24 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

Laplacian of a vector, in preference to Eq. 1.43, which makes explicit reference

to Cartesian coordinates.)
Really, then, there are just two kinds of second derivatives: the Laplacian
(which is of fundamental importance) and the gradient-of-divergence (which
we seldom encounter). We could go through a similar ritual to work out third
derivatives, but fortunately second derivatives suffice for practically all physical
applications.
A final word on vector differential calculus: It all flows from the operator ∇,
and from taking seriously its vectorial character. Even if you remembered only
the definition of ∇, you could easily reconstruct all the rest.

Problem 1.26 Calculate the Laplacian of the following functions:

(a) Ta = x 2 + 2x y + 3z + 4.
(b) Tb = sin x sin y sin z.

(c) Tc = e−5x sin 4y cos 3z.

(d) v = x 2 x̂ + 3x z 2 ŷ − 2x z ẑ.

Problem 1.27 Prove that the divergence of a curl is always zero. Check it for func-
tion va in Prob. 1.15.

Problem 1.28 Prove that the curl of a gradient is always zero. Check it for function
(b) in Prob. 1.11.

1.3 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1.3.1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals

In electrodynamics, we encounter several different kinds of integrals, among
which the most important are line (or path) integrals, surface integrals (or
flux), and volume integrals.
(a) Line Integrals. A line integral is an expression of the form
b
v · dl, (1.48)
a
where v is a vector function, dl is the infinitesimal displacement vector (Eq. 1.22),
and the integral is to be carried out along a prescribed path P from point a to point
b (Fig. 1.20). If the path in question forms a closed loop (that is, if b = a), I shall
put a circle on the integral sign:
v · dl. (1.49)
At each point on the path, we take the dot product of v (evaluated at that point)
with the displacement dl to the next point on the path. To a physicist,the most
familiar example of a line integral is the work done by a force F: W = F · dl.
Ordinarily, the value of a line integral depends critically on the path taken from
a to b, but there is an important special class of vector functions for which the line
1.3 Integral Calculus 25

z
y
dl b
2 b
(2)
(ii)
a 1
y a (i) (1)

x 1 2 x

FIGURE 1.20 FIGURE 1.21

integral is independent of path and is determined entirely by the end points. It will
be our business in due course to characterize this special class of vectors. (A force
that has this property is called conservative.)

Example 1.6. Calculate the line integral of the function v = y 2 x̂ + 2x(y + 1) ŷ

from the point a = (1,1, 0) to the point b = (2, 2, 0), along the paths (1) and (2)
in Fig. 1.21. What is v · dl for the loop that goes from a to b along (1) and
returns to a along (2)?
Solution
As always, dl = d x x̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ. Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the
“horizontal” segment, dy = dz = 0, so
 2
(i) dl = d x x̂, y = 1, v · dl = y 2 d x = d x, so v · dl = 1 d x = 1.

On the “vertical” stretch, d x = dz = 0, so

(ii) dl = dy ŷ, x = 2, v · dl = 2x(y + 1) dy = 4(y + 1) dy, so

2
v · dl = 4 (y + 1) dy = 10.
1

By path (1), then,

b
v · dl = 1 + 10 = 11.
a

Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, d x = dy, and dz = 0, so

dl = d x x̂ + d x ŷ, v · dl = x 2 d x + 2x(x + 1) d x = (3x 2 + 2x) d x,
and
b 2 2
v · dl = (3x 2 + 2x) d x = (x 3 + x 2 )1 = 10.
a 1

(The strategy here is to get everything in terms of one variable; I could just as well
have eliminated x in favor of y.)
26 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

For the loop that goes out (1) and back (2), then,

v · dl = 11 − 10 = 1.

(b) Surface Integrals. A surface integral is an expression of the form

v · da, (1.50)
S

where v is again some vector function, and the integral is over a specified surface
S. Here da is an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the
surface (Fig. 1.22). There are, of course, two directions perpendicular to any
surface, so the sign of a surface integral is intrinsically ambiguous. If the surface
is closed (forming a “balloon”), in which case I shall again put a circle on the
integral sign

v · da,

then tradition dictates that “outward” is positive, but for open surfaces it’s arbi-
trary.
 If v describes the flow of a fluid (mass per unit area per unit time), then
v · da represents the total mass per unit time passing through the surface—
hence the alternative name, “flux.”
Ordinarily, the value of a surface integral depends on the particular surface
chosen, but there is a special class of vector functions for which it is independent
of the surface and is determined entirely by the boundary line. An important task
will be to characterize this special class of functions.

z z (v)
da (ii)
2

(iv) (i) (iii)

y 2 y

x x 2

FIGURE 1.22 FIGURE 1.23

Example 1.7. Calculate the surface integral of v = 2x z x̂ + (x +2) ŷ + y(z 2 −3)

ẑ over five sides (excluding the bottom) of the cubical box (side 2) in Fig. 1.23.
Let “upward and outward” be the positive direction, as indicated by the arrows.
Solution
Taking the sides one at a time:
1.3 Integral Calculus 27

(i) x = 2, da = dy dz x̂, v · da = 2x z dy dz = 4z dy dz, so

2 2
v · da = 4 dy z dz = 16.
0 0

(ii) x = 0, da = −dy dz x̂, v · da = −2x z dy dz = 0, so

v · da = 0.

(iii) y = 2, da = d x dz ŷ, v · da = (x + 2) d x dz, so

2 2
v · da = (x + 2) d x dz = 12.
0 0

(iv) y = 0, da = −d x dz ŷ, v · da = −(x + 2) d x dz, so

2 2
v · da = − (x + 2) d x dz = −12.
0 0

(v) z = 2, da = d x d y ẑ, v · da = y(z 2 − 3) d x d y = y d x dy, so

2 2
v · da = dx y dy = 4.
0 0

The total flux is

v · da = 16 + 0 + 12 − 12 + 4 = 20.
surface

(c) Volume Integrals. A volume integral is an expression of the form

T dτ, (1.51)
V

where T is a scalar function and dτ is an infinitesimal volume element. In Carte-

sian coordinates,
dτ = d x d y dz. (1.52)

For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to
point), then the volume integral would give the total mass. Occasionally we shall
encounter volume integrals of vector functions:

v dτ = (vx x̂ + v y ŷ + vz ẑ)dτ = x̂ vx dτ + ŷ v y dτ + ẑ vz dτ ;
(1.53)
because the unit vectors (x̂, ŷ, and ẑ) are constants, they come outside the integral.
28 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

Example 1.8. Calculate the volume integral of T = x yz 2 over the prism in

Fig. 1.24.
Solution
You can do the three integrals in any order. Let’s do x first: it runs from 0 to
(1 − y), then y (it goes from 0 to 1), and finally z (0 to 3):
3  1  1−y  
T dτ = z 2
y x d x dy dz
0 0 0

3 1  
1 1 1 3
= 2
z dz (1 − y) y dy = (9)
2
= .
2 0 0 2 12 8

z
3

1
1 y

FIGURE 1.24

Problem 1.29 Calculate the line integral of the function v = x 2 x̂ + 2yz ŷ + y 2 ẑ

from the origin to the point (1,1,1) by three different routes:

(a) (0, 0, 0) → (1, 0, 0) → (1, 1, 0) → (1, 1, 1).

(b) (0, 0, 0) → (0, 0, 1) → (0, 1, 1) → (1, 1, 1).

(c) The direct straight line.

(d) What is the line integral around the closed loop that goes out along path (a) and
back along path (b)?

Problem 1.30 Calculate the surface integral of the function in Ex. 1.7, over the bot-
tom of the box. For consistency, let “upward” be the positive direction. Does the
surface integral depend only on the boundary line for this function? What is the
total flux over the closed surface of the box (including the bottom)? [Note: For the
closed surface, the positive direction is “outward,” and hence “down,” for the bottom
face.]

Problem 1.31 Calculate the volume integral of the function T = z 2 over the tetra-
hedron with corners at (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (0,1,0), and (0,0,1).