastened near the end of the mast and driving
equipment. Holes of adequate size to accommodate the lifting
chains are usually cut in the webs of the sheet piles about 300mm
from the top of the piles before pitching. This enables the pile to
be lifted up to the hammer jaws near the top of the mast.
The pile is then driven and the chains are released near to ground
level before the hammer or mast needs to be moved away from
the pile.

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11.9 Pitching - connecting the interlocks when pitching the piles
Interlocking the piles together in the vertical position is called
pitching.
The greatest risk of injury to piling personnel occurs during pile
pitching so it is important to develop a safety plan and an
approved method of working before work commences.

The following actions or conditions must be ensured to comply with

H&S regulations
1 The lifting plant or crane must be securely connected to the
top of the pile until the pile is fully threaded and supported by
the ground. Piles should not be allowed to free fall.
2 Personnel threading the piles or handling the free end of the
pile being lifted must operate from a safe working platform or
ground level. Operatives must not stand on ladders or balance
on the tops of piles when piles are being pitched
3 Sufficient numbers of personnel need to be available for
handling the size of pile being pitched especially in windy
conditions. One or two operatives should restrain the pile from
swaying - using ropes if necessary. The crane operatives
should avoid slewing or moving the jib when operatives are
attempting to pitch the piles by hand. The piles should only be
lowered when the correct signal is given by a qualified banksman
As a consequence of panel driving, there is a need to interlock piles
and release the crane connection, at a high level, with efficiency and
safety. To do this correctly, appropriate temporary platforms need to
be erected and special threading equipment should be used.

11.10 Threading devices

The sheet pile threader is designed to interlock any steel sheet
pile accommodating the different profiles, handing and interlock
types without the need for a man to be employed at the pile top.

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The threader is attached The signal is given to The spring mechanism After the interlocks
at platform level raise the pile guides the interlocks in engage the pile is
place at the top lowered and the
threader is removed

Use of a pile threader allows pile pitching to continue in windy

conditions which would stop manual interlocking, making the
work both safer and more efficient.

11.11 Driving Assistance

11.11.1 General Under certain conditions, impact driving, vibrating and pressing of
piles can be made easier with the help of jetting. The process
delivers water to the toe of the pile where it loosens the soil causing
the toe resistance of the pile to reduce and, depending on the soil
conditions, causes a reduction of skin and interlock friction as it
flows back to the ground surface along the faces of the pile.
The equipment comprises a lance (and nozzle) fitted to the sheet
pile to deliver a water jet at the toe of the pile. The water is
delivered at controlled pressure by hoses connected to the lance
from a water jetting unit fed by a pump from tanks capable of
supplying sufficient water.

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The effectiveness of jetting is influenced by the density of the soil
and the proportion of fines present, the available water pressure
and the number of jetting pipes. Planning the disposal of water
and provisional of silt trap tanks is also necessary. Piling installed
in a leading trench will help to control the disposal of jetting water
and help to keep operations and the site as tidy as possible.
Care must be exercised to ensure that this form of ground
treatment does not endanger adjacent structures. It is not unusual
for a loss of fines to occur in the soil near to the pile but, other
than the risk of a small amount of settlement and a reduction of
the angle of friction of the soil acting on the wall, structural
properties of the sheet pile wall will be substantially unaffected.
Jetting equipment that can be controlled by the piling gang is
recommended. The least amount of water pressure should be
used to advance the piling and the piles should be finally driven to
level without jetting wherever possible to ensure that the integrity
of any cut-off at the bottom of the wall is not compromised and
that voids will not be created at the pile toe potentially reducing
the bearing capacity.
Test-driving to define the parameters is recommended.

11.11.2 Silent Pressing and Jetting

Silent pressing machines work best in cohesive soils. The
Japanese presses can be effective if cohesionless soils are
encountered because they can be used with water jetting
equipment. A water supply and disposal facility is therefore
required. Water jetting is not usually available for or compatible
with the panel jacking machines.

11.11.3 Low pressure jetting

Low pressure jetting is mainly used in cohesive soils with vibro
driving and in dry stiff cohesive soils with Japanese presses.
In combination with a vibratory pile driver, jetting can enable piles
to penetrate very dense soils.
In general the soil characteristics are only slightly modified,
although special care must be taken when piles have to carry
vertical loads. See ArcelorMittal publication, ‘Jetting-assisted
sheet pile driving’ for further details.

11.11.4 High pressure jetting

High pressure jetting may be used for driving in extremely dense
soil layers and if gravels are encountered when using Japanese
presses.
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If high pressure jetting is envisaged, water consumption should be
checked with the equipment supplier and provision made for
supply and disposal of the water with the Client and appropriate
authorities.
High pressure jetting should only be carried out with the
Engineers consent and an agreed method statement.

11.12 Blasting This process is applicable to types of rock which until now would
have been classified as difficult or impossible for driving steel
piles to specific penetration designed requirements.

11.12.1 Normal blasting technique

Explosives are lowered into drilled holes and covered with soil
before detonation. This can create a V-shaped trench along the
proposed line of the wall or shatter the rock into various sized
particles. The size of the fragments in the trench is dependent
upon the amount of explosives used, the competence and
stratification of the rock and the spacing of the drilled holes. Pre-
blasting may be more appropriate for stronger more brittle
competent rock types. Soft rock types are usually unsuitable for
blasting techniques.
Nevertheless if the blasting technique shatters the rock very well,
the driving conditions in the loosened area will still be very tough
and high yield steel and toe reinforcement of the piles is
recommended.
In many instances, the process has to be repeated locally,
because the blasting has failed to shatter the rock and the piles
refuse during the subsequent driving operation. As a result, this
process can be very costly, it is difficult to price and estimate
rates of production and each project considered using this
process is likely to be different
It is therefore recommended that sheet pile walls are designed
with maximum support towards the top of the piles to keep the
required penetration into rock to a minimum.

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11.12.2 Pre-augering Dense cohesionless strata are
usually pre-augered on the pile line
to loosen the soil before pressing is
attempted. Easier impact driving,
vibrating and pressing can be
achieved by pre-augering. Holes of
about 20cm - 30 cm diameter are
drilled at approximately 600mm
centres on the centre line of the wall.
Depths of up to 10m can easily be
treated using auger
equipment mounted on a
telescopic leader rig which may be
interchangeable with equipment for
installing the piles.
When loosening the soil by augering,
care must be taken not to remove the
soil and leave holes – as can occur when attempting to auger into
dense cohesionless soils underlying clay strata. Any holes that do
occur should be filled with granular soil before driving piles.
Pre-augering should be avoided in the passive zone, near the toe of
the piles and where artesian water could be encountered.
It must not be forgotten that augering effectively changes the nature
of the soil and possibly the water table regime in which the pile is
located which may invalidate the design assumptions. It is also likely
that wall deflections will increase especially in any temporary
construction stage cantilever condition.

11.13 Driving Corrections

11.13.1 Correction of lean
Care should be taken to pitch the first piles vertically and maintain
them in a true position within permitted tolerances.
In order to avoid the tendency of sheet piling to lean, the hammer
should be positioned over the centre of gravity of the piles being
driven and should be held vertically and firmly on the piles by
means of efficient grips. When driving in pairs the adjacent piles
should be square and true at the top and the hammer blow spread
evenly across the maximum area of steel by means of a correctly
sized and fitting anvil or driving cap.
Transverse leaning of sheet piles is eliminated by the use of efficient
guide walings. If the piles develop a transverse lean which needs to
be corrected, the piles should be extracted and re-driven in shorter
steps to maintain control.

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Longitudinal leaning in the direction of driving may be caused by
friction between the previously driven pile and the pile being
driven or by incorrect use of the hammer and should be
counteracted immediately if it becomes apparent. If left
unchecked, the lean can become uncontrollable requiring piles to
be withdrawn until an acceptably vertical pile is found. Pile
installation can then continue using panel methods to reduce the
risk of further lean.
Prevention is better than the cure and when using pitch and drive
methods, driving should cease before the lean approaches the
maximum permitted verticality tolerance limits. Panel installation
methods should then be used to eliminate further leaning by
backdriving from piles installed with acceptable verticality towards
the leaning piles against the direction of installation.
In conjunction with the above method, longitudinal lean may be
corrected by pulling the misaligned piles back with a wire rope
while displacing the hammer from the centre of the pair towards
the last driven piles.
When a lean cannot be eliminated and piles cannot be withdrawn
and replaced, the error may be corrected by introducing taper
piles, but only with the consent of the Engineer.

11.13.2 Drawing down

When piles are driven in soft ground or loose sandy soils the pile
being driven may draw down the adjacent pile below its intended
final level. The problem sometimes occurs when the Pitch & Drive
method is used and is caused when more friction develops in the
interlock connected to the pile being driven than is available in the
interlock connected to the previously driven piles.
This may happen when either or all of the following occurs
- the piles are leaning forward
- the piles have been allowed to rotate causing interlock friction
- vibrodriving action has compacted sand into the interlocks
during installation
- interlocks have not been cleaned before driving
- interlocks have been damaged or bind together on one side of
the pile
A remedy for the problem when vibrodriving is to re-level the
heads by withdrawing the piles and tack welding them together in
pairs and proceeding with a panel backdriving method. Pairs of
piles will usually be driven easily in soft ground where this
problem is usually found.

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Alternatively impact driving may be used instead of vibrodriving.
Where the problem is encountered locally the simplest means of
prevention is to tack weld the pile being drawn down to the
temporary guide walings – however these must be adequately
supported so that they do not move or collapse when driving the
piles.
The problem is less likely to occur if the piles are installed with
good alignment and verticality and the problem may be alleviated
by introducing a sealant to the interlocks to prevent the ingress of
soil to the interlock area during driving.

11.13.3 Control of wall length

When using uncrimped piles, a limited degree of wall length
control may be achieved by adjusting the distance between guide
walings and rotation of the piles at the interlock positions to suit.
This is not recommended for permanent construction as rotation
at the interlocks will affect the appearance of the wall, can be
expected to increase driving resistance and will increase the
possibility of declutching. When piles are supplied crimped, this
method of wall length adjustment will not be possible as the
process fixes the position and orientation of the connected piles.
If accurate theoretical wall dimensions have to be achieved, it
may be necessary to introduce a fabricated pile.

11.13.4 Driving tolerances

Theoretical position and orientation of the sheet piles are usually
indicated in the driving plan on working drawings. Deviations from
this theoretical layout may occur due to rolling tolerances, soil
conditions and driving procedure.
General tolerances for a straight and plumb sheet pile wall should
be in accordance with the following figures (see also EN 12063).
a) deviation in plan normal to the wall line at the top of the pile
± 50 mm (± 75 mm for silent pressing)
b) finished level deviation from nominal level of top of pile
± 20 mm
c) deviation of verticality for panel driving -
all directions 1 in 100
d) deviation of verticality along line of piles for pitch & drive
1 in 75
Tolerances for plan and verticality are accumulative and designers
and architects should allow for this especially when considering
design of internal fittings or within a cofferdam.

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11.14 Special Aspects of installation
11.14.1 Test-driving Where the driveability of the soil is difficult to assess, test-driving
is recommended.
Test-driving is undertaken to determine the pile section which,
when driven by a suitable hammer, will reach the required depth
most economically. Test drives should be carried out on the line of
the final wall, their number depending on the size of the project
and on the expected variations in the underlying strata. Good
control of the pile and the hammer is required and driving records
must be taken.
Subsequent extraction of the piles may give supplementary
information.
In the event that the piling is to carry axial load, it may be
convenient to use the test piles to carry out a load test using
Dynamic Analysis in conjunction with a suitable impact hammer.
Silent pressing machines may record pressing and withdrawal
forces which can assist Engineers to assess the ultimate skin
friction capacity of a pile for carrying vertical load.
Simple equipment for carrying out static load testing of the piles
is also available.

11.14.2 Driving in restricted headroom

Under bridges etc. the free height between soil level and the
structure is often insufficient to allow normal pile
threading/pitching. One possibility is to drive the piles in short
lengths, butt welded or fish- plated together as driving proceeds,
the joints being to the full strength of the section; but, if possible,
this should be avoided for reasons of economy. A better way of
overcoming the problem is to assemble a panel of piles
horizontally on the ground, the length of the piles being less than
the headroom. The panels should be bolted to temporary walings
and moved into position. In any case, the headroom may be
increased by the excavation of a trench along the proposed line of
the piling. Driving is commenced using a double-acting hammer
mounted in a cradle suspended at the side of the pile. As soon as
sufficient headroom is available, the hammer should be moved to
the normal driving position.

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11.15 Extracting
11.15.1 General When piling is intended to serve only as temporary protection for
permanent construction work, it can be extracted for re-use by
means of suitable extractors which are usually of the vibratory or
jacking type.
For an evaluation of the required pulling force, the previous
establishment of a driving record for each pile is very useful. This
identifies the piles with the lowest resistance, thus defining the
most advantageous starting-point for the extraction work. If
driving records for the piles are not available, then the first pile to
be extracted should be selected with care. Piles near the centre of
a wall should be tried until one pile begins to move. If difficulty is
experienced, then a few driving blows may be used to loosen a
pile. It may also be necessary to reinforce the head of the piles to
aid the successful extraction of the initial pile. Accurate driving of
the piles in the soil makes extraction easier.
When designing temporary works and selecting the pile section it
may be necessary to increase the section to ensure good
driveability and minimise damage to the piles. The commercial
success of the operation will depend on the quantity of piles
recovered with minimal damage

11.15.2 Extraction by vibrator

Vibrators and extractors of various sizes are available. They
loosen the pile from its initial position, so that it moves with the
help of the pulling force of the crane. The limit values of the
extractors and crane loads given by the manufacturer must be
respected. The connection between pile and the extractor should
allow for the maximum pulling force of the crane and extractor.

11.15.3 Extraction by silent press

Silent presses are excellent for extracting piles in sensitive
locations, the extraction process being the reverse of driving.
Piles that have been pre-treated with sealants are ideal to extract
with the silent presser.

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11.15.4 Extraction using the sustainable base extractor
This powerful tool can be used to clear steel pile foundations from
a site and also extract long heavy sheet piles.

A maximum pulling force of approximately 400t is currently

available with this machine
It requires at least 1.5m working space either side of the pile line
and a firm hard-standing to work from. The machine needs to be
positioned at the open end of a pile line and work backwards. A
heavy crane is needed to move the extractor to different
positions.

11.16 Installing Combined HZ or high modulus walls

High Modulus walls may consist of special rolled King piles or
fabricated box piles combined with standard sheet piles. The King
or Primary piles are structural elements which are connected by
intermediate secondary sheet piles.
One of the most important and efficient systems that provides a
“straight” face suitable for Marine projects and deep berths is the
HZ system. The HZ beams are rolled specially up to lengths of
33m. These major sheet pile walls should only be installed by
leading experienced contractors equipped with heavy plant
suitable for offshore conditions where appropriate.

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Techniques for successful installation involve panel driving
methods but involve installing the primary elements before
secondary elements in the panels. It is essential that the primary
elements are established accurately before joining together with
the shorter secondary piles. In this respect special temporary
works in the form of guide waling trusses have proven to be the
best method for setting out, supporting and commencing the
installation of the primary piles.
The procedure adopted to drive the piles is different to that of
installing standard sheet piling and different hammers need to be
used for the primary and secondary piles. Details of the
procedures and hints for suitable techniques are described in
more detail in the ArcelorMittal publication “HZ steel wall system
ref 1.4.01”.
The HZ system combines all hot rolled products mechanically
jointed together and is the best system available for joint integrity
when installed correctly.
Other systems may combine fabricated primary elements such as
tubes with interlocks welded on either side or box piles welded
together. In such cases all welding of interlocks and splicing
together to form the correct length needs to be executed in
accordance with relevant codes to high standards of
workmanship and testing.
In all cases the secondary elements must consist of at least two
suitable sheet piles (and no more than three) with interlocks
capable of withstanding additional stresses from the action of
forcing the sheets between stiff primary elements. Pairs of AZ
piles which have a Larssen type lock are considered the most
suitable for secondary piles in combined walls.
Declutching in dense fine sands may be avoided by filling the
interlocks with bituminous sealant prior to driving.

Chapter 11/53
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams 12
8 Charts for retaining walls

Noise and
vibration
9 Circular cell construction
design & installation

10 Bearing piles and axially

loaded sheet piles

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
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Contents Page
12.1 Introduction 1
12.2 Regulatory guidance 2
12.3 Vibration from piling operations 2
12.3.1 The effects of vibration 2
12.3.2 Reducing pile driving vibrations 3
12.3.3 Good practice 3
12.3.4 Vibration level estimation 4
12.3.4.1 Pile presses 4
12.3.4.2 Vibrodrivers 4
12.3.4.3 Impact hammers 5
12.3.5 Estimate limitations 6
12.3.6 Significance of vibration 7
12.3.6.1 Disturbance to people 7
12.3.6.2 Damage to structures 8
12.3.6.3 Compaction and settlement 9
12.3.6.4 Destabilisation of slopes 10
12.4 Noise from piling operations 10
12.4.1 The effects of noise 10
12.4.2 Reducing pile driving noise 11
12.4.3 Good practice 11
12.4.4 Noise level estimation 11
12.4.5 Significance of noise 14
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12.1 Introduction For many years piling and driven piling in particular, has been
perceived as one of the most environmentally disruptive activities
on a construction site. This perception was justified until recent
developments in pile installation technology. The range of methods
now available ensures cost effective pile installation with
appropriate control of noise and vibration.
When heavy construction is to be carried out close to houses,
offices, laboratories or historic buildings, careful planning is
required to ensure that the work proceeds at an appropriate rate, in
a manner that will minimise disruption to the area. The physical
presence of a construction site in a community will cause a degree
of disruption to normal activities, but choosing the most
appropriate technology for each activity will ensure that the
construction period is minimised and that the work proceeds within
acceptable levels of noise and vibration. This will benefit both local
residents and also site workers.
Modern piling techniques can enable noise and vibration to be
eliminated from the installation process for steel piles. When
ground conditions are appropriate, hydraulic pile pressing
technology enables piles to be driven almost silently and without
causing any noticeable vibrations. This technology gives engineers
the opportunity to use steel piling in areas where this type of
construction would previously have been unthinkable. Sheet piling
can now be considered as a first choice material for sites where
environmental disturbance will not be tolerated, such as adjacent
to hospitals, within urban areas, alongside sensitive cable or
pipeline installations or near delicate computer facilities.
Vibrodrivers, which offer the fastest rate of installation of any pile
driving system in granular soils, cause more vibration than pile
presses, but are less disruptive than impact hammers. Engineering
advances have given operators the ability to vary the frequency
and amplitude of vibrations generated by the machine, so that the
system can be tuned to suit the ground conditions. This technology
has also eliminated the severe vibrations generated close to the
pile when the vibrodriver passes through the resonant frequency of
the surrounding ground and buildings during run up and run down.
Impact hammers cause higher levels of noise and vibration than
other types of pile driver, but will drive piles into any type of soil
and may be the only method available for driving into stiff, cohesive
soils or soft rock. The operation of this type of hammer has
changed with advances in technology and over the past half
century, steam has given way to diesel power, which in turn has
been replaced by hydraulic actuation. As a result, modern hydraulic
drop hammers are much less environmentally damaging than their
predecessors. Further reductions in noise levels can be achieved
by the use of shroudings to enclose the area where noise is
generated.

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Before choosing the pile driving method to use, you need to
consider the circumstances at your site and the levels of noise and
vibration that will be acceptable. Not every site demands silent and
vibration-free pile installation, and cost and time savings may be
achieved if it is acceptable to adopt a less environmentally-sensitive
method of installation. The opportunity to adopt combinations of
driving method should not be overlooked, as it may be feasible to
press piles during more sensitive times of day, completing the final
stage of the drive using an impact hammer.

12.2 Regulatory guidance

Local Authorities may stipulate and impose their restrictions prior
to and during piling operations. To avoid this situation, a preferable
approach is to arrange prior consent. Discussion with the Local
Authority can lead to a ‘Consent to Work’ agreement, usually
embodying the ‘best practicable means’ for the work.
The original Eurocode 3 (1998), Steel Structures, Part 5: Piling,
[ENV 1993:5 (1998)] made specific recommendations on vibration
limits for human tolerance and on thresholds for minor damage to
buildings. Please note that this information has been removed from
the latest revision of EN1993:5 as it is considered by CEN to be
more appropriate in an execution standard. The information has
not yet been relocated but the authors feel it is of value to piling
engineers and is included here.
Although present British Standards do not give rigid limits on levels
of vibration or noise, there are three British Standards that give
helpful guidance on these issues:
BS 5228 parts 1 & 4, (1997/1992),
‘Noise control on construction and open sites’.
BS 6472 (1992),
‘Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings’.
BS 7385 part 2 (1993)
‘Evaluation and measurement for vibrations in buildings’.

12.3 Vibration from piling operations

12.3.1 The effects of vibration
Pile driving using an impact hammer or vibro-driver generates
ground vibrations, which are greatest close to the pile.
Humans are very sensitive to ground vibrations, and it should be
noted that even minor vibrations may attract complaints from
people living or working in the area.
Reports of damage to buildings caused by piling vibrations are
rare. You will find guide values to help avoid cosmetic damage in
ENV 1993:5 (1998), BS5228 pt 4 and BS7385 pt 2.
Heavy ground vibrations may also disturb soils. Piling vibrations
may de-stabilise slopes or lead to compaction settlements of very
loose saturated granular soils.
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12.3.2 Reducing pile driving vibrations
Potential problems caused by ground vibrations can be alleviated
or eliminated by:
• Pre-contract planning, to obtain a Consent to Work Agreement,
• Selecting the most appropriate pile driver and working method,
• Forewarning residents of the forthcoming work and its duration
and assuring them of the very low risk of damage to property,
• Carrying out property surveys, before and after your work.
The selection of an appropriate pile driving system is essential if
ground vibrations are to be controlled.
In highly-sensitive locations, very close to existing buildings or
near to historic structures, a pile pressing rig may be used. Pile
pressing systems are vibration-free, and are now effective in most
soils.
For driving into stiff, cohesive soils, an impact hammer may be
needed. Modern hydraulic drop hammers are efficient and
controllable. The combination of a controllable hammer and
vibration monitoring can help to meet vibration limits, while
achieving effective pile installation.

12.3.3 Good practice Excessive ground vibrations can also be avoided by following
good piling practice. Particular care should be taken to ensure
that the pile is maintained in a vertical position by using well-
designed guide frames or a leader. An appropriate size of hammer
should be selected, and the hammer should strike the centroid of
the pile along its axis. Equipment should be in good condition and
piling should be stopped if any head deformation occurs, until the
problem is identified.
Hammering against any obstructions will cause excessive
vibrations. Specialist measures to overcome this problem include:
• Excavation to a depth of 2-3m to avoid old concrete, brick or
timber foundations, or buried services in a previously-
developed site.
• Water jetting of dense sands
• Cut-off trenches (although the excavation may cause an
unacceptable risk of ground disturbance).
• Pre-augering to break up hard soils for easy pile driving.
With careful planning and by adopting sensitive piling techniques,
appropriate to your project and the conditions of the site, it is
possible to minimise the vibrations caused by your operations in
the surrounding area.

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12.3.4 Vibration level estimation
During the past 20 years, a large number of ground vibrations
have been recorded on piling sites by interested parties from
industry, universities and other research establishments. This body
of knowledge has been formulated into simple empirical equations
for estimation of probable levels of peak particle velocity (ppv)
caused by various piling operations and conditions, and for
probable upper bound levels (ENV 1993:5 1998; Attewell et al,
1992; Hiller & Crabb, 2000).
The equations generally take the form of
W
v=C
r
where v is the estimated ppv in mm/s; C is a parameter related to

cycle (Joules/blow, or Joules/cycle for vibrodrivers); r is the

soil type and hammer; W is the hammer energy per blow or per

horizontal distance from the piling operation to the point of

interest (m). However, it should be emphasised that, while this
equation gives a useful indication of vibrations, it is not an exact
predictor.
Table 12.3.4 The recommendations in ENV 1993:5 (1998) for C values.
Driving method Ground conditions C

Impact Very stiff cohesive soils, dense granular 1.0

media, rock, fill with large solid obstructions

Stiff cohesive soils, medium dense 0.75

granular media, compact fill

Soft cohesive soils, loose granular 0.5

media, loose fill, organic soils

Vibratory All soil conditions 0.7

12.3.4.1 Pile presses None of the following calculations are necessary if a pile pressing
rig is used to install steel sheet piling, since it causes negligible
levels of vibration provided pile verticality is maintained.

12.3.4.2 Vibrodrivers For vibrodrivers, the calculation may be taken as power rating
divided by frequency, from the manufacturer’s information, with
power in Watts (1 Watt = 1N.m/s) and frequency in cycles/s, so
the resulting unit is N.m/cycle, i.e. J/cycle. The choice of
parameter C depends upon the standard used. ENV 1993:5
recommends C = 0.7 while BS5228 recommends a value of 1.0.
The former is preferred.
Some site records have shown high values of vibrations at low
frequencies during run-up and run-down, and ‘non-resonant’
vibrodrivers have been developed to avoid this behaviour, which
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has been attributed to a resonant form of ground response. While
there is some support for this explanation, opinions have been
voiced by Hiller (2000) and by Holeyman (2000) that the level of
vibrations is less a function of hammer energy per cycle, than of
the soil resistance to driving.
At the present state of knowledge, it seems appropriate to follow
the ENV 1993:5 procedure in which energy/cycle is used within
the basic empirical equation.
Example 1: A vibrodriver driving and extracting sheet piles in
medium dense sands and gravels. The vibrodriver has a power
rating of 120kW and operating frequency of 38Hz. Calculate ppv’s
at distances of 2m and 10m.
The energy/cycle
= 120000(Nm/s) / 38 (cycles/s, i.e. Hz),
= 3160 Joules/cycle

v = 0.7 x √
Take C=0.7 (in accordance with Eurocode 3), and for r=2m,
3160 = 20mm/s
2
and at r=10m, = 4.0mm/s
The development of high frequency vibro-drivers with variable
eccentric moment has resulted in a very effective driving system
for sensitive areas. Varying the energy input and the frequency
allows the system to be tailored to suit conditions on site.

12.3.4.3 Impact hammers

Calculation of impact hammer energy, W, is by loss of potential
energy in free fall for a drop hammer (mass x gravitational
acceleration x drop height, or, m.g.h.). For a double acting device,
energy = m.g.h. + stored energy, as quoted in the manufacturer’s
literature.
Units are Joules per blow, where 1J = 1N.m.
Example 2: A hydraulic drop hammer driving well-guided steel H
piles in medium clays. The hammer element weighs three tonnes,
and is falling through 0.8m. Estimate ppv’s, v, at distances, r, from
the pile of 2m, 5m and 20m.
Hammer energy
= mass x gravitational acceleration x drop (m.g.h)
= 3000kg x 9.8m/s2 x 0.8m
= 23520 Joules (or N.m)
Take C to be 0.75, then
For r=2m v = 57mm/s
For r=5m v = 23mm/s
and for r=20m v = 6mm/s

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12.3.5 Estimate limitations
While the above methods give reasonable estimates of probable
vibration levels, it must be recognised that a number of factors
can cause higher than expected vibration levels, such as
obstructions, mechanical wear or failure, poor support, and
pseudo-resonance of the soil during run-up and run-down. Thus
the estimation methods can be used to give a good indication of
magnitude, but not as an exact and reliable prediction. They are
appropriate for the basis of a Consent to Work Agreement, or for
setting realistic permissible limits to piling vibrations.
In assessing driveability, selecting the size of piling hammer that
achieves a steady rate of penetration is important. This often
leads to a minimum vibration disturbance, taking account of both
intensity and duration.
Before commencing the main works, predicted vibrations can be
checked by driving a test pile using the proposed equipment.
Some examples of records of observed ground vibrations are
given in Table 12.3.5. It should be emphasised that there is
considerable variation in vibrations generated, even from a single
pile being driven by a single hammer, due to changing toe depth,
soil strata, accuracy of blow, upstand of the pile, guide system,
clutch of adjacent pile, meeting of obstructions, and driver
efficiency. Both the curves and the equation tend to overestimate
ppv’s very close to the pile.
Table 12.3.5 Examples of ppv’s recorded on sites.
Hammer and distances radial transverse vertical resultant
pile from pile, ppv, mm/s ppv, mm/s ppv, mm/s ppv, mm/s
m
Air, 600N, 2 8.6 7.2 17.0 18.0
U pile z=1600 cm3/m 8 5.6 2.9 8.2 8.4
22 3.8 2.7 5.1 6.1
BSP 357, (3T) 2 10.6 7.7 22 25
Z pile z=2300 cm3/m 5 4.5 5.0 4.8 6.1
18 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.9
BSP 357, (5T) 4 10 4.5 25.9 26.9
H section 17 13.8 2.3 11.0 15.0
37 3.3 1.0 1.2 3.5
Vibro MS25H 2 22 28 6.8 34
Z pile z=1700 cm3/m 5 2.8 2.6 8.2 9.0
16 1.5 1.7 2.3 2.5

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12.3.6 Significance of vibration
There are at least four consequences arising from ground
vibrations during piling, which may require consideration.
They include:
- disturbance to people
- risk of cosmetic or structural damage to buildings
- compaction settlement of loose granular soils
- destabilization of slopes or excavations.
Guidance on limits for the first two issues is provided by
Eurocode 3: Part 5 (1998) and British Standards, especially
BS5228:part 4 (1992), BS 6472 (1992) and, BS 7385:part 2 (1993).

12.3.6.1 Disturbance to people

Ground vibrations may cause reactions ranging from “just
perceptible”, through “concern” to “alarm” and “discomfort”.
The levels of vibration from piling are not such as to cause risk to
health, (as may occur through prolonged use of a pneumatic
hand-held breaker). The subjective response varies widely, and is
a function of situation, information, time of day and duration.
Table 12.3.6.1 Human tolerance to vibrations from Eurocode 3 :Part 5.
Duration D in days > 1 day
D- < D-
6 d- < 26 d < D-
26 d - < 78 d
Level I 1.5 1.3 1.0
Level II 3.0 2.3 1.5
Level III 4.5 3.8 2.0

Notes:
1 Level I Below this level vibration is likely to be accepted
Level II Below this level vibration is likely to be accepted, with advanced warning.
Level III Above level III vibration is likely to be unacceptable

√(T / T )
2 The above values relate to 4 hours of vibrations per working day.

For different durations of vibrations, Vtc = V4 r c

2
where Tr =16 hours and Tc is the exposure time in hours per day.

3 These limiting values apply for all environments other than hospitals, precision laboratories and libraries,
in which vibrations of up to 0.15 mm/s should be acceptable

Humans are very sensitive to vibrations and the threshold of

perception is of the order of 0.2mm/s of ppv, in the appropriate
range of frequency of 8Hz to 80Hz. BS6472 gives base curves of
vibrations for minimal adverse comment and also vibration dose
values (VDV’s) at which complaints are probable, (VDV’s include
consideration of the duration of the disturbance). The vibration
levels deduced from these recommendations are low. It should be
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noted that the standards provide guidance on prediction of
probability of adverse comment, but they do not impose a legal
requirement of adherence to any particular vibration threshold
level. This responsibility rests with the Local Authority.
For normal piling operations, the human tolerance to vibration
should be assessed by reference to the table in Eurocode 3 :Part
5 reproduced in Table 12.3.6.1. The level of background vibrations
should not be overlooked when considering reasonable values.

12.3.6.2 Damage to structures

There is little evidence to suggest that vibrations from piling alone
cause even cosmetic damage (minor cracking) to buildings in
good repair (BRE,1983, Malam, 1992, Selby, 1991). However,
buildings in poor condition may offer less resistance to minor
damage. Where property owners are concerned about possible
damage to their buildings, before-and-after surveys should be
conducted to record any additional defects in the building.
BS5228 : pt 4 (1992), and BS7385 : pt 2 (1993), both give helpful
but conflicting guidance on ppv’s above which cosmetic damage
might occur. Impact piling causes intermittent ground vibrations,
and should therefore be considered as transient vibrations, while
ground vibrations during vibrodriving are continuous. The
recommended levels for continuous vibrations are generally taken
as 50 per cent of those for transient values.

Fig 12.3.6.2 Vibration thresholds for domestic and heavy

industrial structures

The recommended threshold limits for intermittent vibrations

acting on residential and industrial buildings from the two
standards are summarised in Figure 12.3.6.2. BS7385 generally
gives more generous limits. BS5228 recommends that the limits
be reduced by up to 50 per cent for buildings showing significant
defects. Where vibrations exceed four times the threshold values,
then structural damage may occur.

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There is considerable lack of agreement among national codes as
to the advisory threshold ppv’s for avoidance of cosmetic
damage. The structural form of the building should also be
considered when setting limits on vibrations impinging upon
buildings. A building with a stiff ground-bearing raft, or stiff shear
walls, will reduce the ground waves substantially, through
dynamic soil-structure interaction. However, a slender frame will
follow the dynamic disturbance of the passing wave. In addition,
slender suspended floors may show dynamic magnification of the
disturbance if frequencies are similar. BS5228 also recommends
limiting ppv’s in masonry retaining walls to 10mm/s at the base
and 40mm/s at the crest, and gives general recommendations for
consideration of stability. The BS5228 recommended limits for
vibrations impinging on buried services are 30mm/s intermittent
and 15mm/s continuous, but with reductions of 20-50 per cent for
elderly brickwork sewers.
The recommendations from Eurocode 3 :Part 5, reproduced in
Table 12.3.6.2 are generally more conservative, but should result
in the low probability of even minor damage.
Table 12.3.6.2 Tolerance of buildings to vibration,
Eurocode 3: Part5.
Peak particle velocity mm/s
Type of property Continuous vibration Transient vibrations

Ruins, buildings of 2 4
architectural merit

Residential 5 10

Light commercial 10 20

Heavy industrial 15 30

Buried services 25 40

12.3.6.3 Compaction and settlement

BS7385-2 (1993) notes the possibility of compaction of loose
granular soils by vibration, which may lead to problems of
differential settlement.
Recent work (Bement & Selby, 1997) has shown that loose granular
saturated soils may compact during prolonged vibration in excess
of some 0.2 to 0.4g of particle acceleration, but to limited depths
below surface of no more than 10m. Compaction is unlikely at more
than about 5m distant from a piling operation unless widespread
liquefaction occurs.
The situations most likely to cause compaction settlement include
extraction of temporary sheet piling directly contiguous to a new
slab or wall when vibrations exceed 1g, and the vibration of
hydraulic fills.
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12.3.6.4 Destabilisation of slopes
There is little guidance available on this subject, although a simple
analysis of granular soil slide, Fig. 12.3.6.4, gives a factor of
safety against sliding of F = (resistance to sliding)/(downslope
force) or F = tan φ/tan β, where φ is the soil friction angle and β is
the slope angle. If a transient vertical acceleration is applied, this
increases both downslope force and resistance by the same
fraction, so vertical vibration has no effect. If, however, a
horizontal acceleration applies outward from the slope, then the
downslope force is increased by mass x acceleration, and the
factor of safety is reduced.
Example:
Consider a mass of soil having weight W.
Assume horizontal acceleration = 0.1g, so horizontal force = 0.1W.
Downslope force = W sin β + 0.1 W cos β.
If the slope angle is 20°, then the downslope force increases from
0.34 W to 0.43 W, or an increase of some 27 per cent.
If φ= 35°, the factor of safety is reduced from 1.9 to 1.5.

Fig 12.3.6.4 Slope destabilisation

12.4 Noise from piling operations

12.4.1 The effects of noise
Noise, or unwanted sound, may be generated during pile driving
in the form of sharp repetitive pulses, or a more uniform drone.
Noise in excess of the current threshold level for the workplace
requires the contractor to protect the hearing of workers exposed
to it. Any additional noise imposed upon the public should be
minimised, to avoid disturbance and the risk of damage to
hearing.

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Noise and vibration from piling operations

12.4.2 Reducing pile driving noise
Pile pressing systems generate negligible noise at the pile, and
only low-level background noise from the diesel power pack,
which can be located away from noise-sensitive areas of the site.
Modern, enclosed hydraulic drop hammers and smooth-running
vibro-drivers are now carefully designed to limit noise, and are
much quieter than older models. By selecting the most
appropriate hammer type and head packing, you can reduce
noise significantly.

12.4.3 Good practice If using vibro-drivers or impact hammers, following a few

straightforward guidelines can help to reduce noise levels.
Noise reduces with distance, so locating noisy plant well away
from the public and site workers, where possible, will limit the
noise disturbance. The impact of steel upon steel is particularly
noisy, so a timber or plastic dolly can be used to cut noise levels.
It may also be possible to muffle some hammers in an enclosure.
A partly-embedded pile may ring when it is struck. To help
prevent this, timber wedges can be used between the pile and
guide frame. Absorbent drapes or packs can also be used.
Noise screens can be constructed between the noise source and
any sensitive properties or locations. Solid obstructions such as
stout timber fences, earth mounds or dense trees may reduce
noise by between 5dB and 10dB.

12.4.4 Noise level estimation

Noise levels experienced in the vicinity of pile driving are a
function of the noise power level, Lw, which is the air pressure
fluctuation at the surface of the equipment (hammer or pile),
expressed in dB, and the distance, R, from the source. A
convenient way to estimate an equivalent continuous A-weighted
sound level over the working day, L aeq , is by the equation
L aeq = Lw - 20 log(R) - 8. dB(A)
Sound power levels for specific plant items should be obtained
from the supplier but impact hammers driving steel sheet or
H piles may typically operate in the range 120 to135 dB. Modern
shrouded hammers – incorporating a noise-reducing enclosure –
may be as much as 10 dB quieter. Pile pressing systems produce
negligible sound levels, with only the power pack generating
low-level noise.

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Noise and vibration from piling operations

Table 12.4.4a Examples of recorded noise levels around piling rigs driving steel sheet piling.
Plant type Sound Primary Leq at Leq at
power observed 10m 30m
level, L w noise, L eq dB dB
dB dB

Hydraulic impact hammers

HPH1200/2400 97@4m 90 80

HH 357-9 BSP 95 85

HH1.5DA 95@12m 97 87

Vibrodrivers

PTC City 15HF1 93@3m 73 61

ICE216 91@7m 87 74

ICE416 80@7m 77 65

ICE 815 97@7m 94 83

Japanese type Silent Piler 75@1m 55 45

Power Pack 90@1m 70 60

NCK crane tick-over 71@2m 57 47

NCK crane, revving 83@2m 69 59

Examples from BS5228

Double acting air hammer (5.6kNm) 134 106 96

Enclosed drop (3 t) 98 70 60

Hydraulic drop (60kNm) 121 93 83

Here are some calculations of noise levels:

Example 1:
Impact hammer driving steel sheet piles with L w = 135dB.
Calculate L aeq values at 2m, 10m, 20m and 50m.
From L aeq = L w - 20 log(R) - 8. dB(A)
L aeq = 135 - 20 log(R) - 8.
For R = 2m, L aeq = 135 - 6 -8 = 121 dB(A)
For R = 10m, L aeq = 107dB(A)
For R = 20m L aeq = 101dB(A)
(Note, for doubled distance, a 6dB reduction occurs)
For R = 50m L aeq = 93dB(A)
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Noise and vibration from piling operations

Often a piling operation will run for some 10-50 per cent of the
working day, which reduces the L aeq by a small amount. (Note
that because of the logarithmic relation, a reduction in duration is
accompanied by a much smaller reduction in L aeq ). This effect
can be calculated simply, where L1 is the sound acting over time
t1 compared with working day duration T, from:
{1
L aeq = 10.log T [t 1 .10 L 1/10 ] }
Example 2: If the noise level of L aeq =107dB(A) at R=10m, from
the previous example is now restricted to 50 per cent of the
working day, then the newly-calculated Laeq becomes
L aeq = 10.log{0.5x10 107/10 } = 104 dB(A)
This is a 3dB reduction, which is just perceptible.
The next condition to consider is when several operations occur
during the day that generate different levels of noise, L1, L2, L3,
each of which lasts for time t1 , t2 , t 3.
These can be evaluated from an expanded form of the previous
equation as
{1
L aeq = 10.log T [t 1 .10 L 1/10 +t 2 .10 L 2/10 +t 3 .10 L 3/10 ] }
Example 3: Let us assume that three noisy operations occur, for
limited periods of the day illustrated in table 12.4.4b below.
Table 12.4.4b Cumulative noise sources.
Activity Lw dB On time Laeq Laeq for Cumulative
at 10m for each alone Laeq
t =100%*

1 130 20% 102 95 97

2 126 30% 93 93

3 120 40% 92 92

* calculated from earlier equation.

The calculation for the cumulative L aeq comes from the above
equation as:
L aeq = 10.Log { [ 0.2x10 102/10 +0.3x10 98/10 +0.4x10 92/10 ]}
i.e. L aeq = 10.Log { 0.2 x inv.log (10.2) + 0.3 x inv.log (9.8) + 0.4 x
inv. log (9.2) } = 97 dB, as the cumulative equivalent day-long noise
level.
Example 4: The addition of two noise sources, acting concurrently
for the full working day is a simple calculation:
e.g. 95dB and 93dB: L aeq = 10 log [10 95/10 + 10 93/10 ] = 97.1dB.
This is a mere 2.1dB increase above the larger signal.

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Noise and vibration from piling operations

12.4.5 Significance of noise
The two areas of concern about noise are the health and safety of
operators, and annoyance to the public. Prolonged exposure to
noise causes hearing impairment. Exposure to extreme noise
causes instantaneous hearing damage. Employers are normally
expected to assess noise levels, and to respond to different
action levels as follows:
• At the first action level of 85dB (of daily personal noise
exposure, L aeq ): to provide information about hearing risk
and to provide protection on request.
• At the second action level of 90dB: to control exposure to
noise by limiting noise at source, requiring ear protection to be
worn, limiting people’s time of exposure. Noisy areas should
have the hat and ear muff signs displayed.
• At the peak action level of 140 dB (of a single loud noise): to
prevent noise exposure. Such noise can cause instant hearing
damage.
The employer shall reduce, so far as is reasonably practical, the
exposure to noise of the employee. Where necessary, a noise
assessment should be carried out by a competent person with
respect to:
- Reduction of noise exposure
- Ear protection
- Ear protection zones
- Provision of information to employees.
Current Standards, do not give maximum levels of extraneous
noise. Some suggested limits include:
- a maximum L aeq during the daytime period of 75dB(A) at one
metre outside a noise-sensitive building in urban areas, or of
70dB(A) in rural areas.
- Sunday working should be subject to a reduction of 10dB.
- night-time working should not normally be permitted outside
residential properties, although 40-50dB(A) may be
appropriate.
Normal daytime locations are subject to some level of background
noise. If the noise level increases by 3dB then the change is just
perceptible. If the noise level increases by 10dB then it is
perceived as being twice as loud. An increase of 20dB implies a
tenfold increase in pressure.
It is important to measure ambient noise at any sensitive location,
and to measure the increase in noise caused by piling operations.
An increase in noise level by 10dB is likely to attract some

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Noise and vibration from piling operations

objection. With prior warning, a working agreement might be to
limit the increase in noise to some 10 to 20dB(A) above typical
ambient conditions. An office environment of 65dB(A) could be
expected to tolerate 75dB(A).

As with vibrations, a forewarning of the noise and its duration and

intensity will improve people’s tolerance of the intrusion. European
Community Council Directives are under consideration for noise
controls of construction plant.

Chapter 12/15
1 Product information

2 Sealants

3 Durability

4 Earth and water pressure

5 Design of sheet pile

structures

6 Retaining walls

7 Cofferdams

8 Charts for retaining walls

9 Circular cell construction

design & installation
13
10 Bearing piles and axially
loaded sheet piles
information
Useful

11 Installation of sheet piles

12 Noise and vibration from

piling operations

13 Useful information
Chapter 13_'08:Chapter 13 jet2 28/10/08 11:47 Page 1

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Useful information
Contents Page
13.1 Discontinued U piles 1
13.2 Discontinued Z piles 3
13.3 The metric system 4
13.4 Conversion factors and constants 5
13.5 Bending moments in beams 6
13.6 Properties of shapes 7
13.7 Mensuration of plane surface 8
13.8 Mensuration of solids 9
Acknowledgements 10
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Useful information
13.1 Discontinued U piles
The table of values below applies to U piles when interlocked
together to form a wall

Fig 13.1

13.1.1 ArcelorMittal sections

Table 13.1.1 ArcelorMittal sections
Section Width Height Thickness Flat of pan C/S area Mass Inertia Elastic Plastic
b h t s f Linear Wall modulus modulus
mm mm mm mm mm cm2/m kg/m kg/m2 cm /m
4 cm3/m cm3/m
PU 6 600 226 7.5 6.4 335 97 45.6 76 6780 600 697
PU 7 600 226 8.5 7.1 335 106 49.9 83.1 7570 670 779
PU 8 600 280 8.0 8.0 318 116 54.5 90.9 11620 830 983
PU 9 600 280 9.0 8.7 318 125 58.8 98.0 12830 915 1083
PU 11 600 360 8.8 8.4 258 131 61.8 103.0 19760 1095 1336
PU 16 600 380 12.0 9.0 302 159 74.7 124.5 30400 1600 1878
PU 20 600 430 12.4 10.0 307 179 84.3 140.0 43000 2000 2363
PU 25 600 452 14.2 10.0 339 199 93.6 156.0 56490 2500 2899
LS3 500 400 14.1 10.0 232 201 78.9 157.8 40010 2000 2390

13.1.2 Corus sections

Table 13.1.2a Corus sections
Section Width Height Thickness Flat of pan C/S area Mass Inertia Elastic Plastic
b h t s f Linear Wall modulus modulus
mm mm mm mm mm cm2/m kg/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m cm3/m
LX8 600 310 8.2 8.0 250 116 54.6 91.0 12863 830 1017
LX 12 600 310 9.7 8.2 386 136 63.9 106.5 18727 1208 1381
LX12d 600 310 10.0 8.3 386 139 65.3 108.8 19217 1240 1417
LX12d10 600 310 10.0 10.0 382 155 72.9 121.5 19866 1282 1493
LX 16 600 380 10.5 9.0 365 157 74.1 123.5 31184 1641 1899
LX 20 600 430 12.5 9.0 330 177 83.2 138.7 43484 2023 2357
LX 20d 600 450 11.2 9.7 330 179 84.3 140.5 45197 2009 2380
LX 25 600 460 13.5 10.0 351 202 95.0 158.3 57656 2507 2914
LX 25d 600 450 15.0 11.0 326 212 100.0 166.7 57246 2544 2984
LX 32 600 460 19.0 11.0 340 243 114.4 190.7 73802 3209 3703
LX 38 600 460 22.5 14.5 337 298 140.4 234.0 87511 3805 4460

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Useful information
13.1.2 Corus sections
Table 13.1.2a Corus sections continued
Section Width Height Thickness Flat of pan C/S area Mass Inertia Elastic Plastic
b h t s f Linear Wall modulus modulus
mm mm mm mm mm cm2/m kg/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m cm3/m
GSP 2 400 200 10.5 8.6 266 157 49.4 123.5 8756 876 1020
GSP 3 400 250 13.5 8.6 270 191 60.1 150.3 16316 1305 1520
GSP 4 400 340 15.5 9.7 259 242 76.1 190.3 38742 2279 2652

6 (42) 500 450 20.5 14.0 329 339 133.0 266.0 94755 4211 4933
6 (122) 420 440 22.0 14.0 250 371 122.5 291.7 92115 4187 4996
6 (131) 420 440 25.4 14.0 250 396 130.7 311.2 101598 4618 5481
6 (138.7) 420 440 28.6 14.0 251 419 138.3 329.3 110109 5005 5924

Table 13.1.2b Dimensions and properties of interlocked U sections

Section Width Height Thickness Flat of pan C/S area Mass Combined Section
b h t s f Linear Wall inertia modulus
mm mm mm mm mm cm2/m kg/m kg/m2 cm4/m cm3/m
6W 525 212 7.8 6.4 333 109 44.8 85.3 6508 711
9W 525 260 8.9 6.4 343 124 51.0 97.1 11726 902
12W 525 306 9.0 8.5 343 147 60.4 115.1 18345 1199
16W 525 348 10.5 8.6 341 166 68.3 130.1 27857 1601
20W 525 400 11.3 9.2 333 188 77.3 147.2 40180 2009
25W 525 454 12.1 10.5 317 213 87.9 167.4 56727 2499
32W 525 454 17.0 10.5 317 252 103.6 197.4 70003 3216
1U 400 130 9.4 9.4 302 135 42.4 106.0 3184 489
2 400 200 10.2 7.8 270 156 48.8 122.0 8494 850
2B 400 270 8.6 7.1 248 149 46.7 116.8 13663 1013
2N 400 270 9.4 7.1 248 156 48.8 122.0 14855 1101
3 400 247 14.0 8.9 248 198 62.0 155.0 16839 1360
3B 400 298 13.5 8.9 235 198 62.1 155.2 23910 1602
3/20 508 343 11.7 8.4 330 175 69.6 137.0 28554 1665
4A 400 381 15.7 9.4 219 236 74.0 185.1 45160 2371
4B 420 343 15.5 10.9 257 256 84.5 200.8 39165 2285
4/20 508 381 14.3 9.4 321 207 82.5 162.4 43167 2266
508 381 15.7 9.4 321 218 86.8 170.9 45924 2414
5 420 343 22.1 11.9 257 303 100.0 237.7 50777 2962
10B/20 508 171 12.7 12.7 273 167 66.4 130.7 6054 706

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Useful information
13.2 Discontinued Z piles

13.2.1 ArcelorMittal sections

t
s

b b

Table 13.2.1 Dimensions and properties of AZ sections

Section Width Height Flange Web Mass Elastic
b h t s Linear Wall section
modulus
mm mm mm mm kg/m kg/m2 cm3/m
AZ 34 630 459 17.0 13.0 115.5 183.3 3430
AZ 36 630 460 18.0 14.0 122.2 194.0 3600
AZ 38 630 461 19.0 15.0 129.1 204.9 3780

AZ 36-700 700 499 17.0 11.2 118.5 169.3 3600

AZ 38-700 700 500 18.0 12.2 126.2 180.3 3800
AZ 40-700 700 501 19.0 13.2 133.8 191.1 4000

13.2.2 Corus sections

Table 13.2.2 Dimensions and properties of Frodingham sections

Section Width Height Flange Web Mass Elastic
b h t s Linear Wall section
modulus
mm mm mm mm kg/m kg/m2 cm3/m
1 BXN 476 143 12.7 12.7 63.4 133.2 692
1N 483 170 9.0 9.0 48.0 99.4 714
2N 483 235 9.7 8.4 54.8 113.5 1161
3 NA 483 305 9.7 9.5 62.7 129.8 1687
4N 483 330 14.0 10.4 82.7 171.2 2415
5 426 311 17.1 11.9 101.0 237.1 3171

1A 400 146 6.9 6.9 35.6 89.1 563

1B 400 133 9.5 9.5 42.1 105.3 562
2 400 185 8.1 7.6 47.2 118.0 996
3 400 229 10.7 10.2 61.5 153.8 1538
4 400 273 14.0 11.4 80.1 200.1 2352
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Useful information
13.3 The Metric System
Linear Measure
1 inch = 25.4mm 1mm = 0.03937 inch
1 foot = 0.3048m 1cm = 0.3937 inch
1 yard = 0.9144m 1m = 3.2808 feet or
1.0936 yds
1 mile = 1.6093km 1km = 0.6214 mile
Square Measure
1 sq inch = 645.16mm2 1cm2 = 0.155 sq in
1 sq foot = 0.0929m2 1m2 = 10.7639 sq ft
or 1.196 sq yds
1 sq yard = 0.8361m2 1hectare = 2.4711 acres
1 acre = 0.4047 hectare
1 sq mile = 259 hectares 1km2 = 247.105 acres
1 hectare = 10,000m2
Cubic Measurement
1 cubic inch = 16.387cm3 1mm3 = 0.000061 cubic in
1 cubic foot = 0.0283m3 1m3 = 35.3147 cubic ft
or 1.308 cubic yds
1 cubic yard = 0.7646m3
Measure of Capacity
1 pint = 0.568 litre 1litre = 1.7598 pints
or 0.22 gallon
1 gallon = 4.546 litres
Weight
1 oz = 28.35 kg 1g = 0.0353 oz
1 pound = 0.4536 kg 1kg = 2.2046 lb
1 ton = 1.016 tonnes 1tonne = 0.9842 ton
or 1016 kg
Section modulus and inertia
1 inch3 = 16.387 cm3 1cm3 = 0.0610 inch3
1 inch3/foot = 53.76 cm3/m 1cm3/m = 0.0186 inch3/foot
1 inch4 = 41.62 cm4 1cm4 = 0.0240 inch4
1 inch4/foot = 136.56 cm4/m 1cm4/m = 0.0073 inch4/foot

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Useful information
13.4 Miscellaneous Conversion Factors and Constants
Linear Measure
1 lb (f) = 4.449N
1 pound per linear foot = 1.4881 kg per linear m
1 pound per square foot = 4.883kg per m2
0.205 pound per square foot = 1kg per m2
1 ton (f) per linear foot = 32.69kN per linear m
1000 pound (f) per square foot = 47.882kN per m2
1 ton (f) per square inch = 15.444N per mm2
1 ton (f) per square foot = 107.25kN per m2
100 pound per cubic foot = 1602kg per m3
100 pound (f) per cubic foot = 15.7kN per m3
1 ton (f) foot Bending Moment = 10kNm Bending Moment
per foot of wall per metre of wall

1m head of fresh water = 1kg per cm2

1m head of sea water = 1.025kg per cm2
1m3 of fresh water = 1000kg
1m3 of sea water = 1025kg

1 radian = 57.3 degrees

Young’s Modulus, steel = 210kN/mm2
Weight of steel = 7850 kg/m3
100 microns = 0.1mm = 0.004 inch

Chapter 13/5
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Useful information
13.5 Bending moments in beams
Type Total Load W Maximum Deflection
Bending
Moment

Concentrated WL WL3
at End 3EI
Cantilever
Uniformly WL WL3
Distributed 2 8EI

Concentrated WL WL3
at Centre 4 48EI

Uniformly WL 5WL3
Freely Distributed 8 384EI
Supported
Varying Uniformly
from zero at one 0.0131 WL3
0.128WL
end to a maximum EI
at other end

Concentrated 3WL 0.00932 WL3

One end fixed,
at Centre 16 EI
other end freely
supported Uniformly WL 0.0054 WL3
Distributed 8 EI

Concentrated WL WL3
at Centre 8 192EI
Both ends fixed
Uniformly WL WL3
Distributed 12 384EI

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Useful information
13.6 Properties of shapes

Section Moment of Section Radius of

Inertia Modulus Gyration
Ixx Zxx rxx

BD3 BD2 D
12 6 √12

BD3
3

πD4 πD3 D
64 32 4

π(D4-d4) π(D4-d4) D2+d2

64 32D 16

BD3-2bd3 BD3-2bd3 BD3-2bd3

12 6D 12(BD-2bd)

BD3 BD2 D
36 24 √18

B(D3-d3) B(D3-d3) D3-d3

12 6D 12(D-d)

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Useful information
13.7 Mensuration of plane surface

Figure Descripton Area Distance ‘y’

to centre
of Gravity

Circle πD 2
At centre
4

h
3
Triangle 1/2 bh at intersection
of median lines

Trapezoid or 1/2 (a+b) h h (2a+b)

Parallelogram 3 (a+b)

br
Circular Arc – a

2br
Circular Sector 1/2 ar 3a

Circular ar b b3
- (r-h)
Segment 2 2 12 x Area

Ellipse π ab At centre

Parabolic 2 bh 2 h
Segment 3 5

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Useful information
13.8 Mensuration of solids

Figure Descripton Surface area A Distance ‘y’

and Volume V to centre
of Gravity

A = π D2
V = π /6 D3
Sphere At centre

A = π Dh
Curved Surface

V = π /4 D2h
Cylinder At centre

Pyramid 1 h Above
V= Ah
3 4 base

πD
Curved Surface

√(4h + D )
Cone 2 2
h Above
A=

πDh
4 4 base
2
V=
12

Wedge bh h (a+c)
V= (2a+c)
6 2 (2a+c)

πr x (2h +1/2b)
Total Surface
Spherical 3
( ) h

V =2 π x r h
A= r-
Sector 4 2
2

A = 2πrh
Spherical Surface

π
Spherical h (4r-h)
Segment 2
4 (3r-h)
V= h (3r-h)
3

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Acknowledgements

ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS would like to express it’s thanks to

the many people who have been involved in the preparation of
this Handbook and for the use of photographs and drawings.
In particular the authors would like to mention
Robin Dawson
Mike Kightley
Eddie Marsh
Dr Alan Selby
who have given us the benefit of their considerable experience.

Care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication are accurate at the time of
going to press, but ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS S.à r.l. and its subsidiary companies do not accept
responsibility for errors or for information which is found to be misleading. Suggestions for, or
descriptions of, the end use or application of products or methods of working are for information only
and ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS S.à r.l. and its subsidiaries accept no liability in respect thereof.
Before using products supplied or manufactured by ArcelorMittal Commercial RPS S.à r.l. the
customer should satisfy himself as to their suitability for the intended use.

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