Separation of Variables in Polar and Spherical Coordinates

Polar Coordinates
Suppose we are given the potential on the inside surface of an infinitely long cylindrical
cavity, and we want to find the potential inside the cylinder. For simplicity, suppose the
boundary potential depends only on the angular coordinate φ and not on the z coordinate
along the cylinder, Vb (φ, z) = Vb (φ only), so the potential inside the cylinder should also be
independent on z, V (s, φ, z) = V (s, φ only).

Mathematically, we have a two-dimensional problem: Find V (s, φ) such that:

[1] ∇2 V (s, φ) ≡ 0 for s ≤ R.
[2] V is periodic in φ, V (s, φ + 2π) = V (s, φ).
[3] V is well-behaved at s = 0 (the axis).
[4] At s = R (the surface), V (s, φ) = given Vb (φ).

In the separation-of-variables method, we start by looking at solutions to conditions [1,2,3]

(but not [4]) in the form

V (s, φ) = f (s) × g(φ). (1)

Let’s start with the 2D Laplacian, which in polar coordinates (s, φ) acts as

∂2V 1 ∂V 1 ∂2V
△V (s.φ) = + × + 2× . (2)
∂s2 s ∂s s ∂φ2

For the potential V (s.φ) of the form (1), this Laplacian becomes

f ′ (s) f (s)
△V = f ′′ (s) × g(φ) + × g(φ) + 2
× g ′′ (φ), (3)
s s

hence
s2 s2 f ′′ (s) sf ′ (s) g ′′ (φ)
× △V = + + , (4)
V f (s) f (s) g(φ)
and therefore △V ≡ 0 for all s and φ requires

s2 f ′′ (s) sf ′ (s) g ′′ (φ)

+ = − = const. (5)
f (s) f (s) g(φ)

Next, consider the g equation g ′′ (φ) + Cg(φ) = 0 for a constant C. In general, the solutions

1
to this equation are

for C = +m2 ≥ 0, g(φ) = A cos(mφ) + B sin(mφ), (6)

for C = −µ2 ≤ 0, g(φ) = A cosh(µφ) + B sinh(µφ). (7)

However, we want not just any solution but a periodic solution g(φ + 2π) = g(φ), which requires
trigonometric rather than hyperbolic sine and cosine, hence C = +m2 > 0. Moreover, a period
compatible with 2π requires integer m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .. Thus,

C = +m2 for m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and g(φ) = A cos(mφ) + B sin(mφ). (8)

Now consider the f equation for C = +m2 ,

s2 × f ′′ (s) + s × f ′ (s) − m2 × f (s) = 0. (9)

This equation is linear in f and homogeneous in s, so let’s look for solutions of the form
f (s) = sα for some power α. Indeed, plugging such f into the equation yields

0 = s2 × α(α − 1)sα−2 + s × αsα−1 − m2 × sα = sα × α2 − m2 ,

(10)

which is satisfied whenever

α2 − m2 = 0 =⇒ α = ±m. (11)

For m 6= 0 we have two distinct roots, hence two independent solutions to eq. (9), so the general
solution looks like

f (s) = D × s+m + E × s−m (12)

for some constants D and E. For m = 0. the roots (11) coincide, so we only get one solution,
while the other solution involves the logarithm ln(s). thus in general

f (s) = D + E × ln(s). (13)

In any case, we want more than a general solution to the equation (9), we want the solutions
which obeys the condition [3], namely no singularity at the cylinder’s axis, s = 0. This condition

2
does not allows negative powers for s for m 6= 0 or the logarithm for m = 0, thus in both cases
we must have E = 0, which leaves us with

 s m
f (s) = const × s+m = const′ × . (14)
R

Altogether, we have an infinite series of solutions to conditions [1,2,3], namely

V (s, φ) = A cos(mφ) × (s/R)m + B sin(mφ) × (s/R)m for integer m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . (15)

Consequently, a general solution to [1,2,3] is

∞ 
X   s m
V (s, φ) = Am cos(mφ) + Bm sin(mφ) × (16)
R
m=0

for some constant coefficients Am and Bm . Or in terms of complex exponentials e±imφ with
complex coefficients,

∞ 
X   s m
V (s, φ) = A0 + 1
2 (Am + iBm )e+imφ + 21 (Am − iBm )e−imφ ×
R
m=1
+∞
X  s |m|
= Cm × eimφ × , (17)
m=−∞
R

1 1 ∗
where C0 = A0 , C+m = 2 (Am + iBm ), C−m = 2 (Am − iBm ) = C+m . (18)

Finally, the coefficients Cm follows from the boundary condition [4] on the surface of the
cylinder:
+∞
X
@s = R, V (R, φ) = Cm × eimφ = Vb (φ), (19)
m=−∞

so the Cm obtain from expanding the periodic Vb (φ) into the Fourier series. Hence, the reverse

3
Fourier transform gives
Z2π
1
Cm = Vb (φ) × e−imφ dφ. (20)
2π
0

Or if you prefer the expansion (16) into real sine and cosine waves,

Z2π
2
Bm = Vb (φ) sin(mφ) dφ,
2π
0
Z2π
2
Am = Vb (φ) cos(mφ) dφ, (21)
2π
0
Z2π
1
except A0 = Vb (φ) dφ.
2π
0

As a specific example, suppose the cylinder’s surface is split in two halves with potentials
±V0 , for example
+V0 for 0 < φ < π,

Vb (φ) = (22)
−V0 for π < φ < 2π.
By antisymmetry Vb (2π − φ) = −Vb (φ), the Fourier trnasform of this potential has no cosine
waves but only sine waves, thus all Am = 0 while

Zπ Z2π
V0 V0
Bm = sin(mφ) dφ − sin(mφ) dφ
π π
0 π (23)
4 for odd m,

V0  V0
= cos(0) − 2 cos(mπ) + cos(2mπ)] = ×
mπ mπ 0 for even m.
Consequently, the potential inside the cylinder is given by the series
odd
Xn
4V0 sin(mφ)  s m
V (s, φ) = × . (24)
2π m R
m=1,3,5,...

which evaluates to
 
4V0 2Rs
V (r, s) = × arctan × sin φ . (25)
2π R 2 − s2
To illustrate this potential graphically, let me plot it as a function of φ for s = 0.25R, s = 0.5R,

4
s = 0.75R, s = 0.9R, and s = R:

φ
(26)

Note: the closer we are to the axis the smaller is the amplitude of the V (φ) curve the more the
curve looks like the sine wave. The mathematical reason is the larger-m terms in the series (24)
decrease with s as larger powers of (s/R), so the smaller the ratio (x/m), the more the leading
m = 1 term dominates over the rest of the series. Consequently, closer to the axis where
(s/R) ≪ 1, we may approximate the whole series by its leading term (s/R) sin(φ).

Outside the Cylinder

Now consider a slightly different problem: Given the potential Vb (φ) on a cylindrical surface,
find the potential outside the cylinder rather than inside it. Proceeding similarly to the previous
example, we ask for V (s, φ) = f (s) × g(φ) to obey the Laplace equation subject to periodicity
requirement in φ, which leads to

C = +m2 for m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and g(φ) = A cos(mφ) + B sin(mφ). (8)

and hence

 D + E × ln(s) for m = 0,
f (s) = (27)
D × s+|m| + E × s−|m| for m 6= 0.


However, this time we are concerned with the asymptotic behavior for s → ∞ rather than
the axis of the cylinder at s = 0. Specifically, we want the potential to go to zero — or at

5
least to stay finite — for s → ∞, and this rules out the positive powers of s as well as ln(s).
Consequently, outside of the cylinder

f (s) = const × s−|m| (28)

instead of f (s) ∝ s+|m| inside the cylinder.

Combining the s and φ dependence, we find

∞   m
X R
V (s, φ) = Am cos(mφ) + Bm sin(mφ) × (29)
s
m=0

for some constants Am and Bm , or in terms of complex exponentials e±imφ ,

+∞  |m|
X
imφ R
V (s, φ) = Cm × e × . (30)
m=−∞
s

∗
Finally, the complex coefficients Cm = C−m here — or if you prefer, the real coefficients Am
and Bm , — obtain from expanding the boundary potential into the Fourier series, precisely as
in eqs. (20) or (21).

Spherical Coordinates
Now consider a 3D problem: Find the potential V (r, θ, φ) inside a spherical cavity — or
outside a sphere — when we are given the potential Vb (θ, φ) on the spherical surface. For
simplicity, let’s focus on potentials with axial symmetry:

Vb (θ, φ) = Vb (θ only) =⇒ V (r, θ, φ) = V (r, θ only). (31)

Mathematically, we seek the potential which:

[1] Obeys the 3D Laplace equation.
[2] Is single-valued, non-singular, and smooth as a function of θ.
[3] Is well behaved at the center r → 0 if we work inside the sphere, or asymptotes to zero for
r → ∞ if we work outside the sphere.
[4] Has given boundary values at the sphere’s surface, V (r = R, θ) = Vb (θ).

6
 Using the separation of variables method, we first seek to satisfy the conditions [1,2,3] for
a potential of the form

V (r, θ) = f (r) × g(θ), (32)

find an infinite series of solutions, then look for a linear combination which satisfies the condi-
tion [4].

Let’s start with the Laplace equation in the spherical coordinates:

∂2V 2 ∂V
△V (r, θ, φ) = + ×
∂r 2 r ∂r
1 2
∂ V 1 ∂V
+ 2× 2
+ 2 × (33)
r ∂θ r tan θ ∂θ
1 2
∂ V
+ 2 2 × ∂φ2 .
r sin θ

For the potential of the form (32), the Laplacian becomes

2f ′ (r) g ′ (θ)
   
′′ f (r) ′′
△V = f (r) + × g(θ) + × g (θ) + , (34)
r r2 tan θ

hence
r2 r 2 f ′′ 2rf ′ g ′′ g
× △V = + + + , (35)
V f f g g tan θ

and consequently the Laplace equation △V ≡ 0 for all r, θ requires

f ′′ (r) f ′ (r)
r2 × + 2r × = +C, (36)
f (r) f (r)

g ′′ (θ) 1 g ′ (θ)
+ × = −C, (37)
g(θ) tan θ g(θ)

for the same constant C. (38)

Next, consider the g equation (37), or equivalently

g ′ (θ)
g ′′ (θ) + + C × g(θ) = 0. (39)
tan θ

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Let’s change the independent variable here from θ to x = cos θ, thus

g(θ) = P (cos θ) (40)

for some function P (x). Consequently, by the chain rule for derivatives,

dg dP
= − sin θ × (41)
dθ dx x=cos θ

and hence
d2 dP 2 d2 P
2
= − cos θ × + sin θ × , (42)
dθ dx x=cos θ dx2 x=cos θ

so plugging these derivatives into eq. (39) we arrive at

dP d2 P − sin θ dP
0 = − cos θ × + sin2 θ × 2 + × + C ×P
dx dx tan θ dx (43)
d2 P dP
= (1 − cos2 θ) × 2 − (cos θ + cos θ) × + C × P.
dx dx

In terms of x = cos θ, this is the Legendre equation for the P (x),

(1 − x2 ) × P ′′ (x) − 2x × P ′ (x) + C × P (x) = 0. (44)

Without explaining how to solve this equation, let me briefly summarize its solutions. For
generic C, all non-zero solutions to this equation have logarithmic singularities at x = +1
(which corresponds to θ = 0) and/or at x = −1 (which corresponds to θ = π). The non-
singular solutions obtain only for

C = ℓ(ℓ + 1), integer ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , (45)

in which case the good solution is the Legendre polynomial of degree ℓ,

1 dℓ
Pℓ (x) = (x2 − 1)ℓ . (46)
2ℓ ℓ! dxℓ

The overall coefficient here is chosen such that at x = +1 all these polynomials become P (1) = 1.

8
Here are a few explicit Legendre polynomials for small ℓ.

P0 (x) = 1,
P1 (x) = x,
3 2 1
P2 (x) = 2x − 2,
5 3 3 (47)
P3 (x) = 2x − 2 x,
35 4 15 2 3
P4 (x) = 8x − 4x + 8,
63 5 35 3 15
P5 (x) = 8x − 4x + 8 x,

...............................
R +1
The Legendre polynomial are ‘orthogonal’ to each other when we use −1 dx as a measure,

Z+1 0 for any ℓ′ 6= ℓ,



Pℓ (x) × Pℓ′ (x) = 2 (48)
 for ℓ′ = ℓ.
−1 2ℓ + 1

Consequently, any analytic function of x ranging from −1 to +1 may be expanded in a series

of Legendre polynomials,

∞ Z+1
X 2ℓ + 1
any H(x) = Hℓ × Pℓ (x) for Hℓ = H(x) × Pℓ (x) dx. (49)
2
ℓ=0 −1

Anyhow, for C = ℓ(ℓ + 1) and g(θ) = Pℓ (cos θ), the f equation (36) becomes

r 2 × f ′′ (r) + 2r × f ′ (r) − ℓ(ℓ + 1) × f (r) = 0. (50)

This equation is linear in f and homogeneous in r, so let’s look for the solutions of the form
f (r) = r α for some constant power α. Indeed plugging such an f into the equation (50) yields

0 = r 2 × α(α − 1)r α−2 + 2r × αr α−1 − ℓ(ℓ + 1) × r α

(51)
= r α × α(α − 1) + 2α − ℓ(ℓ + 1)

so the differential equation is satisfied whenever

α(α − 1) + 2α = α(α + 1) = ℓ(ℓ + 1) =⇒ α = ℓ or α = −ℓ − 1. (52)

9
Thus, he general solution to eq. (36) has form

B
f (r) = A × r ℓ + . (53)
r ℓ+1

The specific solution we need depends on whether we are looking for the potential inside
the sphere or outside the sphere.

• For the inside of the sphere, we want the potential to be non-singular at the center, which
rules out negative powers of the radius r. Consequently, in eq. (53) B = 0, which leaves
us with
 r ℓ
f (r) = const × r ℓ = const′ × . (54)
R

• For the outside of the sphere, we want the potential to asymptote to zero for r → ∞,
which rules out the positive powers of r, In terms of eq. (53), this means A = 0 and hence

 ℓ+1
const R
f (r) = ℓ+1 = const′ × . (55)
r r

Altogether, the general solution to the conditions [1,2,3] is given by the series:

Inside the sphere,

∞
X  r ℓ
V (r, θ) = Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) × . (56)
R
ℓ=0
Outside the sphere,
∞  ℓ+1
X R
V (r, θ) = Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) × . (57)
r
ℓ=0

In both cases the coefficients Cℓ follows from the boundary potential on the sphere’s surface,

∞
X
V (r = R, θ) = Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) = Vb (θ). (58)
ℓ=0

In other words, we must expand the axi-symmetric boundary potential into a series in Leg-
endre polynomials of cos θ. But thanks to the orthogonality of the Legendre polynomials, the

10
coefficients of such expansion obtain from eq. (49),

Z+1 Zπ
2ℓ + 1
2ℓ + 1
Cℓ = Vb θ = arccos(x) × Pℓ (x) dx = Vb (θ) × Pℓ (cos θ) × sin θ dθ. (59)
2 2
−1 0

Charges on the spherical surface

Consider a thin spherical shell with some surface charge density σ(θ, φ). For simplicity,
assume axial symmetry, thus σ(θ only). Let’s find out the potential both inside and outside
the spherical shell due to this charge density.

Surface charge densities make for discontinuous electric fields, but the potential V is con-
tinuous across the charged surface. Thus, while in the present situation we do not know the
boundary potential Vb (θ) on the spherical surface, we do know its the same potential both
immediately inside and immediately outside the surface. Consequently, the potential V (r, θ)
inside and outside the sphere are given by the equations (56) and (57) for the same coefficients
Cℓ , whatever they are. In other words,
  ℓ
r
∞

 for r < R,
X  R

∀ r, θ : V (r, θ) = Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) ×  ℓ+1 (60)
ℓ=0
 R
for r > R.



r

Next, consider the radial component of the electric field:


r ℓ−1
−ℓ for r < R,

∞

Rℓ

∂V (r, θ) X 
Er = − = Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) × (61)
∂r ℓ+1
 +(ℓ + 1) R

ℓ=0 
 for r > R.
r ℓ+2

Unlike the potential, this radial electric field is discontinuous across the sphere. Indeed, near
the sphere

−ℓ

∞
X


 R just inside the sphere,
Er (r ≈ R) = Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) × (62)
 +(ℓ + 1)

ℓ=0 
just outside the sphere,
R

11
with discontinuity
∞
X 2ℓ + 1
disc(Er ) = Er (r = R + ǫ) − Er (r = R − ǫ) = Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) × . (63)
R
ℓ=0

Physically, this discontinuity is caused by the surface charge density on the sphere,

σ
disc(Er ) = . (64)
ǫ0

Consequently, the charge density as a function of θ is related to the coefficients Cℓ of the

potential (60) according to

∞
ǫ0 X
σ(θ) = ǫ0 disc(Er (θ)) = × (2ℓ + 1) × Cℓ × Pℓ (cos θ). (65)
R
ℓ=0

We may also reverse this relation according to eq. (49) to get the coefficients Cℓ from the σ(θ),

Zπ
R
Cℓ = × σ(θ) × Pℓ (cos θ) × sin θ dθ. (66)
2ǫ0
0

For example, suppose the sphere is neutral on the whole, but has a quadrupole charge
density
3 cos2 θ − 1
σ(θ) = σ̂ × = σ̂ × P2 (cos θ). (67)
2
Comparing this angular dependence with eq. (65), we immediately see that the only non-zero
coefficient Cℓ is the C2 , specifically
Rσ̂
C2 = . (68)
5ǫ0
Consequently, inside the sphere the potential is

σ̂ r2
V (r, θ) = × × P2 (cos θ), (69)
5ǫ0 R

while outside the sphere

σ̂ R4
V (r, θ) = × 3 × P2 (cos θ). (70)
5ǫ0 r

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Metal Sphere in External Electric Field

Now consider another example: a metal sphere in a external electric field. Far away from
the sphere, the electric field becomes constant E = Eẑ, hence

for r → ∞, V → −Ez = −Er × cos θ = −Er × P1 (cos θ). (71)

The sphere itself is neutral, so without loss of generality we may assume it has zero potential.

Let’s find the potential outside the sphere for these boundary conditions. Since we no
longer have V → 0 at infinity, the radial function fℓ (r) could be a general combination of two
solutions,
Bℓ
fℓ (r) = Aℓ × r ℓ + (72)
r ℓ+1
with Aℓ 6= 0. On the other hand, asking for V = 0 all over the sphere requires fℓ (r = R) = 0
and hence

Bℓ = −R2ℓ+1 × Aℓ . (73)

Consequently, the general form of the potential outside the sphere looks like

∞
R2ℓ+1
X  
ℓ
V (r, θ) = Aℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) × r − ℓ+1 (74)
r
ℓ=0

for some coefficients Aℓ .

To find these coefficients, we compare the asymptotic behavior of the potential (74) for
large r,
∞
X
V −→ Aℓ × Pℓ (cos θ) × r ℓ (75)
ℓ=0

to the desired asymptotics (71). This comparison immediately tells us that

A1 = −E, all other Aℓ = 0, (76)

hence
R3
 
V (r, θ) = −E r − 2 × cos θ, (77)
r

13
or in Cartesian coordinates

z
V (x, y, z) = −Ez + ER3 × (78)
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2

The first term here is due to the external electric field, while the second term is due to induced
charges on the sphere’s surface.

Taking the gradient of the potential (78), we obtain the net electric field,

ER3  z
 
3 3z 1 x y 
E(x, y, z) = Eẑ + ER 4
r̂ − 3 ẑ = Eẑ + 2 ẑ − x̂ − ŷ . (79)
r r r3 r r r

Here is the picture of the field lines for this electric field:

Spherical Harmonics
Finally, consider a more general 3D problem with a spherical boundary, but with a given
boundary potential Vb (θ, φ) (or a given boundary charge σ(θ, φ)) which is not axially symmet-
ric but depends on both angular coordinates θ and φ. In this case, instead of the Legendre
polynomials Pℓ (cos θ) we should use the spherical harmonics Yℓ,m (θ, φ). You will study these
spherical harmonics in some detail in the Quantum Mechanics class in the context of angular
momentum quantization, hydrogen atom wavefunctions, etc., etc. For the moment, let me skip
the details and simply summarize a few key properties of the spherical harmonics.

14
• The spherical harmonics are solutions to the partial differential equation

∂2Y 1 ∂Y 1 ∂2Y
+ + = −ℓ(ℓ + 1)Y (80)
∂θ2 tan θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2

subject to the conditions of single-valuedness and no singularities anywhere on the sphere.

In terms of the θ and φ coordinates this means periodicity in φ and no singularities at
the poles θ = 0 and θ = π.

• The solutions exist only for integer ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .. For each such ℓ, there are 2ℓ + 1
independent solutions Yℓ,m (θ, φ) labeled by another integer m running from −ℓ to +ℓ.

• The Yℓ,m have form Yℓ,m (θ, φ) = (const) × Pℓ(m) (cos θ) × exp(imφ) where the Pℓ(m) (x)
are called the associate Legendre polynomials, even though some of them are not really
polynomials. Instead, Pℓ(m) (cos θ) = (sin θ)|m| × degree (ℓ − |m|) polynomial of cos θ.
∗ = (−1)m Y
• For m 6= 0 the spherical harmonics are complex; by convention, Yℓ,m ℓ,−m .
Also, all the harmonics with m 6= 0 vanish at the poles θ = 0 and θ = π.

• The only hamonics which do not vanish at the poles are the Yℓ,0 . These harmonics are
independent of φ and are proportional to Pℓ (cos θ), but have different normalization:
p
Yℓ,0 (θ, \φ) = (2ℓ + 1)/4π × Pℓ (cos θ).

• The spherical harmonics are orthogonal to each other and normalized to 1. That is

ZZ
∗
Yℓ,m (θ, φ) Yℓ′,m′ (θ, φ) d2Ω(θ, φ) = δℓ,ℓ′ δm,m′ . (81)

• Any smooth, single-valued function g(θ, φ) can be decomposed into a series of spherical
harmonics,

∞ X
X +ℓ ZZ
∗
g(θ, φ) = Cℓ,m Yℓ,m (θ, φ) for Cℓ,m = g(θ, φ) Yℓ,m (θ, φ) d2Ω(θ, φ). (82)
ℓ=0 m=−ℓ

• Let F (r, θ, φ) = r ℓ ×Yℓ,m (θ, φ). Then in Cartesian coordinates, F (x, y, z) is a homogeneous
polynomial in x, y, z of degree ℓ. Moreover, F (x, y, z) obeys the Laplace equation.

15
 Now let’s apply the spherical harmonics to the electrostatic potential problems with spher-
ical boundaries but with φ-dependent boundary conditions. Mathematically, we look for a
function V (r, θ, φ) which:
[1] Obeys the Laplace equation inside or outside some sphere of radius R.
[2] Is smooth and single-valued everywhere in the volume in question; in particular, V is peri-
odic in φ and has no singularities at θ = 0 or θ = π.
[3] For the inside of a spherical cavity, V is smooth at r → 0; for the outside or a sphere, V
asymptotes to zero for r → ∞. [4] On the spherical boundary the potential has given form,
V (R, θ, φ) = Vb (θ, φ).

Using the separation of variables method, we start by looking for the solutions to conditions
[1,2,3] of the form

V (r, θ, φ) = f (r) × g(θ, φ); (83)

note incomplete separation of variables at this stage. In light of eq. (33) for the Laplace operator
in spherical coordinates,

r2 r 2 f ′′ 2rf ′ ∂2g 1 ∂2g

 
1 1 ∂g
× ∆V = + + + + , (84)
V f f g ∂θ2 tan θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2

so to get a solution to the Laplace equation ∆V = 0 we need

∂2g 1 ∂g 1 ∂2g
+ + + C × g = 0, (85)
∂θ2 tan θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2

d2 f df
r2 2
+ 2r − C×f = 0 (86)
dr dr

for the same constant C. By inspection, eq. (85) is the same as eq. (80), so we know that
the solutions exist only for C = ℓ(ℓ + 1) for an integer ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and the solutions are
spherical harmonics g(θ, φ) = Yℓ,m (θ, φ) or their linear combinations. Thus,

V (r, θ.φ) = f (r) × Yℓ,m (θ, φ) (87)

where the radial function f (r) obeys

r 2 f ′′ (r) + 2rf ′ (r) − ℓ(ℓ + 1)f (r) = 0, (88)

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and we have seen in an earlier section, the solutions to this equation have form

B
f (r) = A × r ℓ + (89)
r ℓ+1

for some constants A and B. For a spherical cavity, regularity of the solution at the center
requires B = 0 while for an outside of a sphere the asymptotic condition at ∞ requires A = 0.
However, for a space between two spherical boundaries, we may have both A 6= 0 and B 6= 0.

Altogether, the general solution to conditions [1,2,3] for the inside of a spherical cavity has
form
∞ X
X +ℓ  r ℓ
V (r, θ, φ) = Cℓ,m × × Yℓ,m (θ, φ), (90)
R
ℓ=0 m=−ℓ

while the general solution for the outside of a sphere looks like

∞ X
+ℓ  ℓ+1
X R
V (r, θ, φ) = Cℓ,m × × Yℓ,m (θ, φ). (91)
r
ℓ=0 m=−ℓ

In both cases, the constant coefficients Cℓ,m follow from the boundary condition [4] at the
spherical surface:
∞ X
X +ℓ
V (R, θ, φ) = Cℓ,m × Yℓ,m (θ, φ), (92)
ℓ=0 m=−ℓ

this in light of eq. (82), for a given potential Vb (θ, φ) on the boundary, we want

ZZ
∗
Cℓ,m = Vb (θ, φ) Yℓ,m (θ, φ) d2 Ω(θ, φ). (93)

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