Chapter

One

Understanding
Language

An effective teacher of English learners understands

basic elements of language and language development.
This is important for two reasons. First, you will actu-
ally be able to observe these aspects of language in your
students. Second, this information will give you insight
and help you understand ways to guide your English
learners. At the end of each element of language, you
will read why this knowledge is useful for you as a class-
room teacher. Please understand that volumes have been
written on any single aspect of language that you read
about below, should you be interested in exploring any
one topic. What you read here are the briefest of expla-
nations. Before you read the chapter, think about your
answers to the following questions: How do you define
language? What influences how we use language?

Eight Elements of Language

What is language? How can it be defined? Like the air
around us, it’s everywhere, and so much a part of our
environment that we may not give it much thought.
Minimally, language is a series of arbitrary sounds strung
together that permit a group of people to communicate.


 Helping English Language Learners Succeed

However, it is much more than this—it is a universal

human phenomenon that is the foundation of all our
communication. It is systematic and rule-governed,
influenced by culture, social and economic class, and
even when, where, and with whom we use it. Let’s take
a closer look.

Language . . .

1. develops naturally
2. develops in stages
3. has structure
4. is intertwined with culture
5. is linked to cognition
6. has varieties
7. is learned in social contexts
8. is influenced by purpose and context

1. Language develops naturally

Unlike any other learned phenomenon, humans acquire
their first language largely by hearing it and by interact-
ing with speakers in their environment. The same can-
not be said about learning to play the piano, learning to
ride a bike, learning to write, or any other learned behav-
ior. Three basic theoretical approaches to language learn-
ing provide a different lens on the process. Linguistic
theory holds that language has a structure that is unique
and distinct, and that babies are born with specific lan-
guage learning mechanisms that enable them to learn
language in a relatively short period of time. Chomsky’s
work (1965) provided the initial theoretical support for
this view. Cognitive theories of language learning state
that it is directly linked to stages of cognitive develop-
ment. We associate the work of Piaget and Bruner with

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 Understanding Language

this theoretical lens. Social interactionists, as the label

indicates, believe that the key element of language learn-
ing resides in meaningful social interactions within a
supportive environment. Vygotsky (1978) discussed the
critical role of interacting with others in a stimulating
environment.

Certainly, there are intuitively appealing aspects of each

approach. A stance that blends elements of each is some-
thing like this: babies are born with an innate language
learning ability that differs from other types of abilities.
This enables them to quickly grasp the structures of
language. Furthermore, language and cognitive develop-
ment influence each other and, in order for language to
fully blossom, social interaction is necessary. Regardless
of which theoretical stance of the language learning pro-
cess one may take, we know that it is a human and natu-
rally occurring phenomenon that develops in strikingly
similar ways across cultures, languages, and geographical
locations.

Why is this useful information for a teacher?

Teachers can create learning environments for English
learners that capitalize on their innate ability to learn
language. This is particularly true for younger children
who are still in the later stages of natural, first language
acquisition—between the ages of four and six. Older
students can benefit by being reminded that just as they
learned their first language through listening and through
general exposure to language, they will benefit from
actively seeking exposure and social interaction with
others who can provide meaningful input in the second
language. Furthermore, they—and you, the teacher—can
enhance students’ English language skills by placing lan-
guage learning in meaningful and interesting contexts.
We will return to this point later.

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2. Language develops in stages

Every living thing passes through stages of develop-
ment—whether an embryo or a new teacher. Similarly,
language development also occurs in stages. In the first
few months of life, babies don’t vocalize much beyond
crying, gurgling, cooing, or other minimal random
sounds. However, they are taking in enormous amounts
of auditory information. This early period provides the
foundation for later language development. Within a few
short months, babies begin babbling. Linguists suggest
that these sounds provide a baby with practice for tongue
and mouth movements in preparation for pronouncing
words. These precursors to language turn into recogniz-
able distinct words around the age of 12 months, the
time when a joyous parent hears the first distinguishable
word. Other new words follow in quick succession, usu-
ally between ages three and five.

In these few sentences, we have described three distinct

stages of language development—a silent period, bab-
bling, and first words. While they are common stages
that occur universally at about the same age, there is
some individual variation. We will return to the matter
of stages of oral language development in Chapter Four.

Why is this useful information for a teacher?

You will clearly see your students passing through vari-
ous stages of English language development. Furthermore,
you will see that each student has his/her own pace of
developing English, in the same way that babies and
young children have in their native language. Remember,
while you can foster language development, you cannot
force it. You can provide a rich language environment
for a young child and engage in multiple opportunities
for conversational give-and-take. However, you cannot
force a 12-month-old to pronounce “daddy” instead
of “dada” or an 18-month-old to understand a lengthy

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 Understanding Language

sentence. Similarly, while there is much you can do to

encourage and support English language development in
your students, recognize that an individual student’s rate
of language development runs by an internal clock. You
cannot rush Mother Nature!

3. Language has structure

The flow of language can be compared to music. Imagine
listening to a beautiful piece of music, or listening
to someone speak who “has a way with words.” We
don’t usually think about the underlying structure that
makes up this pleasing “whole.” However, it is precisely
because the various elements of the structure are placed
together in just the right way that creates their appeal.
Two elements that comprise musical structure include
rhythm and the particular key in which the melody is
written. Let’s take a look at the structure of language.
Phonology is the study of sounds. The smallest unit of
sound is a phoneme. An example of a phoneme is “n”—or
/n/, as a linguist writes it. There are rules in English, as
there are in every language, as to how phonemes may be
arranged to make words. In English, one rule allows us to
place /n/ and /d/ at the end of a word—as in stand—but
not at the beginning of a word. In Swahili, a phonological
rule permits /n/ and /d/ at the beginning of a word—as in
ndiyo, meaning yes or it is so. Stress, pitch, and tone also
affect the way we produce sounds. Stress falls on a word
within a group of words or on a syllable within a single
word. Pitch and tone affect a single sound. In English,
changing the pitch and tone of a sound do not cause
meaning change. For example, English speakers would
agree that the meaning of the word ma is the same in
each of the following sentences, regardless of pitch and
tone: My ma was born in December. Ma, come quick!
In tonal languages, pitch and tone create completely dif-
ferent meanings. In Vietnamese, for example, ma can
be said in five different ways—with rising, falling, or

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 Helping English Language Learners Succeed

level pitch and tone, or a combination of these. Each of

these creates completely different words—mother, ghost,
gravestone, horse, and a type of chemical reaction.
Morphology looks at the structure of meaningful units
of sound. A morpheme is the smallest unit of mean-
ing. There are free and bound morphemes. A free mor-
pheme carries its own meaning, like hat or desk. Bound
morphemes consist of prefixes, suffixes, and inflected
endings such as –ed or –ing and must be combined
with other words. Inflected morphemes are grammati-
cal markers. Young children and English learners begin
to use and manipulate inflected morphemes in useful
and sometimes curious ways as they become proficient.
Consider the morpheme –y, meaning roughly “full of,”
as in rusty or dusty. A three-year-old was recently over-
heard referring to someone as singy, meaning “someone
who is full of song or who likes to sing”. Morphological
development and use indicates that a finer-grained
understanding of language is in process.
Syntax is the system of rules that govern how words
are arranged to form meaningful phrases and sentences.
Syntax accounts for the word order, or linear order, of
a sentence or a phrase and the meaningful groupings of
words called constituents. Syntactic rules also explain
how ambiguous and paraphrased sentences are related.
This is accomplished by describing their underlying
structure. An example of an ambiguous sentence is: The
freeway sign read “California left,” so Ed turned around
and drove home. Here are three examples of paraphrased
sentences: John thinks he’s intelligent. John thinks him-
self intelligent. Why does John think he’s intelligent?
Finally, syntax describes how a sentence can be expand-
ed, or be recursive, which is the term linguists use. Here
are a few sentences that are recursive, or expanded: Terry
put on his hat. Terry put on his blue hat and tan jacket.
Terry quickly put on his blue hat and tan jacket, and
ran out the door. A complete syntax should account for

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 Understanding Language

the creation of the infinite number of sentences possible

in a language.

Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases,

and sentences. Describing meaning is a much more
fluid proposition than describing rules that govern other
aspects of language. Indeed, it is the most elusive aspect
of language to describe in a systematic way. This is
because meaning is influenced by use in context and
by individual and cultural aspects. Linguists have con-
structed a rather complex set of categories and principles
that describe some aspects of semantics. For example,
the language philosopher John Langshaw Austin (1962)
described what he called “felicity conditions,” mean-
ing that a sentence can be taken seriously only under a
suitable circumstance. The sentence I now declare you
husband and wife can be taken seriously only if spoken
by an authorized person within the appropriate circum-
stance. Partial descriptions make the study of semantics
still very much open to discussion and study.

Pragmatics looks at how language is used for real-time

on-going communication. Linguists have developed prin-
ciples and guidelines that describe pragmatics. One of
these is called speech acts (Austen, 1962). These describe
how we do things and get others to do things with words.
We invite, command, pardon, apologize, and a host
of other acts. How we do things with words is cultur-
ally embedded. How we invite, decline an invitation,
greet, and take leave are directly linked to culture. For
example, in Japan, it is expected that someone will turn
down an invitation by simply saying “I am not able to
come.” In the U.S., we expect either a bit of an apology
or an explanation. Instruction for English learners should
include attention to the use of pragmatics, or how native
speakers use English in social contexts.

These five structures of language—phonology, morphol-

ogy, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics—are universal.

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 Helping English Language Learners Succeed

How they interact and the importance and prominence

of particular elements are language-specific.

Why is this useful information for a teacher?

Your English learners bring a vast amount of knowl-
edge about language structure in their first language to
the process of learning English. They rely on familiar
linguistic rules that govern their first language to help
them learn and navigate English. Linguists refer to this
as transfer. Your students’ knowledge and reliance on
the first language can be very helpful, particularly for
older English learners. For example, an older student will
know there are ways of expressing concepts such as past
tense, relationships, time, and so on. This general knowl-
edge helps the older learner to specifically seek ways to
express these concepts in English. Sometimes, however,
influence from the first language may cause difficulty,
or interference, with English. For example, if adding the
morpheme –s or –es to make a noun plural is not a rule
in the first language, it will be difficult for the student to
internalize and use this rule in English. Knowing some-
thing about the structure of a student’s native language
can help you predict specifically challenging aspects he/
she may have in learning English.

4. Language is intertwined with culture.

Discussing the link between language and culture with
university students and inviting them to share personal
experiences calls forward many amusing stories of what
can happen when there is a disconnect between the two.
Knowing a language does not necessarily mean that one
can navigate one’s way in the culture of that language.
For example, perhaps your American students have
slumber parties or sleepovers. In the United States, this
is a common way for children to “hang out” at a friend’s
house and have fun into the evening and often beyond.
For people of other cultures, this may be a bizarre and

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 Understanding Language

uncomfortable concept—allowing one’s children to sleep

in the home of an another person. So not only does
the phrase “slumber party” require an explanation, it
also requires becoming familiar with a common North
American concept that is an integral part of the culture.

Why is this useful information for a teacher?

You will find it necessary to not only teach English, but
to sometimes also help students navigate cultural dif-
ferences as they become acclimated to new linguistic
meanings and cultural traditions or events.

5. Language is linked to cognition

We stated above that some theorists believe that cogni-
tive development supports language development. Some
believe the reverse is true—that language development
drives learning and provides humans the ability to orga-
nize their thinking. Certainly, there is an undeniable link
between the two. Let’s look at two examples. Consider
a young child who makes the conceptual discovery of in
and links it to the word. Suddenly he/she begins to cor-
rectly use this cognitive and linguistic discovery inces-
santly—“in the box,” “in the shoe,” “in the bed,” “in
the doggie,” and so on. Children delight in making these
discoveries. The joy is evident in the constant use they
make of their exciting new finds.

Conversely, here is an example illustrating how language

can influence understanding. One of our children at
around age three became intrigued with the word area.
She used the word constantly, as in “the silverware area”
(the drawers where the silverware was kept) “the desk
area” (in reference to her little chair and table with her
crayons, paper, and books), and so on. Through hearing
the word used by others, she began to refine her under-
standing of it until she came to use the word correctly.
These examples illustrate how cognition affects language
and, conversely, how language affects cognition.
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Why is this useful information for a teacher?

A teacher’s most important responsibility is helping
students learn content and develop the vocabulary to
understand, speak, read, and write about what they learn.
Vocabulary development is one of the most challenging
aspects of learning another language. Vocabulary and
concepts are directly linked. It is imperative that teach-
ers of English learners embed learning and vocabulary in
understandable contexts. Chapter Five discusses ways
to promote vocabulary development. Chapter Seven dis-
cusses ways to help students understand concepts in the
content areas.

6. Language has varieties

We can think of language variety in two different ways.
First, variety can refer to the scope of sounds and sound
systems that are humanly possible. Some languages
spoken in southern Africa incorporate different types of
clicks. There are languages that include nasal sounds,
throaty guttural sounds, and variations on tone and pitch
of a single sound. Humans have included an amazing
array of sounds found in languages around the world. A
second way we can think about language variety is with-
in a single language. Spoken English varies across regions
and even socioeconomic class. Every language has such
varieties. A regional variety is usually referred to as
an accent and implies a difference in pronunciation. A
regional variety may also be called a dialect. Note, how-
ever, that dialects may include grammatical and lexical
(or word) variations, as well as differences in pronuncia-
tion. An example of a grammatical variation that is not
standard English is I so do not want to go (so is stressed
and used as an adverb rather than an adjective). The use
of so in this instance has become common among certain
groups, yet it is not considered “standard” English. The
words bag, sack, and poke are examples of regional lexi-
cal variations. They mean the same thing; however, they

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 Understanding Language

are used preferentially in different regions of the United

States. Individuals typically don’t think they have an
accent or speak in a certain dialect because they are sur-
rounded by others who speak the same way. We consider
our own speech the norm.

Why is this useful information for a teacher?

English learners will have difficulty hearing and pro-
nouncing sounds in English that do not exist in their
native languages. Young students who are learning
English while learning to read in English can be greatly
challenged as they develop phonemic awareness and
learn phonics rules for decoding text. Depending on a
student’s primary language, some areas of difficulty for
English learners are b/v, l/r, and p/f distinctions and
developing the ability to distinguish and pronounce the
large array of English vowel sounds. Helping English
learners develop phonemic awareness and then helping
them learn to read sounds as represented by written sym-
bols is a critical issue that will be discussed in Chapter
Five. Varieties of spoken English, however, have little,
if any, influence on English learners. Only if the spoken
variety differs greatly in syntactic structure from stan-
dard written English might it present a challenge to the
English learner.

7. Language is learned in social contexts

We stated above that social interactionists believe that
language learning resides in meaningful social interac-
tions within a supportive environment. Humans are
social and curious, and we want to be included when
we’re interested in what’s happening around us. So, an
environment that sparks a desire to be involved and to
know what is going on is critical. Another important ele-
ment for the learner is a guide who knows how to listen,
how to explain, how to answer questions, and how to
negotiate meaning in that environment. For young chil-

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dren, caretakers are the guides who interact in meaning-

ful ways. For English learners, the teacher and friends
are the guides who construct meaning through compre-
hensible language input. Of course, the learner is not a
passive recipient. Negotiating meaning is a joint venture.
Learner and guide are partners in constructing meaning.
A good guide modifies and adjusts language to the level
of the learner for maximum understanding as the learner
participates in attempting to understand.

Why is this useful information for a teacher?

As the teacher, your role is critical in providing a rich
context in which your students can engage in learning
and, consequently, learn English. With this in mind, you
can do a great deal to set up your classroom environment
so that students have multiple opportunities to talk to
one another as they explain, clarify, complete projects,
and construct meaning together. You can also model for
your native English speakers how to be helpful guides for
the English learners in the classroom. In Chapters Two
and Seven, we will talk more about providing rich social
contexts for English learners.

8. Language is influenced by purpose and context

Maybe you have noticed that the way you use language
differs depending on the person you are talking to and
maybe even the context of the conversation. For exam-
ple, you use language differently with your dentist versus
how you speak with your students. You speak with close
family members in a casual manner, which is different
from conversing with someone you meet for the first
time in a formal setting. Sociolinguists have even stud-
ied the different ways in which men and women use lan-
guage. Classroom language varies as well. An important
distinction is language that is used for social purposes
versus academic purposes. Social language is here-and-
now language, whose meaning is context-linked and

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obvious. Playground or lunchtime language are examples

of social language. Similarly, written language depends
on the purpose and audience. A note you write to a friend
is far more casual than a paper you write for a class.
Talking about academic concepts and writing formally is
vastly different from informal uses of spoken and written
language.

Why is this useful information for a teacher?

Social language will be more easily learned and used
by your English learners, while academic language will
require more effort and direct focus. It is important for
you to fully understand the differences between social
and academic language so that you can help your English
learners in the best ways possible. Cummins (1981) has
discussed these types of classroom language use. We will
draw on his work in Chapter Two to elaborate on these
uses of language. Throughout the book, we discuss strat-
egies and approaches—we call them tools—that will help
you scaffold meaningful academic language for your stu-
dents as they negotiate to understand and learn English.

Important Points to Remember

• Everyone passes through similar stages of
language development.
• English learners bring a great deal of
information from their first language to the
process of learning English.
• Language learning relies heavily on social and
cognitive support.
• Learning English can be supported by
the environment and helpful individuals;
however, learning a new language takes time.

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Post-Reading Reflection
1. What was your definition of language at the beginning of the chapter?

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2. Would you revise your initial definition? If so, how?

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3. Reflect on three elements of language and why these are important for
teachers to understand.

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