Mechanics

ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

• Mechanics studies the motion and deformation of material bodies under applied
loads (forces, moments).
• It involves loads, energy, motion, deformation and material properties.
Part 1 • When the material is in solid phase it is called solid mechanics, which you already
studied in ME 205, ME 206, ME 208.
Fundamental Fluid and Flow Properties • When the material is in liquid or gas phase it is called fluid mechanics.

These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cüneyt Sert
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey
[email protected]

You can get the most recent version of this document from Dr. Sert’s web site.
Please ask for permission before using them to teach. You are NOT allowed to modify them.
www.industrytap.com
1-1 1-2

High School Definition of a Fluid Branches of Science that Study Fluids

• Three most common phases of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
• Mechanics is concerned with both stationary and moving bodies under the
• Liquids and gases are together called fluids. influence of loads.
Intermolecular Volume and • Statics is the branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest.
Molecules
Attraction Forces Space
• Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with bodies in motion.
Relative positions are Definite volume
Solid Strong
rather fixed Definite shape
Free to change their Definite volume • Fluid mechanics deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) and in
Liquid Medium
relative positions Indefinite shape motion (fluid dynamics).
Indefinite volume • Hydrodynamics studies liquids (incompressible flow) in motion.
Gas Weak Practically unrestricted
Indefinite shape
• Hydraulics studies liquids flowing in pipes, ducts and open channels.
• Later we’ll give another definition for ‘‘fluid’’, based on its behavior under shear • Gas dynamics studies compressible flow of gases with high density changes.
forces.
• Aerodynamics is similar to gas dynamics, but also covers low speed flows. It
Exercise : From a technical point of view, what is the difference between gases and focuses on air flow.
vapors?
Exercise : What are the fourth and fifth phases of matter? Do a research on them.
1-3 1-4
 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics The Concept of Continuum
• Too many to list all of them. Some examples are
• At the microscopic scale, fluids are composed of molecules.
• Household appliances : refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, dish washer, washing
machine, water meter, natural gas meter, air conditioner, radiator, etc.
• Turbomachines : pump, turbine, fan, blower, propeller, etc. A glass of
1 m3 air water
• Military : Missile, aircraft, ship, underwater vehicle, dispersion of chemical
agents, etc.
• Automobile : IC engine, air conditioning, fuel flow, external aerodynamics, etc. ~ 2 x 1025 molecules ~ 1025 molecules

• Medicine : Heart assist device, artificial heart valve, Lab-on-a-Chip device,

glucose monitor, controlled drug delivery, etc. • Question : Is it possible to keep track of all these molecules ?

• Electronics : Convective cooling of generated heat. • Answer : Practically impossible and not necessary for most engineering problems.

• Energy : Combustor, burner, boiler, gas, hydro and wind turbine, etc. • Rather, we study most engineering problems at the macroscopic scale.
• Oil and Gas : Pipeline, pump, valve, offshore rig, oil spill cleanup, etc. • That is we treat fluids as continuum and do not concern with the behavior of
individual molecules.
• Almost everything in our world is either in contact with a fluid or is itself a fluid.
1-5 1-6

The Concept of Continuum Continuum (cont’d)

• Continuum assumes that fluid and flow properties, such as density, velocity,
Microscopic level: Each fluid molecule Macroscopic level: The speed at point A pressure, temperature, etc. vary continuously throughout the fluid.
shown below moves at a different is 60 km/h. The direction of air flow at
speed in a different direction. point A is as shown below. • In continuum, the smallest element of a fluid is NOT a fluid molecule, but rather a
fluid particle, which contains enough number of molecules to make meaningful
statistical averages.

A • Question: Is continuum a reasonable assumption?

Streamline showing the • Practical answer: Yes, in many engineering problems.

flow direction • Detailed answer: Depends on the Knudsen number.

𝜆 Average distance traveled by molecules between collisions (mean free path)

𝐾𝑛 = =
60 km/h is the average speed of molecules in the small volume surrounding point A. 𝐿 Characteristic dimensionof the flow field
We can say that the fluid particle located at point A is moving with a speed of 60 km/h.
• Continuum is known to be valid for 𝐾𝑛 < 0.01.
• In this course we will always treat fluids as continuum.
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 Continuum (cont’d) Dimensions and Units
Exercise : Is it easier to break the continuum assumption for a gas or a liquid? • In the MLT system basic dimensions are
Mass M , Length 𝐿 , Time [𝑇]
Exercise : Air at standard atmospheric conditions has a mean free path of
8 x 10 – 8 m. What will be the limiting characteristic length that will break the • Dimensions of all other quantities can be expressed in terms of these
validity of the continuum assumption for an application using standard
atmospheric air? Search on the web for micro and nano scale flows to see if there Acceleration 𝐿𝑇 −2
are applications at such small scales. Energy ???
Pressure [?? ?]
Exercise : How much the mean free path of air should be increased so that we can
Angular velocity [?? ?]
start questioning the validity of continuum for flow around a missile with a
characteristic length of 10 m? Is it possible to have such high mean free path Torque [?? ? ]
values at the outermost regions of the atmosphere?
• For some problems, Temperature [𝜃] also serves as a basic dimension.
Exercise : Read about ‘‘rarefied gas dynamics’’. Find examples where it is • Equations should be dimensionally homogeneous, i.e. dimensions of the left and
encountered. right sides should be the same.
Exercise : Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) is a numerical method that can • Speed of a uniformly accelerated body is given by 𝑉 = 𝑉0 + 𝑎𝑡
be used to study high 𝐾𝑛 flows. Do a research on general Monte Carlo methods [s]
and DSMC is specific. [m/s] [m/s 2]
1-9 1-10

Dimensions and Units (cont’d) Dimensions and Units (cont’d)

Exercise: A website claims that the distance travelled by a freely Exercise: In a previous semester, one ME 305 student provided the following
falling body is given by the following formula. Is it dimensionally wrong answer for the shown midterm question. The instructor put a comment on
homogeneous? the student’s paper saying ‘‘You should be able to notice that this answer cannot
be correct’’. What does the instructor expect from the student?
𝑑 = 4.90 𝑡2

Question: A concentric cylinder

Fluid 𝜔
viscometer is formed by rotating the
inner cylinder of a pair or closely fitting viscosity: 𝜇
Exercise: The force 𝐹, due to the air blowing against a car in a wind tunnel is given by cylinders. The outer cylinder is kept fixed
𝑐
and the gap between the cylinders is 𝐻
𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑉2 𝐴
𝐹= filled with a fluid of unknown viscosity 𝜇.
2 Using the parameters given in the figure, 𝑐
where 𝑉 is the air speed, 𝜌 is the density of determine the torque that needs to be 𝑅
air, 𝐴 is the cross sectional area of the car applied on the inner cylinder to rotate it
facing the air, and 𝐶𝐷 is a constant called the at a constant speed of 𝜔.
drag coefficient. Determine the dimensions
of 𝐶𝐷 . 2𝜋𝜔𝐻𝑅3 𝜇 𝜋𝜔𝑅3 𝜇 𝜋𝜔𝑅3 𝜇 1
Student′s wrong answer: Torque = + = 2𝐻 +
𝑐 2𝑐 𝑐 2
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 Significant Figures Fundamental Flow and Fluid Properties
Exercise: In another midterm exam of ME 305 a different version of the previous
Density 𝜌 kg/m3
question was asked. This time numerical values are given for all the parameters,
including the viscosity of the fluid, and the required torque is asked. One student Velocity 𝑉 m/s
provided the following answer and the instructor put a comment on the student’s Pressure 𝑝 Pa , atm , bar , mmHg
paper saying ‘‘Are you serious?’’. What does the instructor expect from the
student?
Viscosity 𝜇 Pa∙s , poise
Temperature 𝑇 K or oC
Student’s answer: Torque = 15.908633 Nm
Internal energy 𝑢 J/kg
Enthaply ℎ J/kg
• Number of significant figures that need to be used in an answer depends on the
significant figures of the numbers that you used to evaluate it. Entropy 𝑠 J/(kg K)
• For measured quantities, number of significant figures Specific heat 𝑐𝑝 , 𝑐𝑣 J/(kg K)
depends on the minimum reading scale of the Thermal conductivity 𝑘 W/(m K)
measuring device.
It is common to use 𝑝 and 𝑇 to fix the thermodynamic state. Then other properties
can be expressed as a function of these two
• Often an engineer needs to use his/her engineering intuition to judge the correct
number of significant figures to use. 𝜌 = 𝜌(𝑝,𝑇) , ℎ = ℎ(𝑝,𝑇) , 𝜇 = 𝜇(𝑝,𝑇) , etc.
1-13 1-14

Density Density
• ( 𝜌 ) [ kg/m ]
3
• Density in general is a function of 𝑝 and 𝑇, i.e. 𝜌 = 𝜌 (𝑝,𝑇)
• Mass contained in a unit volume of a fluid. 𝜌 =𝑚 ∀ • If a fluid’s density is a function of pressure only (not temperature) it is called a
• Density determines the inertia of a unit volume of fluid and hence its acceleration barotropic fluid, a simplification mostly used in meteorology.
when subjected to a given force. Gases are easier to accelerate than liquids.
• Following processes demonstrate how density of an ideal gas (𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇) can change
• Density also determines the amount of gravitational force (weight) acting on a with temperature and pressure.
fluid body. Weight of gases are neglected more often than that of liquids. Push
down
• Fluids have a very wide range of density.

Hydrogen Methane
Air Water Mercury
Gas (Natural Gas)
Density
0.084 0.67 1.2 998 13600 𝑇 : increases
[kg/m3] 𝑝 : increases
(at standart conditions) Add heat and 𝜌 : decreases Remove heat to 𝜌 : increases
allow piston to keep 𝑇 constant
go up to keep 𝑝
constant
1-15 1-16
 Density (cont’d) Compressibility
• Changing 𝑝 or 𝑇 may result in a change in 𝜌 𝑑𝑝
Exercise: Using 𝑚 = 𝜌∀, show that 𝐸𝑣 can also be written as 𝑑𝜌/𝜌 .
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑝,𝑇 → 𝑑𝜌 = 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑑𝑇 • Large 𝐸𝑣 indicates a relatively incompressible fluid.
𝜕𝑝 𝑇
𝜕𝑇 𝑝
• At 1 atm (~100 kPa) pressure and 15 oC temperature, we need to increase pressure to
Total change of 𝜌 Change of 𝜌 Change of 𝜌 21.5 MPa to compress a unit volume of water 1 %.
due to the due to the
change in 𝑝 change in 𝑇

𝑝 = 1 atm water 𝑝 = 21.5 MPa

Used to define bulk Used to define ∀= 1 unit ∀= 0.99unit
modulus of elasticity, 𝐸𝑣 coefficient of thermal
expansion, b
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 • Incompressible fluid is an idealization used mostly for liquids that have constant
𝐸𝑣 = − =
𝑑∀/∀ 𝑑𝜌/𝜌 density over a given range of conditions of a flow problem.
𝑝 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 Meaning: Amount of differential pressure • In this course we’ll consider all liquids to be incompressible (constant density) unless
∀ ∀ − 𝑑∀ change (𝑑𝑝) necessary to create a differential otherwise mentioned.
change in volume (𝑑∀), of a fluid volume ∀. • We’ll take 𝜌 𝑤𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑟 = 1000 kg/m3 (constant) unless otherwise mentioned.
1-17 1-18

Compressibility (cont’d) Compressibility (cont’d)

• Gases are much more compressible than liquids. • Due to compressibility, disturbances created in a fluid propagate at a finite speed.
• 𝐸𝑣 of a gas that compresses (or expands) depends on the process. • Sound generated by a speaker is a pressure disturbance and it travels in a medium
(e.g. air) with the speed of sound 𝑐.
A perfect gas ( 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 ) goes through
• Considering the motion of sound to be isentropic, for an ideal gas
Movie:
𝑑𝑝 𝐸𝑣 𝑘𝑝 Speeding bullet
Isothermal process Isentropic process 𝑐= = = = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑝 Isentropic 𝑝 𝑑𝜌 𝑠
𝜌 𝜌
( 𝑇 = constant ) ( 𝜌 𝑘 = constant )
𝑝
( 𝜌 = constant )
Isothermal

𝜌
• For air at 1 atm pressure and 15 oC temperature
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝑣 = 𝜌 =𝑝 𝐸𝑣 = 𝜌 = 𝑘𝑝
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇 = (1.4)(286.9)(288)= 340.4 m/s

Exercise: Calculate the isentropic bulk modulus of air (𝑘 = 1.4) at standard • For water at 15 oC Coming from slide 1-18
conditions. Compare the compressibility of air and water. 𝐸𝑣 2.15× 10 9
𝑐= ≈ = 1466 m/s
𝜌 1000
1-19 1-20
 Compressibility (cont’d) Density (cont’d)
• Speed of sound is higher in less compressible fluids. • Hydrometer is a device used to measure density of a fluid based on Archimedes’
principle. It’s working principle will be studied in ‘‘Fluid Statics’’ chapter and you’ll
• For an incompressible fluid, which is an idealization, speed of sound is infinity. use it in the first experiment of ME 305.
• Mach number (𝑀𝑎) is the non-dimensional parameter that can be used to check the
importance of compressibility in gas flows.
• Specific gravity (Relative density): ( 𝑠 ) [ unitless ]
𝑉 Characteristic speed in a flow problem
𝑀𝑎 = = Ratio of density of a substance to the reference density of water at 4 oC.
𝑐 Speed of sound
𝜌
• Although gases are much more compressible than liquids they can also be treated as 𝑠=𝜌
water (at 4 ℃)
incompressible (constant density) in many engineering applications.
1000 kg/m3
• As a rule of thumb, flows with 𝑀𝑎 < 0.3 can be studied as incompressible.

Exercise : In a wind tunnel test air is blown around a car at a speed of 120 km/hr. • Specific weight: ( 𝛾 ) [ N/m3 ]
Calculate Mach number of the flow and decide if compressibility effects are negligible
or not. Weight per unit volume of a substance.

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
• In this course we’ll take 𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 kg/m3 unless otherwise mentioned.
1-21 1-22

Velocity Field Velocity Field (cont’d)

Fluid velocity: ( 𝑉 ) [ m/s ] • But there are also simpler flows with easy to express velocity fields.
• In different coordinate systems velocity vector components are
Couette Flow: Shear driven flow between two wide parallel plates, one is fixed
Cartesian : 𝑉 = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘 and the other is moving.
Cylindrical : 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑒𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 𝑒𝜃 + 𝑉𝑧 𝑒𝑧 𝑈0 𝑈𝑜
𝑢= 𝑦
• In general velocity field of a flowing fluid is too complicated to be expressed as a ℎ
ℎ
𝑦 𝑢(𝑦)
closed form equation of space and time. 𝑣=0
𝑥 𝑤=0

Hagen Poiseuille Flow: Pressure driven, fully developed flow inside a fixed pipe.

𝑉𝑟 = 0
𝑟
𝑉𝜃 = 0
𝑧 𝑉𝑧(𝑟) 2𝑅
𝑟 2
Visualization of flow over an airfoil Visualization of flow over an F1 race car 𝑉𝑧 = 𝑉max 1 −
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmSKGMSfOcs &NR =1 http://www.ecourses.ou.edu 𝑅
1-23 1-24
 Velocity Field (cont’d) Forces Acting on a Fluid Body
• No-slip condition is an important experimental observation that says “A fluid in Body forces
contact with a solid surface does not slip, i.e. it has the same velocity as the surface”. Force: ( 𝐹 ) [ N = kg m/s2 ]
Surface forces
• e.g. In Couette flow, fluid speed at the top plate is 𝑈𝑜 .
• e.g. In Couette flow, fluid speed at the bottom plate is zero. • Body forces are distributed over the volume of a fluid. They arise from “action at a
distance”.
• e.g. In Hagen-Poiseuille flow, fluid speed at the pipe wall is zero.
• They result when a fluid is placed in a gravitational, magnetic, electrostatic or
electromagnetic force field. In this course we’ll consider only gravitational force.
• Gravitational body force per unit mass is the gravitational acceleration 𝑔 .
𝑈0
𝑈0
Exercise: Read about electroosmotic pumps, which pump fluids in micro devices with
no moving parts
𝑢=0 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2756694

Exercise: Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) studies the motion of electrically conducting

• No temperature jump condition is similar to the no-slip condition. It says that fluids in magnetic fields. Read more about it at
“Temperature of fluid particles adjacent to a solid wall is the same as the https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics
temperature of the wall”. 1-25 1-26

Forces (cont’d) Stress Acting on Fluid Body

• Surface forces act on the boundaries of a fluid body by the surroundings through • ( 𝜎, 𝜏 ) [ Pa = N/m2 ] 𝑑𝐹𝑛 𝑑𝐹
direct contact. Fluids also apply a surface force to their surroundings. 𝑑𝐹𝑛 𝑛
• Normal stress at point P : 𝜎 = lim
• A surface force can be decomposed into a normal force acting perpendicular to 𝑑𝐴 →0 𝑑𝐴
the surface and tangential (shear) force acting parallel to the surface. 𝑑𝐹𝑡 𝑑𝐹𝑡 𝑑𝐴
• Shear stress at point P : 𝜏 = lim P
𝑑𝐴→0 𝑑𝐴

𝐹
𝐹𝑛 𝐹
𝑛 • Stress field at a point is a tensor quantity. Complete definition of it requires nine
components. 𝜎𝑦𝑦
y
P 𝐹𝑡
P
𝜏 𝑦𝑥
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝜏 𝑥𝑧
• Cartesian stress tensor : 𝜏 𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 𝜏 𝑦𝑧
𝜏 𝑧𝑥 𝜏 𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝐹 : Force acting by the fluid on the wing at point P x
𝑛 : Surface normal at point P Direction of Direction of z
Stresses acting on the
𝐹𝑛 , 𝐹𝑡 : Normal and tangential (shear) components of 𝐹 surface normal force top surface of a fluid
element are shown
1-27 1-28
 Greek letter ‘‘mu’’ Viscosity Movie : Viscous fluids
Viscosity (cont’d)
• ( 𝜇 ) [Pa⋅s] or [poise] • Think of a similar experiment with a layer of fluid between the parallel plates.
• Measure of a fluid’s resistance to shear or angular deformation. • Vertical fluid element AB will deform continuously as long as the shear force is applied
• It is about the “fluidity” of a fluid. It shows a fluid’s resistance to by moving the top plate.
change shape. Movie : Shear deformation
• Experiment: Consider a solid block firmly attached to two parallel plates. 𝐹
B B’ B’’
t0 t1 t2
𝐹
B B’ A

A A
Fixed plate
𝑈0
• The block deforms elastically if a force 𝐹 is appiled to the upper plate. • First observation: After an initial transition, 𝑢 = 𝑈0
velocity of the top plate will be constant (𝑈0 )
and the velocity profile within the fluid will be 𝑦
Shear stress ∝ Angular deformation 𝑢=0 𝑥
linear (It is possible to mathematically show
that this is the case, but for now we will take
• If we gradually increase the force, the block will break apart at some point. it as an experimental observation).
1-29 1-30

Viscosity (cont’d) Viscosity (cont’d)

𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑢
𝑦 𝜏∝ 𝑑𝑡
or 𝜏 ∝ 𝑑𝑦
𝑈𝑜
B B’ 𝑢 = 𝑈𝑜 • Newton’s Law of Viscosity: Shear stress on a surface tangent to the flow direction
ℎ 𝑡0 𝑑𝛼 𝑡0 + 𝑑𝑡 𝑈𝑜 is proportional to the
𝑢= 𝑦
𝑢=0 ℎ • rate of shear strain (rate of angular deformation)
A 𝑥
• or to the velocity gradient on the surface (change of velocity in a direction
𝑑𝛼
normal to the surface).
• Angular deformation rate of line AB is (How fast the angle 𝑑𝛼 changes in time)
𝑑𝑡 • For Newtonian fluids (air, water, gasoline, oils, etc.) the above proportionality is
𝑑𝑢 𝑈𝑜 linear and the proportionality constant is known as viscosity.
Exercise : Show that this deformation rate is equal to 𝑑𝑦
which is also equal to ℎ

𝜏 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑢
𝜏 𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇 =𝜇
y 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
• Second obervation: Shear stress acting on a surface parallel to the flow (such as the
surface of the top plate) will be proportional to deformation rate 𝜏
x Shear force acts in the ±𝑥 Coefficient of viscosity
𝑑𝛼 direction and normal of the
Shear stress ∝ Rate of angular deformation or 𝜏∝ Absolute viscosity
𝑑𝑡 surface on which the force Dynamic viscosity
acts is in ±𝑦 direction.
1-31
Viscosity 1-32
 Viscosity (cont’d) Viscosity (cont’d)
Exercise : a) What is the sign convention for stress? b) Are the stresses shown in Exercise : Velocity distribution of the pressure driven flow of a Newtonian fluid
the previous figure negative or positive? between two fixed, wide parallel plates is as shown. 𝑈 is the mean velocity. The
fluid has a viscosity of 2 Pa∙s. For 𝑈 = 0.6 m/sand ℎ = 5 mm, determine the
a) shear stress at the bottom wall, b) shear stress at the top wall, c) shear stress
Exercise : For the problem shown on the acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline.
right, determine the sign of the shear stress
in the lower and upper fluids. Show the 𝑦
3𝑈 𝑦 2
direction of shear forces acting by the fluid 𝑈𝑜 𝑥 𝑢= 1− 2ℎ
2 ℎ
on the plates?
y
x Exercise : Fully developed, pressure driven flow inside a constant diameter pipe
has the shown parabolic velocity profile. For a Newtonian fluid with viscosity 𝜇
and centerline velocity of 𝑉max , calculate the force exerted by the fluid on the
• For problems in the cylindrical coordinate pipe wall over a pipe section of length 𝐿.
system it is important to write Newton’s law
of viscosity in correct form. Here we see two 𝑑𝑉𝜃 𝑟 2
𝜃 r 𝜏𝑐𝑦𝑙 = 𝜏𝑟𝜃= 𝜇 𝑉𝑧 = 𝑉max 1 − 2𝑅
cylinders, inner one is fixed and outer one 𝑑𝑟 𝑅
is rotating.

1-33 𝐿 1-34

Viscosity (cont’d) Viscosity (cont’d)

Exercise : A concentric cylinder viscometer may be formed by rotating the inner • Definition of fluid : A fluid deforms continuously under the application of a shear
cylinder of a pair or closely fitting cylinders. A torque of 15 Nm is required to turn (tangential) force, no matter how small the force is.
the inner cylinder at 10 rad/s while keeping the outer cylinder fixed. Determine
the viscosity of the Newtonian fluid in the clerance gap of the viscometer. Assume • It is more difficult to deform highly viscous fluids.
that the velocity distribution inside the gaps is linear. Neglect the corner effects.
Air Water SAE 30 oil Glycerin Thick Molasses
𝜔, 𝑇 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 50 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 15,000 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 75,000 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 375,000 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑐 = 0.5 mm
𝐻 = 0.2 m • Viscosity can be measured using Movie : Capillary tube viscometer
𝐷 = 0.1 m • capillary tube viscometer
𝑐 𝜔 = 10 rad/s
𝐻 • falling sphere viscometer
𝑇 = 15 Nm
• concentric cylinder viscometer
𝜇 =?
𝑐 • Saybolt viscometer that you’ll be using in the first experiment of ME 305
𝐷
• Kinematic viscosity: ( 𝜈 ) [m2/s] 𝜈=𝜇 𝜌 Greek letter ‘‘nu’’
1-35 1-36
 Viscous Behavior of Fluids Viscous Behavior of Fluids (cont’d)
Fluids
• Newtonian behavior simple (it is linear). Common fluids such as water, air, oils
Inviscid Viscous behave as Newtonian.
(ideal)
Non-Newtonian • Inviscid (ideal) fluids have 𝜇 = 0 and they do not exist in real world. It is an
Newtonian
idealization.
Time independent Time dependent
• Bingham plastics do not flow below a certain amount of shear stress. (toothpaste,
Shear thinning Shear thickening Bingham Thixotropic Rheopectic mayonnaise).
(Pseudoplatic) (Dialatant) plastic • Shear thinning fluid become thinner under increased shear stress. (wall paint,
𝜏 blood).
Bingham plastic Movie : Non-Newtonian
Newtonian
Shear thinning fluid pool • Shear thickening fluids become thicker under increased shear stress. (printing ink,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2XQ97XHjVw
𝜇 corn starch-water mixture, quicksand).
1
• For thixotropic fluids viscosity decreases with time (the longer the shear force is
Elastic Shear thickening
solid applied) (lipstick).
• For rheopectic fluids viscosity increases with time (solidifying concrete).
Inviscid (ideal) 𝑑𝛼
𝑑𝑡 1-37 1-38

Viscosity (cont’d) 𝜇 Surface Tension

• Effect of pressure on viscosity is small and often neglected. • ( 𝜎 ) [N/m]
water
• Viscosity of liquids decrease with increasing temperature. • Surface tension is due to the asymmetric cohesive forces acting on the molecules at
• Viscosity of gases increase with increasing temperature. air a free surface (interface between a liquid and a gas).
𝑇 • This asymmetry will result in a hypothetical skin (membrane) all around the surface
with a surface tension force acting tangential to it.
For liquids: Andrade equation 𝜇 = 𝐴𝑒𝐵𝑇
• General 𝜇(𝑇) relations For this molecule on the
𝐶𝑇1. 5
For gases: Sutherland equation 𝜇= surface, cohesive forces
𝑇 +𝐷
are not symmetric. It is
with A, B, C, D being fluid dependent constants being pulled inward.

Exercise : As mentioned above, viscosities of liquids and gases change with

This non-surface molecule
temperature in different ways due to two different mechanisms that affect their
viscosities. What are these mechanisms ? is being attracted equally
by the molecules all
Hint: Think about temperature’s effect on the level of molecular activity and on around it.
magnitude of intermolecular attraction separately.
1-39 1-40
 Surface Tension (cont’d)
Exercise : Surface tension is known to create a pressure Gas
difference across a curved interface of two fluids. Consider a 𝑝𝑜
spherical liquid droplet in a gas. Compute the pressure Liquid
difference 𝑝 𝑖 − 𝑝 𝑜 in terms of the uniform surface tension (𝜎) 𝑝𝑖
on droplet’s surface and the diameter of the droplet (𝐷).
Glass tube
• Capillary rise (or drop), observed when
an open ended tube is immersed into a
liquid, is also related to surface tension.
It’ll be studied in ‘‘Fluid Statics’’ chapter.
water mercury

Movie :
Movie :
Floating razor
Contact angle
blade

1-41