Time-Domain Analysis of

Continuous-Time Systems

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

Total response
• A linear system response can be expressed as the sum of two components: the
zero-input component and the zero-state component.
Total response = zero-input response + zero-state response
• The zero-input component is the system response when the input 𝑥(𝑡) = 0, and
thus it is the result of internal system conditions (such as energy storages, initial
conditions) alone. It is independent of the external input 𝑥(𝑡).
• In contrast, the zero-state component is the system response to the external input
x(t) when the system is in zero state, meaning the absence of all internal energy
storages: that is, all initial conditions are zero.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

Impulse response
• The system response is the sum of its responses to various impulse components.
This discussion shows that if we know the system response to an impulse input,
we can determine the system response to an arbitrary input x(t).

• The response of an LTI system to a unit-impulse occurring at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡),

is called as the impulse response h(t).

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

System response to external input: Zero-state response
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 … = 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑦2 + 𝑎3 𝑦3 …

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 … = 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑦2 + 𝑎3 𝑦3 …

𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

The convolution integral
• The convolution integral of two functions 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 (𝑡) is denoted symbolically
∞
by 𝑥1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 and is defined as ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥1 𝜏 𝑥2 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• We obtain the system response to an arbitrary input 𝑥(𝑡) (zero state response) in
terms of the unit impulse response ℎ(𝑡). Knowing ℎ(𝑡), we can determine the
response 𝑦𝑧𝑠 (𝑡) to any input.
• One of the crucial points to remember here is that this integration is performed
with respect to 𝜏, so that 𝑡 is just a parameter (like a constant).
∞
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 0, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 0 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 0 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
∞
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 1, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 1 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 1 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
∞
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = −1, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 −1 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ −1 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• To find system output at a specific time 𝑡0 , we find the area under product of two
signal that are shifted by 𝑡0 .

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

 The convolution integral
∞
• Crucial point to find output using convolution, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏, is
determining limits of integration.
∞ ∞ ∞ 0 ∞ ∞
range of
nonzero values න 𝑢ถ
(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = න 1 𝑑𝜏, න 𝑢(−𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = න 1 𝑑𝜏, න 𝑒 −𝜏 𝑢(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑒 −𝜏 1 𝑑𝜏
−∞ [0,∞] 0 −∞ [−∞,0] −∞ −∞ [−∞,∞]∩[0,∞] 0
∞ ∞ ∞ 1 ∞ −3

න 2𝑢(𝜏 − 1) 𝑑𝜏 = න 2 𝑑𝜏, න 2𝑢(−𝜏 + 1) 𝑑𝜏 = න 2 𝑑𝜏, න 2𝑢(−𝜏 − 3) 𝑑𝜏 = න 2 𝑑𝜏

−∞ [1,∞] 1 −∞ [−∞,1] −∞ −∞ [−∞,−3] −∞
∞ 𝑡 ∞ 2

න 2𝑢(−𝜏 + 𝑡) 𝑑𝜏 = න 2 𝑑𝜏, න 2𝑢(𝜏 − 1) × 𝑢 𝜏 − 𝑢 𝜏 − 2 𝑑𝜏 = න 2 𝑑𝜏

−∞ [−∞,𝑡] −∞ −∞ 1,∞ ∩[0,2] 1
∞ 0, 𝑡<0
𝑡
න 2𝑢(−𝜏 + 𝑡) × 𝑒 −𝜏 𝑢(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 =
න 2𝑒 −𝜏 𝑑𝜏, 𝑡≥0
−∞ −∞,𝑡 ∩[−∞,∞]∩[0,∞]
0

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

Example
• For an LTIC system with the unit impulse response ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), determine
zero-state response, the response y(t) to the input 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 .

𝑥 𝜏 = 𝑒 −𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 , ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 = 𝑒 −2(𝑡−𝜏) 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏
∞ ∞
𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑒 −𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 𝑒 −2(𝑡−𝜏) 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞
∞
𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 න 𝑒 −𝜏 𝑢 𝜏 𝑒 2𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞,∞ ∩ 0,∞ ∩ −∞,∞ ∩[−∞,𝑡]
if 𝑡 < 0, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 0
𝑡
−2𝑡
if 𝑡 ≥ 0, 𝑦𝑠𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑒 න 𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
0
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = (𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡)

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

Example
• A system has an impulse response ℎ 𝑡 = 4𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡). Find zero-state response, the
response of the system to 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 1).
∞
∞
𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = න 𝑢 𝜏 − 𝑢 𝜏 − 1 4𝑒 −4 𝑡−𝜏
𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 x()
−∞ 1
−∞
∞
= 4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑢 𝜏 − 𝑢 𝜏 − 1 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 0.5

−∞ 0,1 ∩ −∞,∞ ∩[−∞,𝑡] 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

h()
𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 0, 𝑡<0 4

𝑡 3

2
0 ≤ 𝑡 < 1, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 =1− 𝑒 −4𝑡 1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
1
y(t)

1 ≤ 𝑡, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝑡 (𝑒 4 − 1) 1

0 0.5

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
 ∞
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)
𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
ℎ 𝑡 = 4𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) −∞

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi

Example
• Find the zero-state component of loop current y(t) of the RLC
circuit, response to the input 𝑥 𝑡 = 10𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡).
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
• The loop equation for this circuit is +3 + 2𝑦 𝑡 = .
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• The impulse response h(t) for this system (−𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑒 −2𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡).
• The input is 𝑥 𝑡 = 10𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), and the response y(t) is
𝑦𝑧𝑠 t = x 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 = 10𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 ∗ [−𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑒 −2𝑡 ]𝑢(𝑡)
• Using the distributive property of the convolution we obtain 1.2

𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 10𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 ∗ 2𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 + 10𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 ∗ −𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 1

= 20[𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 ∗ 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 ] − 10[𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 ∗ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 ] 0.8

𝑡 𝑡 0.6

= 20 න 𝑒 −3𝜏 𝑒 −2 𝑡−𝜏
𝑑𝜏 − 10 න 𝑒 −3𝜏 𝑒 − 𝑡−𝜏 0.4

𝑑𝜏 0.2

0 0 0

= −5𝑒 −𝑡 + 20𝑒 −2𝑡 − 15𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) -0.2

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi -0.4

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
 Example Tip: 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

• For an LTIC system with the impulse response ℎ 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 − 4𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), determine the zero-state response to
the input x 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 0.5).
• 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ 𝛿 𝑡 − 4𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ 𝛿 𝑡 − 4 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
∞ ∞
𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 4 න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑒 −4 𝑡−𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 4 න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞ −∞
∞
𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = [𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 0.5)]− 4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑢 𝜏 − 𝑢 𝜏 − 0.5 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0,0.5 −∞ 0,0.5 ∩ −∞,∞ ∩[−∞,𝑡]

𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 0
𝑡 𝑡
𝑖𝑓 0 < 𝑡 < 0.5, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 1 − 4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑢 𝜏 − 𝑢 𝜏 − 0.5 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 1 − 4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 −4𝑡
0 0,0.5 ∩ −∞,∞ ∩ −∞,𝑡 0
0.5
𝑖𝑓 0.5 < 𝑡, 𝑦𝑧𝑠 𝑡 = 0 − 4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑢 𝜏 − 𝑢 𝜏 − 0.5 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0 0,0.5 ∩ −∞,∞ ∩ −∞,𝑡
0.5
= −4𝑒 −4𝑡 න 𝑒 4𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = −𝑒 −4𝑡 (𝑒 2 − 1)
0
Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi
Examples
• For an LTIC system with the impulse response ℎ 𝑡 = 6𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), determine the
zero-state response to the input: a) 𝑥 𝑡 = 2𝑢(𝑡) b) 𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
c) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
Answers: a)12 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) b) 9 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) c) 6𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢 𝑡

Total response
• The total response of a linear system can be expressed as the sum of its zero-input
and zero-state components:
𝑁

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 = ෍ 𝐾𝑘 𝑒 𝑠𝑘𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ(𝑡)

𝑘=1 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜−𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜−𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi