LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

Sr # DESCRIPTION Pg #

1 LAYOUT OF LAB 1

2 Experiment # 01: 16
Determination of Total solids in wastewater sample.
3 Experiment # 02: 18
Determination of Total Dissolved Solids in wastewater sample,
4 Experiment # 03: 20
Determination of Total Suspended Solids in wastewater sample.
5 Experiment # 04: 22
Determination of Settleable Solids in wastewater sample.
6 Experiment # 05: 24
Determination of Dissolved Oxygen in wastewater sample.
7 Experiment # 06: 26
Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand in wastewater sample
8 Experiment # 07: 29
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand in wastewater sample.
9 Experiment # 08: 34
Determination of Chloride Ions (Cl-) in wastewater sample.

0
 LAYOUT OF LABS:

1) Water Treatment Lab Layout

1
 Description of Apparatus:
1. Titration Equipment
Used as acid-base titration to find unknown concentrations using known acid concentrations
and indicator.

2. Chemical
This contains different chemicals and solutions used in experiments such as different acids like
Sulfuric Acid and all other necessary chemicals.

3. Distillation apparatus
It is used to purify liquids and separate components in the mixture .

2
4. Kjeldahl Apparatus
It is used to quantitatively determine the nitrogen present in organic substances

5. Weighing Balance
It is used to weigh different samples and chemicals used in tests.

6. Furnace
Used to achieve high burning temperature for some tests specimen Max temperature is 1100.

3
7. Weighing balance
It is used to weigh different samples and chemicals used in tests

8. Magnetic stirrer
A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic
field to cause a stir bar immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it.

9. Desiccator
Desiccators are sealable enclosures containing desiccants used for preserving moisture
sensitive items.

4
10. Oil and grease content analyzer
Apparatus to analyses the amount of impurities in the form of oil content and grease
substances in water or other samples.

11. COD apparatus

To determine Chemical Oxygen Demand. It is a solid-state block heated unit with provision
for samples to be digested at a time in 38 mm. dia reaction vessels with a 20 ml sample size
of heat at a temperature of 150°C + 1°C.

5
12. Oven
Used to dry tests sample Max temperature is 250.

13. Turbidity meter

Turbidity meters are used to quickly measure the turbidity (or cloudiness) of water, caused
by suspended solid particles.

6
14. Jar test apparatus
The purpose of the laboratory jar test is to select and quantify a treatment program for the
removal of suspended solids or oil from raw water or a dilute process or waste stream.

15. Overhead stirrer

An overhead stirrer is a laboratory device used for mixing, homogenizing, suspending, and
recirculating large volumes of high-viscosity substances, which typically cannot be managed
by a magnetic stirrer.

7
16. Water sampler
Used to collect 1 or more water samples from field and site after regular intervals set by a
person until the collecting bottles fill.

8
2 Layout of Environmental Chemistry Laboratory

9
 Description of Apparatus:

1. Chemicals:

This contains different chemicals and solutions used in experiments such as different acids like
Hydrochloric Acid, Sulfuric Acid, and all other necessary chemicals needed for experiments.

2. Electronic Balance:

It is used to weigh different samples and chemicals used in tests.

3. Desiccator:

Desiccators are sealable enclosures containing desiccants used for preserving moisture
sensitive items.

10
4. Fire Extinguisher:

Used to extinguish fire hazards and accidents in the case contains solutions of carbon dioxide
gas and other fire-resistant gases.

5. Centrifuge
It is used for the separation of fluid, gas, or liquid based on density. Separation is achieved
by spinning a vessel at high speed.

6. Filtration Assembly:

This contains apparatus to filter different compounds solid particles will get separated from
liquid.

11
7. Refrigerator:

Used to preserve different chemicals and specimens that require low temperatures for
survival.

8. Bio-based fume hood

This chamber collects foul and pungent gases that are often produced during tests within a
specified chamber and disposes of them using a pipe.

9. Incubator
This is used to achieve a certain temperature for some bacterial specimens that require
optimum temperature for survival.

12
10. Sonicator
It applies sound energy to agitate particles in a sample and for their extraction .

11. Oven
Used to dry tests sample Max temperature is 250.

12. Furnace
Used to achieve high burning temperature for some tests specimen Max temperature is 1100.

13
13. Filtration Assembly
This contains a stand, funnel, filter paper, and beaker used to filter different compounds solid
particles will not pass filter paper.

14. Spectrophotometer
The spectrophotometer is an optical instrument for measuring the intensity of light relative
to wavelength. Electromagnetic energy, collected from the sample, enters the device through
the aperture (yellow line) and is separated into its component wavelengths by holographic
grating.

14
15. pH meter
It is a digital meter that is used to check the pH of solutions that indicates the acidity or
basicity of that solution.

16. First Aid section

This section contains bandages, alcohol swabs, and other first-aid items.

15
EXPERIMENT # 01:

Determination of Total Solids in Wastewater sample.

Introduction:
Total solids (TS) serve as an indicator for the quantity of solid substances either
dissolved or suspended within a liquid. This parameter is widely utilized to evaluate the quality of
both water and wastewater and is commonly expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per
million (ppm).
Total solids consist of two primary components:
a) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): This denotes the quantity of solid materials dissolved in the
liquid. TDS encompasses inorganic salts like sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium carbonate
(CaCO₃), alongside organic compounds such as sugars and acids.
b) Total Suspended Solids (TSS): This indicates the quantity of solid materials suspended in the
liquid. TSS includes particles like silt, clay, plankton, and algae.
The proportions of TDS and TSS can vary depending on the water source. For instance, water
contaminated with agricultural runoff may exhibit a high TSS concentration, whereas water tainted
with industrial wastewater may display a high TDS concentration.

Apparatus:
 China Dish
 Filter Paper
 Oven
 Analytical Balance

Significance:
 High concentrations of total dissolved solids can have various effects on human life. These
impacts include the formation of white-colored stains, disturbances in crop growth, increased
water consumption, and the need for more soap during various activities.
 To meet regulations of drinking water
 For water clarity

Procedure:
1. Mix the sample well and transfer its 25 ml to pre weighted China dish.
2. Dry the sample at 103-105 degrees for 1 hour oven should be preheated to ensure adequate
drying.
3. After complete drying take the dish out of the oven and place it in a desiccator and cool it at
room temperature

16
4. After proper cooling, weigh the dish using an analytical balance.
5. Calculate the amount of TS by the given formula:
Total Solids (mg/l) = ( B−A ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆

B= weight of dried residue + weight of dish in grams

A= Weight of dish in grams

Calculations:
The initial weight of China Dish=A=56.155 g
Final Weight of China Dish + Solids Left =B=51.161 g
Weight of Residue Left=B-A=0.006 g
Total Solids = (0.006/25) × 106
Total Solids = 240 mg/L
Total Solids = 240 mg/L

Observations and conclusions:

As the value of T.S is less than NEQs Standards, the
water can be used for drinking and domestic purposes.

NEQS standard:
For domestic use of water: T. S. < 3700mg/L.
For Drinking water use: T. S. < 1200mg/L.

17
Experiment # 02:
Determination of Total Dissolved Solids in wastewater sample.
Introduction:
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) encompass the collective presence of both
inorganic and organic substances within a liquid, typically water. These dissolved solids comprise
minerals, salts, metals, cations, anions, and various other organic compounds that are in a dissolved
state in the water.

Significance:
The concentration of inorganic and organic substances dissolved in water is
quantified through Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). This measurement holds substantial
environmental importance, influencing both aquatic ecosystems and human health.
It has certain impacts on Environment as follows:
 Diminished water clarity, which adversely impacts the growth of aquatic plants and disrupts
the food chain.
 Elevated salinity levels, placing stress on freshwater organisms and potentially leading to their
decline.
 Nutrient pollution, a contributing factor to eutrophication and the subsequent depletion of
oxygen in the water.
 Presence of toxic contaminants, posing risks to the health and reproductive capabilities of
aquatic organisms.

Apparatus:
 China Dish
 Analytical Balance
 Oven
 Filter Paper

Procedure:
1. Switch on balance and weigh the China dish as W 1.
2. Place the filter paper in filtration assembly and Filter the wastewater sample using a Whatman
filter paper or a similar filter with a pore size of 0.45 µm.
3. Transfer 20 mL of the filtered wastewater sample to one of the evaporating dishes.
4. Place the evaporating dish containing the wastewater sample in the oven for 2 hrs at 180 oC and
evaporate the sample to dryness.
5. Once the sample is dry, remove the evaporating dish from the oven and place it in a desiccator
to cool.
6. Weigh the evaporating dish and residue as W2.

18
7. Use the formula to calculate the quantity of total dissolved solids in mg/l.

Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) = ( 𝑾𝟐−𝑾𝟏 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟔

𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
Calculations:
Weight of China dish =W1= 57.613 g

Weight of solids and China dish = W2= 57.615g

Volume of sample = 25ml
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) = W2−W1 × 10 6
Vol of sample
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) = 80 mg/l

Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) = 80 mg/l

Observation and Conclusion:
As the value of T.D.S is less than NEQs Standards, the
water can be used for drinking and domestic purposes.

NEQS Standards:
For use in drinking water, T. D. S. < 1000 mg/L.
For domestic use, T. D. S. < 3500 mg/L.

19
Experiment # 03:
Determination of Total Suspended Solids in wastewater sample.

Introduction:
The solids retained by filter paper with a pore size of 2μm and remaining after drying
at 103-105°C are termed "Total Suspended Solids" (T.S.S.). TSS comprises a diverse range of
materials, including silt, decomposing plant and animal matter, industrial wastes, and sewage.
Elevated concentrations of suspended solids can result in numerous challenges for stream health
and the well-being of aquatic life. The unit of measurement for TSS is expressed in milligrams per
liter (mg/L).
Sources of Total Suspended Solids:
There are a number of sources of TSS, including:

 Natural sources: Erosion from soil and rocks, volcanic ash, and decaying plant and animal
matter are all natural sources of TSS.
 Human activities: Agricultural runoff, construction activities, road runoff, and wastewater
discharges are all human activities that can contribute to TSS pollution.

Total Suspended Settleable Solids Non Settleable

Solids Solids

Apparatus:
 China Dish
 Analytical Balance
 Oven
 Filter paper
 Filtration Assembly

Procedure:
1. Switch on the balance and weight the filter paper as W 1.
2. Place the filter paper in filtration assembly.
3. Pass the 25 ml sample from filtration assembly and transfer the sample from flask to China
dish.
4. Place the China dish in an oven for 30 mins.

20
5. After 30 mints remove the sample from oven and weight the filter paper as W2.
6. Use the formula to calculate the quantity of total suspended solids:

Total suspended Solids (mg/l) = 𝑾𝟐−𝑾𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎6

𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆

Calculations:
Weight of filter paper = W1=0.204g

Weight of solid and filter paper = W2= 0.208g

Volume of sample = 25 ml
Total suspended Solids (mg/l) = W2−W1 × 106
Vol of sample

= 0.208−0.204 × 106
= 160 mg/l

Total suspended Solids (mg/l) = 160 mg/l

Conclusion:
In drinking water, there should be no suspended solids while we observed 160 mg/L
of suspended solids in our sample. Hence, our sample is not suitable for drinking purposes.

NEQS Standards:
According to Punjab Environmental Quality Standards, the amount of
Suspended Solids should be 200 mg/l for inland waters and 400 mg/l for sewage treatment
purposes.

21
Experiments# 04:
Determination of Settleable Solids in wastewater sample.

Introduction:
Settleable solids" pertains to material of any size that does not stay suspended or
dissolved in an undisturbed holding tank, and it specifically excludes both Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). This term defines the quantity of solids that will settle
out of a water-solid mixture within a specified duration (typically one hour). The determination of
settleable solids involves volumetric and gravimetric measurements. These solids may encompass
larger particulate matter or insoluble molecules. The capacity of solids to settle out of suspension
is influenced by factors such as particle density, shape, and size.

Significance:
Total suspended solids are a significant factor in observing water clarity. The more
solids present in the water, the less clear the water will be. Some suspended solids can settle out
into sediment at the bottom of a body of water over a period. Heavier particles, such as gravel and
sand, often settle out when they enter an area of low or no water flow. Although this settling
improves water clarity, the increased silt can smother benthic organisms and eggs. Settleable solids
are also known as bedded sediments or bed loads. These sediments can vary from larger sand and
gravel to fine silt and clay, depending on the flow rate of water. Sometimes these sediments can
move downstream even without rejoining the suspended solids concentration. When settleable
solids are moved along the bottom of a body of water by a strong flow, it is called bed load
transport.

Impacts of Settleable Solids:

 Increased water clarity: Settleable solids have the potential to create cloudiness or turbidity
in water, reducing sunlight penetration. This, in turn, can adversely affect aquatic plants that
rely on sunlight for photosynthesis.
 Increased sedimentation: Settleable solids, settling to the bottom of water bodies, can
accumulate and negatively impact aquatic organisms. This accumulation has the potential to
smother organisms and alter the habitat of benthic organisms.
 Increased nutrient loading: Settleable solids may bind with nutrients like phosphorus and
nitrogen, facilitating their transport to downstream water bodies. This contribution can foster
eutrophication, characterized by the overgrowth of algae and aquatic plants that deplete oxygen
levels in the water.

Apparatus:
 Wastewater sample
 Imhoff cone with graduated scale

22
 Procedure:
1. Fill the Imhoff cone with 1000 mL of wastewater sample.
2. Allow the Imhoff cone to stand undisturbed for 45 minutes.
3. After 45 minutes, gently agitate the sample near the side of the cone with the help of a glass
rod.
4. Provide 15 more minutes for settling.
5. Note the volume of settleable residue from the scale graduated on the Imhoff cone.
6. Use the formula to calculate the total settleable solids.

Total Settleable Solids = 𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒎𝒉𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒆

𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
Calculations:
Volume of sample = 1000 ml =1L
Volume of residue in Imhoff Cone = 2ml
Total Settleable Solids =Vol of residue in Imhoff cone
Vol of sample
= 2 ml/L

Total Settleable Solids= 2 ml/L

Unit:
Settleable solids are measured in ml/L.

23
Experiment # 05:
Determination of Dissolved Oxygen in wastewater sample.
Introduction:
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a metric that gauges the concentration of oxygen
dissolved in water, signifying the quantity of oxygen accessible to aquatic organisms. The level of
dissolved oxygen in a stream or lake serves as a crucial indicator of water quality.
This oxygen in dissolved form is essential for various life forms, encompassing fish, invertebrates,
bacteria, and plants. These organisms utilize oxygen in a process akin to respiration on land. Fish
and crustaceans, for instance, acquire oxygen through their gills, while plant life and
phytoplankton rely on dissolved oxygen for respiration when light for photosynthesis is
unavailable. The requisite amount of dissolved oxygen varies among different creatures. Bottom
feeders, crabs, oysters, and worms thrive with minimal oxygen levels (1-6 mg/L), whereas shallow
water fish necessitate higher concentrations (4-15 mg/L).

Environmental Significance:
1. Existence of aquatic life:
DO test will tell us whether aquatic life exists in water or not. DO
test is used to control stream pollution, and to maintain favorable conditions for aquatic life.
2. To maintain aerobic condition in stream:
DO test tells us whether an aerobic condition occurs in the stream or
an aerobic condition. It is used to maintain aerobic conditions in the streams.
3. Insulation in boilers:
Boilers are used to provide heat to the water. DO present in the water
will cause precipitation that will stick to the boiler and causes insulation which reduces the
energy of water.
4. Evaluation of Strength:
DO is used to evaluate the pollution strength of industrial and
domestic waste.

Apparatus:
 BOD bottle
 Titration Assembly

REAGENTS:
 Manganese Sulphate (MnSO4)
 Alkali Azide (NaN3)
 Conc. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

24
 Starch Indicator
 Sodium Thiosulphate as titrant.

Procedure:
1. Collect the sample in a 300ml BOD bottle taking exceptional care to avoid adding air to the
liquid being collected.
2. Fill the bottle and add a stopper.
3. Remove the BOD bottle stopper and add 1 ml of manganese sulphate to it and mix it uniformly
with the help of a pipette.
4. Add 1 ml of alkaline potassium iodide sodium azide solution in water.
5. If white precipitates appear then there is no dissolved oxygen and if brown precipitates occur,
it indicates DO.
6. Shake the bottle upside down 20 times.
7. Allow the precipitates to settle down.
8. When the precipitates move two inches below the stopper then add 1 ml sulfuric acid.
9. Again, shake the bottle to dissolve the precipitates.
10. Now add 200 ml sample from the bottle in the titration flask, then titrate it with sodium
thiosulphate (0.025N), till light yellow color appears, and add 1 ml of starch.
11. Further, titrate till the appearance of a colorless solution.
12. Note the volume of titrant and use the following formula to calculate the concentration of
dissolved oxygen:
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) = 𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒙 𝑵 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒙 𝑬𝒒.𝒘𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
Calculations:
Initial Reading of Burette = 24.6 ml
Final Reading of Burette = 30 ml
Vol of Titrant = 30 – 24.6 = 5.4 ml
N of titrant = 0.025
Eq. wt. of O2 = 8g
Vol of sample = 200 ml
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) = Vol of titrant x N of titrant x Eq.wt of Oxygen x 1000
Vol of sample
= 5.4 x 0.025 x 8 x 1000= 5.4 mg/l
200
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) = 5.4 mg/l
Conclusion:
For Drinking Water DO is 6.5-8 mg/L. So as our DO is in the range, water is
suitable for drinking

25
Experiment # 06:
Determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand in wastewater sample

Introduction:
Chemical Oxygen demand is defined as:
“The amount of oxygen required by a strong oxidant potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) to
oxidize both organic and inorganic matter.”

The determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) involves placing a water sample with a
potent oxidizing agent under specific temperature conditions for a brief duration. The COD value
surpasses that of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) because chemical oxidation is inherently
more facile than biochemical oxidation. It is important to note that COD provides information on
the total fraction of organic and inorganic matter in the sample rather than specifying the individual
fractions.

Environmental Significance:
COD values are particularly important in the surveys
designed to determine and control the losses to sewer systems. The ratio of BOD to COD is useful
to assess the amenability of waste for biological treatment. The ratio of BOD to COD greater than
or equal to 0.8 indicates that wastewater is highly polluted and amenable to biological treatment.
COD can be related to TOC, however, does not account for the oxidation state of the organic
matter. The BOD value is always lower than the COD value. For domestic and some industrial
wastewater, the COD value is about 2.5 times the BOD value.

Sources of COD:
Sources of COD in water can include:
 Industrial Effluents:
Wastewater discharges from industrial processes can contain a
significant amount of organic and inorganic chemicals, contributing to elevated COD levels.

26
Industries such as chemical manufacturing, textile production, and food processing are notable
sources.

 Urban Runoff:
Pollutants from urban areas, such as sewage, detergents, and runoff from
roads, can add to COD levels in water bodies.

Uses of COD:
The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is widely used in environmental
and water quality assessments for various purposes. Some key uses of COD include:

 Water Quality Monitoring: COD is employed to assess the overall pollution level in water
bodies. It helps in identifying the presence of organic and inorganic pollutants, aiding in the
evaluation of water quality.
 Industrial Effluent Control: Industries use COD testing to monitor and control the discharge
of pollutants in their effluents. This ensures compliance with environmental regulations and
standards.
 Wastewater Treatment: In wastewater treatment plants, COD analysis is crucial for
optimizing treatment processes. It provides insights into the effectiveness of treatment methods
and helps in adjusting treatment parameters for better results.
 Environmental Impact Assessments: COD testing is often included in environmental impact
assessments to gauge the potential impact of industrial activities, land development, or other
projects on water quality.

Apparatus:
 Titration Assembly
 COD Digester
 Vials

Reagents:
 Potassium Dichromate of 0.25 N
 Sulphuric acid
 Ferrous Ammonium sulphate as titrant
 Ferroin as indicator

27
 Procedure:
1. Take 2 Vials (1 for blank and 1 for sample)
2. Add 3.5ml sulphuric acid 1.5 potassium dichromate and 2.5 ml of Sample/distilled water
respectively in the sample vile and blank vial.
3. Place vials in COD Digester for 2 hours at 150 degrees Remove after 2 hr. and allow it to cool.
4. In the titration of the Blank vial take a vial sample in a flask add 1-2 drops of ferroin indicator and
titrate against diluted FAS.
5. The colors will be bluish green.
6. Titrate the sample with ferrous aluminum sulphate till the appearance of a reddish color.
7. Repeat the procedure for the sample.
8. Note the volume of titrant and calculate the concentration of chemical oxygen demand by using
the formula:

Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) = Vol of Titrant x N of Titrant x Eq. wt of Oxygen x 1000
Vol of sample (2.5 ml)
Calculation:
Initial Reading of Burette = 38 ml
Final Reading of Burette = 38.5 ml
Vol of Titrant = 38.5-30 = 0.5 ml
N of titrant = 0.1
Eq. wt. of O2 = 8g
Vol of sample = 2.5 ml

Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) = Vol of Titrant x N of Titrant x Eq. wt of Oxygen x 1000
Vol of sample (2.5 ml)

= 0.5 x 0.1 x 8 x 1000

2.5
= 160 mg/l

Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) = 160 mg/l

28
Experiment # 07:
Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand in wastewater sample.

Introduction:
Biochemical Oxygen Demand is defined as:
“the measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) required by
microorganisms to decompose organic matter present in a water sample over
a specified period, usually five days.”
It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per liter (mg/L) and is a key parameter in assessing the
biological health of water.
Factors Influencing BOD:
 Temperature: BOD increases with higher temperatures due to enhanced microbial activity.
 Nutrient Levels: Adequate nutrients can accelerate microbial decomposition and increase
BOD.
 pH: Microbial activity is influenced by pH levels, with neutral to slightly alkaline conditions
being optimal.
 Presence of Inhibitors: Certain substances, like toxic chemicals, can inhibit microbial
activity and lower BOD.

Significance of BOD:
 Indicator of Organic Pollution:
BOD serves as a reliable indicator of the level of organic
pollutants in water. Elevated BOD values suggest the presence of organic matter, such as sewage
or industrial effluents, that can potentially impact water quality.
 Wastewater Treatment Efficiency:
BOD is widely used in assessing the efficiency of
wastewater treatment processes. Monitoring BOD levels before and after treatment helps
determine how well a treatment plant is removing organic pollutants, ensuring that the
discharged water meets regulatory standards.
 Environmental Impact Assessments:
BOD measurements are commonly used in environmental
impact assessments for various projects. They help identify potential impacts on water quality,
especially when there are changes in land use, industrial activities, or the introduction of new
sources of pollution.

29
 Sources of BOD:

 Sewage and Wastewater Discharges:

Municipal sewage and industrial wastewater are major sources of BOD. These discharges
contain organic substances from human activities and industrial processes.
 Agricultural Runoff:
Runoff from agricultural areas can carry organic matter, such as fertilizers and pesticides, into
water bodies, contributing to BOD levels.
 Algal Blooms and Plant Material:
Decomposition of algal blooms and aquatic plant material can contribute to BOD in water
bodies.
 Animal Manure:
Runoff from agricultural lands with livestock operations can carry organic material from animal
manure into water bodies.

Apparatus:
 Titration Assembly
 BOD bottles
 Incubator

Reagents:
 Preparation of Dilution Media:
The dilution media for BOD test is
prepared by mixing the following chemicals in specified concentrations:
1. Calcium Chloride
2. Magnesium Sulphate
3. Ferric Chloride
4. Phosphate Buffer
The Reagents used in BOD test are as follows:
 Manganese Sulphate (MnSO4)
 Alkali Azide (NaN3)
 Conc. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
 Starch Indicator
 Sodium Thiosulphate as titrant.

30
 Procedure:
 Divide 11 BOD bottles into 4 groups in which 3 groups contain 3 BOD bottles and the last
group contains 2 BOD bottles of Blank sample.
Preparation of 2 ml Solution:
 Half-fill the 3 BOD bottles with dilution media.
 Add 2 ml of wastewater sample in each 3 BOD bottles and then fill the remaining portion of 3
BOD bottles with Dilution media.
 Perform the DO test on one BOD bottle and find the DOo.
Preparation of 5 ml Solution:
 Half-fill the 3 BOD bottles with dilution media.
 Add 5 ml of wastewater sample in each 3 BOD bottles and then fill the remaining portion of 3
BOD bottles with Dilution media.
 Perform the DO test on one BOD bottle and find the DOo.
Preparation of 10 ml Solution:
 Half-filled the 3 BOD bottles with dilution media.
 Add 10 ml of wastewater sample in each 3 BOD bottles and then fill the remaining portion of
3 BOD bottles with Dilution media.
 Perform the DO test on one BOD bottle and find the DOo.
Preparation of Blank sample:
 Completely fill the remaining 2 BOD bottles with dilution media.
 Perform the test for DO and find DOo.
 Place all the BOD bottles in incubator and incubate it for 5 days at 20 0C.
 After five days perform the DO on all Bottles for determination of DO5.
 Calculate the value of BOD by using the formula:

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) = DO0 - DO5

P
Where P can be calculated by:

P = Vol of wastewater sample

Vol of sample used in DO
Conditions
1. The difference of DO after 5 days should be at-least 2 mg/L.
2. At 5 th day value of DO should be at-least 0.5mg/L.

31
 Calculations:
 For DO0 of 5 ml solution:
Initial Reading of Burette = 20.2 ml
Final Reading of Burette = 30 ml
Vol of Titrant = 30 – 20.2 = 9.8 ml
N of titrant = 0.025
Eq. wt. of O2 = 8g
Vol of sample = 300 ml
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) = Vol of titrant x N of titrant x Eq.wt of Oxygen x 1000
Vol of sample

= 9.8 x 0.025 x 8 x 1000

300
DO0 = 6.53 mg/L

For DO5 of 5 ml solution:

Initial Reading of Burette = 19.9 ml
Final Reading of Burette = 25.4 ml
Vol of Titrant = 25.4 – 19.9 = 5.5 ml
N of titrant = 0.025
Eq. wt. of O2 = 8g
Vol of sample = 300 ml
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) = Vol of titrant x N of titrant x Eq.wt of Oxygen x 1000
Vol of sample
= 5.5 x 0.025 x 8 x 1000
300
= 3.67 mg/L

Calculation of BOD after 5 Days:

BOD5ml= DO0 – DO5 P = 5/300 = 0.0167

P

BOD5ml= 6.53 – 3.67

0.0167

BOD5ml=171.26 mg/l

BODblank= DO0 – DO5

P

32
 BODblank=7.67 – 5.67 P = 300/300 = 1
1

BODblank= 2 mg/l

Actual BOD5ml = BOD5ml – BODblank

= 171.26 – 2
= 169.26 mg/L

Similarly, the BOD of 2 ml and 10 ml sample is as follows:

Sample DO0 (mg/L) DO5 (mg/L) P Factor BOD = Actual BOD = BODsam - BOD blank
𝑫𝑶𝟎−𝑫𝑶𝟓
𝑷
Blank 7.67 5.67 1 2 mg/L 2 mg/L

2 ml 6.867 5.06 0.0067 269.70 mg/L 269.70 – 2 = 267.70 mg/L

5 ml 6.53 3.67 0.0167 171.26 mg/L 171.26 – 2 = 169.26 mg/L

10 ml 5.93 1.26 0.033 141.52 mg/L 141.52 – 2 = 139.52 mg/L

According to Punjab Environmental Quality Standards, BOD5 of wastewater is 80 mg/L. All the
above values are greater than 80 mg/L which clearly indicates wastewater sample.

33
Experiment # 08:
Determination of Chloride Ions (Cl-) in wastewater sample.

Introduction:
Chloride ions (Cl-) are negatively charged atoms that play a crucial role in
various organic and chemical processes. They rank among the most abundant anions in the human
body and are present in various fluids and tissues, including blood, saliva, and cerebrospinal fluid.
Common substances containing chloride ions include table salt (NaCl) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl). Moreover, chloride ions find application in diverse industrial processes such as the
production of plastics, solvents, and insecticides.
These ions are integral to numerous biological and environmental functions, contributing
significantly to the maintenance of fluid and acid-base balance in the body, digestive processes,
immune system function, water treatment, and various industrial procedures. The pervasive
presence and versatility of chloride ions underscore their importance in a wide array of essential
biological and industrial activities.
Methods for measuring Cl- ions:
 Mohr’s Method:
The Mohr strategy is a regularly involved titration technique for the
estimation of chloride particles in an answer. The technique includes the utilization of a silver
nitrate arrangement as a titrant and a potassium chromate marker to identify the endpoint of
the titration.
 Mercuric Nitrate Method:
The Mercuric nitrate strategy is one more titration
technique used to gauge the convergence of chloride particles in an answer. In this technique,
mercuric nitrate is utilized as a titrant and potassium chromate is utilized as a marker to recognize
the endpoint of the titration. The Mercuric nitrate technique is a delicate and exact strategy for the
estimation of chloride particles in an answer.
Hg+2 +Cl- ➔HgCl2
Reagents:
 Mercuric nitrate (titrant).
 Nitric acid (to maintain pH).
 Diphenyl Carbazone.
 Xylene Cyanol (pH indicator)
Apparatus:
 Titration Apparatus
 Wash Bottle
 Conical flask

34
 Pipette
 Beaker
 Graduated volumetric flask
Procedure:
Mercuric Nitrate Method
1. Take 50 ml of sample (Wastewater) in a conical flask.
2. Then add 1.2 ml of nitric acid.
3. Then add 1-2 drops of mixed indicator (Both Di-Phenyl-Carbazone & Xylene Cyanole).
4. If pH of the sample is less than 2.3, color will be Green. If pH is between 2.3 to 3.8, color
will be Bluish Green. If pH is greater than 3.8, color will be Blue.
5. Titrate it against 0.0141 N of mercuric nitrate, till the appearance of purple color.
6. Stop the titration & note the volume of titrant used.
7. Apply the formula to calculate Concentration of Chloride ions (Cl-), which is as follows:
( )
Conc. of Cl − (mg/L) =
Where,
A = Volume of Titrant Used
B = Volume of Blank Sample Used
N = Normality of Titrant = 0.0141
Equivalent Weight of Cl- ion = 35.4 g/mole

Observations & Calculations:

Initial Reading = Io = 28.2 mL Final Reading =F o = 35.1 mL
Volume of Titrant Used = A = Fo - Io = 35.1 – 28.2 = 8.9 mL
Volume of Blank Sample Used = B = 0.2 mL
Volume of Sample Used = 50 mL
mg (8.9 − 0.2) x 0.0141 x 35.4 x 1000
Conc. of Cl = = 86.85 𝑚𝑔/𝑙
L 50
Concentration of Chloride Ions (Cl-) = 86.85 mg/L

Results & Discussions:

Since, the value of Chloride ion concentration in our wastewater sample was found to be 86.85
mg/L. However, according to the WHO Standards, the maximum allowable limit for Cl- Conc.
is 80 mg/L. So, we can conclude that this water is not safe for any drinking purposes and cannot
be disposed of in water bodies without any treatment.

35